http://akana.conlang.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=DhokAkanaWiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-10T08:32:26ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.8http://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15768Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:55:31Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
There is a definite article ''vi'', which loses its vowel before a prevocalic sonorant (other than ''v-'') or vowel, but is marked in transcription with an apostrophe: '''vi žvira''' 'the bumblebee', '''vi toño'' 'the shark', ''v'maro'' 'the name', ''v'oʔ'' 'the cloud'. (For the loss of vowel, compare the behavior of French ''le''.) Possessed nominals virtually never take the definite article, and it doesn't mark case.<br />
<br />
The article precedes modifying adjectives.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns distinguish a dual, a plural and the two usual cases. In the following table, the nominative is followed in slashes by the oblique.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! sg.<br />
! du.<br />
! pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| ni/niv<br />
| naŋo/naŋov<br />
| moğo/moğor<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| na/nav<br />
| naki/nakiz<br />
| navoŋo/navoŋov<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mo/mov<br />
| moki/mokiz<br />
| momo/momov<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There also exists a set of possessive pronouns, preceding their head nouns. These are identical to the nominatives of the corresponding pronouns in the singular, and the obliques of the duals and plurals.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
'''tariv kazir'''<br />
<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
<br />
'the/a path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
'''vi frimanaz norav nima'''<br />
<br />
''the wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
<br />
'the mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''vi ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
<br />
''the ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15767Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:25:08Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns distinguish a dual, a plural and the two usual cases. In the following table, the nominative is followed in slashes by the oblique.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! sg.<br />
! du.<br />
! pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| ni/niv<br />
| naŋo/naŋov<br />
| moğo/moğor<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| na/nav<br />
| naki/nakiz<br />
| navoŋo/navoŋov<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mo/mov<br />
| moki/mokiz<br />
| momo/momov<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There also exists a set of possessive pronouns, preceding their head nouns. These are identical to the nominatives of the corresponding pronouns in the singular, and the obliques of the duals and plurals.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
'''tariv kazir'''<br />
<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
<br />
'the path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
'''frimanaz norav nima'''<br />
<br />
''wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
<br />
'mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
<br />
''ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15766Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:05:39Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
<br />
<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
'''tariv kazir'''<br />
<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
<br />
'the path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
'''frimanaz norav nima'''<br />
<br />
''wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
<br />
'mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
<br />
''ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15765Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:05:02Z<p>Dhok: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕomo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
<br />
<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
'''tariv kazir'''<br />
<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
<br />
'the path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
'''frimanaz norav nima'''<br />
<br />
''wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
<br />
'mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
<br />
''ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15764Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:04:50Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕomo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
'''tariv kazir'''<br />
<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
<br />
'the path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
'''frimanaz norav nima'''<br />
<br />
''wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
<br />
'mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
<br />
''ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15763Žviraz Vğo2020-07-02T10:04:18Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕomo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /q~ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/; <v> is [v~β~w], <f> [f~ɸ]. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
Žviraz Vğo nouns possess two cases: a nominative-accusative and an oblique--as well as a 'construct accusative', for which see below. There are no other distinctions; verbs mark number, but nouns do not. Adjectives agree with their head noun for the oblique, but not for the construct accusative.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed semi-irregularly, in that there are clear patterns in how nominals form their oblique, but which process is essentially arbitrary. Most common is the suffixing of a consonant to a noun ending in a vowel: ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'; ''vğo, vğor'' 'island'; ''ŋi, ŋiz'' 'water'. Some nouns add an additional vowel plus consonant after a word-final consonant, e.g. ''ŋorap, ŋorapav'' 'elbow'. Still others are more or less just irregular, such as ''ammari, ammarzir'' 'building' or ''mi, viv'' 'louse'. The oblique is always marked in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
There is also a 'construct accusative' used for direct objects possessed by the subject. This is also semi-irregular in how it interacts with the stem, but always ends in ''-mo'' or ''-bo''. Its form will also be given in the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Thus a regular noun entry will look like: <br />
<br />
'''žvira, žviraz, žviramo''' ''n.'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
NP order is head-final. Adjectives precede nouns:<br />
<br />
'''ŋarana mivğo'''<br />
''sunny.NOM archipelago.NOM''<br />
'a sunny archipelago'<br />
<br />
So do possessive pronouns:<br />
<br />
'''na mibar'''<br />
''your grandmother-NOM''<br />
'your grandmother'<br />
<br />
And obliques used as genitives:<br />
<br />
''tariv kazir''<br />
''blood.OBL path.NOM''<br />
'the path of blood'<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree in oblique case with their heads:<br />
<br />
''frimanaz norav nima''<br />
''wise.OBL pilgrim.OBL mountain''<br />
'mountain of the wise pilgrims'<br />
<br />
But not in the conjunct accusative, which only the head noun can mark:<br />
<br />
'''ni kovora zizbo a-ŋŋi-vov-ğo'''<br />
''1sg noisy chicken.CONJ 3-see-NEG.PL-DIR''<br />
'I didn't see my noisy chickens.'<br />
<br />
Postpositions take the oblique:<br />
<br />
'''ni ni irov no ŋiyo zviko a-ki-ğo'''<br />
''1sg my husband.OBL DAT new cutlery 3-give-DIR''<br />
'I gave my husband new cutlery'.<br />
<br />
'''ftira kazip ğiziz motso kobav ña kayamo Ø-tağ-iv'''<br />
''ugly.NOM traveller.NOM knife.OBL with branch.OBL from walking.stick.CONJ 3-cut-HRS''<br />
'The ugly traveller cut his walking stick from a branch with a knife (so they say).'</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15754Žviraz Vğo2020-06-22T20:33:29Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, <ñ> /ɲ/, and <r> /ɾ/. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15753Žviraz Vğo2020-06-22T20:32:39Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, and <r> /ɾ/. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15752Žviraz Vğo2020-06-22T19:46:17Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
ː^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, and <r> /ɾ/. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== The Noun ==<br />
<br />
The Žviraz Vğo noun possesses only two cases: a nominative (which is also used for direct objects) and an oblique (which is used for pretty much everything else.) There are no other distinctions; ''žvira'' may refer to a single bumblebee or an entire cloud.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed irregularly and should be regarded as essentially suppletive: ''aha, aziv'' 'fire'. However, there are some patterns. The most common way of forming the oblique is to add /-v/ to the stem, often preceded by some vowel or other: ''nor, norav'' 'stone'; ''ka, kav'' 'male, man'; ''atso, atsov'' 'person, human'; ''naŋŋi, naŋŋiv'' 'wife'. Sometimes there is rather addition of a final consonant, as in ''ma, mar'' 'brother,' ''vğo, vğor'' 'island' and ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
Other semantic and grammatical roles are usually filled by postpositions taking the oblique: ''ha'' 'on, on the surface of'; ''abotsi'' 'by means of'; ''ñora'' 'inside of, in'; ''navra'' 'in front of'; ''ğiba'' 'behind'.<br />
<br />
Possession is marked by placing the possessor in the oblique before the possessee: ''žviraz vğo'' 'island of bumblebees'.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDviraz_V%C4%9Fo&diff=15751Žviraz Vğo2020-06-22T19:46:03Z<p>Dhok: Created page with "Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Žviraz Vğo ['ʒviɾaz vʕo] ('Island of the Bumblebees') is a medium-sized island, approximately ten degrees north of the equator, found on the west coast of Peilaš. It is known for its pleasant microclimate (not unlike that of St. Helena, but somewhat wetter) and abundant wildlife. It is home to approximately two thousand speakers of the Island-Highland language of the same name, which this article describes. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
:^)<br />
<br />
(Note that <ğ> represents /ɣ~ʕ/, <š ž> /ʃ ʒ/, and <r> /ɾ/. Pretty much everything else is IPA.)<br />
<br />
== The Noun ==<br />
<br />
The Žviraz Vğo noun possesses only two cases: a nominative (which is also used for direct objects) and an oblique (which is used for pretty much everything else.) There are no other distinctions; ''žvira'' may refer to a single bumblebee or an entire cloud.<br />
<br />
The oblique is formed irregularly and should be regarded as essentially suppletive: ''aha, aziv'' 'fire'. However, there are some patterns. The most common way of forming the oblique is to add /-v/ to the stem, often preceded by some vowel or other: ''nor, norav'' 'stone'; ''ka, kav'' 'male, man'; ''atso, atsov'' 'person, human'; ''naŋŋi, naŋŋiv'' 'wife'. Sometimes there is rather addition of a final consonant, as in ''ma, mar'' 'brother,' ''vğo, vğor'' 'island' and ''žvira, žviraz'' 'bumblebee'.<br />
<br />
Other semantic and grammatical roles are usually filled by postpositions taking the oblique: ''ha'' 'on, on the surface of'; ''abotsi'' 'by means of'; ''ñora'' 'inside of, in'; ''navra'' 'in front of'; ''ğiba'' 'behind'.<br />
<br />
Possession is marked by placing the possessor in the oblique before the possessee: ''žviraz vğo'' 'island of bumblebees'.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15750Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:35:35Z<p>Dhok: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θatēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
''To be'' and ''to be located'' additionally have suppletive plural-subject versions, the only verbs to do so:<br />
<br />
''īwā-, īwa-, θahpa-, θahpā-'' 'to be (pl.)'<br />
''sīwā-, sīwa-, θahpa-, θahpā-'' 'to be located (pl.)'<br />
<br />
All prefixed forms of these verbs are identical.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15749Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:21:09Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θatēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15748Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:19:11Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θatēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15747Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:18:00Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15746Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:17:31Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15745Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:16:35Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θapēli<br />
| θahkōli<br />
| θahkōkwe<br />
| θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15744Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:15:59Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θapēli<br />
| θahkōli<br />
| θahkōkwe<br />
| θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θahkwāwa<br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15743Tomē Nilōyi2020-06-16T15:14:52Z<p>Dhok: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
'''Irregular Verbs'''<br />
<br />
LARGE EDIT: It appears I have included "personal supines" in the paradigms of some of these irregular verbs. <br />
<br />
Strange-looking stem changes notwithstanding, there are only a handful of truly irregular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi.<br />
<br />
''To be'', as in many languages, acts quite strangely--at least in the positive:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyenēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θapēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | ē<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | iyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θā<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff; color:#333333;" | īkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Its negative stems are somewhat better behaved: the impersonal has indicative/supine/causal ''ī(mi)-'', subordinative/subjunctive ''i(mī)-'', and universal personal ''θē(mi/mī)-'' with non-finite ''ihmi-''.<br />
<br />
Next up we have ''to be located'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| θēli<br />
| sīkōli<br />
| sīkōkwe<br />
| siyenēli<br />
| θapēli<br />
| θahkōli<br />
| θahkōkwe<br />
| θaθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| sīwāni<br />
| sīkawāni<br />
| sīkwāwekwe<br />
| siyēkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θaθēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēsi<br />
| sīkwa<br />
| sīkwēme<br />
| siyēli<br />
| θāsi<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θaθēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| sīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| θahka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| sīkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | θahkwāwa<br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | ihtēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the red cells, which are homophonous with the corresponding forms of 'to be'. This virtually never produces ambiguity, as the copula takes the nominative as its predicate, while the locative verb takes a bare prepositional.<br />
<br />
The locative verb possesses a negative somewhat more regular than its positive. In the impersonal we have the indicative/supine/causal stem ''sī(mi)-'', with subjunctive/subordinate stem ''si(mī)-''. The personal negative stem is always ''θah(mi/mī)-'' or, in the non-finite forms, ''ēmi-''.<br />
<br />
''to bear, carry'', which takes a nominative object and optional dative recipient, is also irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="5" | positive impersonal<br />
! colspan="4" | positive personal<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
| indicative<br />
| subordinative<br />
| subjunctive<br />
| causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| kwēli<br />
| kēkōli<br />
| kēkōkwe<br />
| kēyenēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōli<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| kēwāni<br />
| kēkawāni<br />
| kēkwāwekwe<br />
| kēyekāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkawāni<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| ēwi<br />
| kēkwa<br />
| kēkwēme<br />
| kēyēni<br />
| θāwi<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwa<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōkwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōθēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| kēxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#9aff99;" | θōka<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| kēkwāwa<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itāni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēka<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | itēθēni<br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
| style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the green cells, with prefixed ''θō-'' rather than ''θā-''. The negative is fairly regular, with unprefixed ''kēmi-/kemī-'' (the latter found in the subjunctive and subordinate) and prefixed ''θāwīmi-, θāwimī-'' (non-finite ''imitāni'', etc).<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15742Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-06-13T09:44:54Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''akāyi, ak-''' nIa 'shadow', pl. ''ākāyi, āk-''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āmilēta''' nIb 'hunting ground', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''axa'' nIa 'cloud', pl. ''āxa''.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
'''ekwēwāsi, ekwēwat-''' nIIIt 'tinder', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''epinelēni, epinelen-'' nII 'building, house', pl. ''īpinelēni''.<br />
<br />
'''eta''' adv. 'always' (used in positive clauses).<br />
<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēka''' nIb 'urine', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēlekōni''' nII 'moon', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmā, ēmak-'' nIIIk 'handle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēme''' nIc 'rain', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''ēni''' int 'how?'<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ēponi-, ēponē-, θēponē-, θēponi-''' vt. 'to send' (acc. + dat.).<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ētēyi, ēt-''' nIb 'neck', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēwekana''' nIb 'fisherman', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēwenēli, ēwēnil-''' adjIV 'slimy'.<br />
<br />
'''ēxe''' int 'where?'<br />
<br />
'''ēxitāni, ēxītan-'' nII 'journey', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
'''hahpa''' adjIa 'white, bright'<br />
<br />
'''hanōminēli''' adjIV 'stuffed, full'.<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwanēli''' adjIV 'noisy, loud'.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''heke''' adv 'somewhere'.<br />
<br />
'''hetāni''' adv. 'some amount of (+gen.)'.<br />
<br />
'''hete''' adv 'at some time'.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'.<br />
<br />
'''hēkwe''' nId 'spear', pl. ''hakēkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''hēnēli''' adv 'somehow'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hinēli''' adjIV 'male, masculine', obl. ''hēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''hī''' adv 'here'.<br />
<br />
'''hīma''' adjIa 'narrow'.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hīnoyi-, hīnoyē-, -xinoyē-, -kēnoyi-''' vt. 'to know a fact; savoir/wissen'<br />
<br />
'''hō''' adv 'there'.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōxa''' adjIa 'bad, evil'.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''ihkwahtāni, ihkwahtan-'' nII 'vomit', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''ikēni, yēxen-''' nII 'place', uniform pl. ''īkēni, īken-''.<br />
<br />
'''ilīhe''' nId 'grease, fat'.<br />
<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''ināni''' adv. 'back then'.<br />
<br />
'''inomēnēli''' nIV 'wise'.<br />
<br />
'''isa''' nIa 'Dzoqi speaker', pl. ''ēsa''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''. (Pl. can also mean 'wildfire, incêndio' as a plurale tantum.)<br />
<br />
'''itāni''' adv. 'this much (of)' (+ gen.).<br />
<br />
'''iθa''' nIa 'person', pl. ''ēθa''.<br />
<br />
'''iθe''' nIc 'ball', pl. ''ēθe''.<br />
<br />
'''iθenēli''' adjIV 'round, globular'.<br />
<br />
'''ixama''' nIa 'dolphin', pl. ''ēxama''.<br />
<br />
== ī ==<br />
<br />
'''īli-, ilē-, -hili-, -pīli-''' vt. 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kāma'' nIb 'bank of a river', pl. ''kāwāma''.<br />
<br />
'''kāθa''' nIb 'frog', pl. ''kāwāθa''.<br />
<br />
'''kāθikāna'' nIb 'snake sp.', pl. ''kāwāθikāna''.<br />
<br />
'''kekwēyi, kekw-''' nIb 'edge', pl. ''kēwikwēyi''.<br />
<br />
'''kelēmāni''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kelēni, kēlin-''' nII 'fur', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kepāni, kēhan-(?)''' nII 'cavity, socket', uniform pl. ''kēwipāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēha''' nIb 'cold (noun)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kēhinēli''' adjIV 'cold'.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwe''' nId 'hole, opening', pl. ''kēwēkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwinēli''' nIV 'sharp'.<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kēlenēli, kēlēnil-''' adjIV 'sunny'.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''konēli''' adjIV 'wet, soaked'.<br />
<br />
'''kowā''' adjIIIp 'new', obl. ''kōwap-''.<br />
<br />
'''koyē, kōyek-''' nIIIk 'puddle', pl. '''kōwoyē'''.<br />
<br />
'''koyēni, kōyin-''' nII 'bucket', pl. ''kōwoyēni''.<br />
<br />
'''koyēsi, kōyit-(?)'' nIIIt 'moisture', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''koyīsi''' nIb 'otter', pl. ''kōwoyīsi''.<br />
<br />
'''kōkwa''' nIb 'mussel', pl. ''kōwōkwa''.<br />
<br />
'''kōni''' nII 'type, kind', pl. '''kōwōni'''.<br />
<br />
'''kōta''' nIa 'ditch', pl. ''kōwōta''.<br />
<br />
'''kōsi''' adjIb 'ill, sick'.<br />
<br />
'''kōyi, k-''' nId 'water', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kōyihnēli''' adjIV 'damp, moist'.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwāwi-, kwāwē-, -wawē-, -wāwi-''' vt. 'to want, desire'.<br />
<br />
'''kwāxenēli''' adjIV 'female, feminine'.<br />
<br />
'''kwehma-, kwehmā-, -wehmā-, -wehma-''' vi. 'to throw with a sling'<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetē-, kōsi-, -wetē-, -wōsi-''' vt. 'to flay, strip'.<br />
<br />
'''kwetēsi, kōset-''' nIIIt 'knife', pl. ''kōwetēsi, kōwetet-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwēta''' nIb 'bed', pl. '''kwēwīta'''.<br />
<br />
== l ==<br />
'''lāni''' int. 'how much of? how many of? (+gen.)'<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''maθāminēli''' adjIV 'flat'.<br />
<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mānohi-, mānopē-, -manopē-, -mānohi-''' vi 'to feel {adj.}'<br />
<br />
'''mewāni''' adv. 'that much (of) (+gen.)'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni'''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''milō-, mīlo-, θāmilō-, θamīlo-''' vi. 'to exit'.<br />
<br />
'''moxama''' nIa 'kind of sea monster'.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōse''' int 'when?'<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwanēli''' adjIV 'hot'.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nākwa''' adv 'now'.<br />
<br />
'''nāma''' nIa 'beach, seashore', pl. ''nanāma''.<br />
<br />
'''nāxe''' adv. 'then, at that time'.<br />
<br />
'''nekwēni''' adjII 'long', obl. ''nōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēnixi-, nēnikē-, θanēnikē-, θanēnixi-''' vt. 'to understand'.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nīnihelēni, nīnihelin-''' nII 'order, command', pl. ''ninīnihelēni''.<br />
<br />
'''nīni-, nīnē-, θāninē-, θanīni-''' vt. 'turn into, transform into'. <br />
<br />
'''nokopamēna''' nIa 'sea monster'.<br />
<br />
'''nōpa''' adjIb 'black, dark'.<br />
<br />
'''nōsa''' nIa 'seashell', pl. ''nonōs-''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōnēwi, ōnew-''' nVI 'river crab', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pamesīhi''' adv. 'everywhere'.<br />
<br />
'''payōxani-, pāyoxanē-, -wāyoxanē-, -wayōxani-''' vt. 'to pay respects (to)'.<br />
<br />
'''pāmenēli''' adv. 'in every way'.<br />
<br />
'''pāla''' nIb 'cool breeze', pl. ''pāwal-''.<br />
<br />
'''pālinēli''' adjIV 'cool'.<br />
<br />
'''pāsa''' nIa 'shark', pl. ''pāwasa''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pāwōme''' adjIc 'numerous'.<br />
<br />
'''pāye''' nId 'virtue, righteousness', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''pete''' adv. 'ever' (used in interrogative and negative clauses).<br />
<br />
'''pēkwe''' nIc 'tree root', pl. ''pīwekwe''.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island (in a river)', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pōki''' nIb 'sea turtle', pl. ''powōk-''.<br />
<br />
'''pōmēni, pōmin-''' nII 'result, consequence', pl. ''pōwomēni''.<br />
<br />
'''pōna''' nIb 'ash (from a fire)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''pōse''' nId 'ugliness', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''pōsonēli''' adjIV 'ugly'.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''sēnēli''' adjIV 'red'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīna''' nIa 'sea, ocean'.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tāna''' nIb 'pilgrim', pl. ''talāna''.<br />
<br />
'''tānikāni, tānikan-''' nII 'pilgrimage', pl. ''talānikan-''.<br />
<br />
'''tāya''' nIb 'carrion', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tāyikāna''' nIb 'vulture', pl. ''tālayikāna''.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tēninēli''' adjIV 'salty'.<br />
<br />
'''tēwe''' adv. 'then, after now'.<br />
<br />
'''tilōmekāna''' nIb 'glutton', pl. ''tīlilōmekāna''.<br />
<br />
'''tinēyi, tēn-''' adjIb 'salt'.<br />
<br />
'''tiyolenē, tiyolenek-''' nIIIk 'poison', pl. '''tīliyolenē''.<br />
<br />
'''tīhemēni, tīhēmin-''' nII 'help, aid', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tīlemēni, tīlēmin-''' nII 'gluttony', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tīta''' nIb 'cup', pl. ''telīta''.<br />
<br />
'''tīwēsi, tīwet-''' nIIIt 'spoon', pl. '''tīliwēsi, tīlīwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''tīwehkāni, tīwehkan-''' nII 'cutlery, utensils', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tīyolēni, tīyolen-''' nII 'secretion, mucus", no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tomē, tomik-''' nIIIk 'mountain', pl. ''tōlomē''.<br />
<br />
'''tōlonēta''' nIb 'door, entrance', plurale tantum.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni''' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōne''' nIb 'glass, quartz', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōwa''' nIa 'tree trunk', pl. ''tolōwa''.<br />
<br />
'''tōwinēli''' adjIV 'dry'.<br />
<br />
'''tōwoyēsi, tōwoyet-''' nIIIt 'bow', pl. ''tōlōwoyēsi''.<br />
<br />
'''tōwoyōsi''' nIb 'arrow', pl. ''tōlōwoyōsi''.<br />
<br />
'''tōwōya''' nIb 'hunter', pl. ''tōlowōya''.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θahpa''' adjIb 'careful'.<br />
<br />
'''θanēsi, θānet-''' nIIIt 'turban', pl. ''θāyanēsi, θāyanet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāmi-, θamē-, -yamē-, -yāmi-''' vt. 'to hear' (singular object).<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θekwe-, θekō-, -yekō-, -yekwe-''' vt. 'to hear' (plural object).<br />
<br />
'''θelēni, θōlen-''' nII 'word', pl. ''θōyelēni''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēmēni, θēmin-''' nII 'sense, perception', pl. ''θāyemēni, θāyēmin-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēθa''' nIa 'piranha', pl. '''θatēθa'''.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēyi-, θiyē-, -siyē-, -tēyi-''' vt. 'to be called, heißen'<br />
<br />
'''θihkwe-, θihkwe-, -sihkwe-, -tihkwe-''' vi 'to stand up (habitually)'.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni''' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θimēla, θīmēla''' nIb 'wound'.<br />
<br />
'''θimēni, θīmin-''' nII 'rumor', pl. ''θīmēni, θīmin-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimēsi, θīmit-''' nIIIt 'dagger', pl. ''θīmēsi, θīmit-''.<br />
<br />
'''θitē-, θēsi-, -sitē-, -tēsi-''' vi 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
'''θoθi''' adjIb 'broad, wide'.<br />
<br />
'''θōha''' adjIb 'good'.<br />
<br />
'''θōhitōwa''' nIb 'flax plant', pl. ''θoyōhitōwa''.<br />
<br />
'''θōka''' nIa 'palm tree', pl. ''θoyōka''.<br />
<br />
'''θōme''' adjIc 'short'.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōθonēli''' adjIV 'circular'.<br />
<br />
'''θōlēni, θōlen-'' nII 'corpse', pl. ''θoyōlēni''.<br />
<br />
== x ==<br />
<br />
'''xāka''' nIa 'fishing spear', pl. ''xāxak-''.<br />
<br />
'''xēla''' nIa 'Mingku speaker', pl. ''xēxil-''.<br />
<br />
'''xēpe''' nId 'oar', pl. ''xexēp-''.<br />
<br />
<br />
== y ==<br />
<br />
'''yēmenēsi, yēmenit-''' nIIIt 'bumblebee', pl. ''īmenēsi, īmenit-''.<br />
<br />
'''yēnehkē-, inehke- , θēnehkē-, θēnehke-''' vt. 'to send' (acc. + dat.).<br />
<br />
'''yēnakē-, ināxe-, θēnakē-, θēnāxe-''' vt. 'to give birth to'.<br />
<br />
'''yēnikē-, inīxe-, θēnikē-, θēnīxe-''' vt. 'to show' (acc. + dat.)</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15735Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-30T11:13:46Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ or /-e/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15734Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-30T10:55:17Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes Stem II, but its final vowel is subject to change: final /-i/ alternating with Stem I /-ē/ becomes /-a/, and /-o ~ -ō/ becomes /-e/ or (after /k/) /-we/.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15733Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-30T10:14:05Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The present indicative will irregu<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-Initial Stems'''<br />
<br />
Stems that begin with a vowel (or a ''y-'' for which see below)) in the unprefixed forms may deal with the prefixed forms one of two ways. Some insert a consonant between the prefix and the stem, generally ''-p-'' in Stem III (after a short prefix) and ''-h-'' in Stem IV (after a long prefix). An example is '''īli-, ili-, -hili-, -pīli-''' 'to approach, come near'.<br />
<br />
A handful of verbs show coalescence between the personal prefix ''θa-/θā-'' and the stem. This is generally regular:<br />
<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''a- ~ ā'', the contracted form is ''θā-'', without length variation<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''i- ~ ī'', ''yē ~ yē'' or ''i ~ yē'', the contracted form is ''θē-'', without length variation.<br />
--if the initial vowel of the stem is ''o- ~ ō-'' (or ''we-'' alternating with ''ō-''), the contracted form is ''θō-'', without length variation.<br />
<br />
The non-finite prefix is ''iy-/ēy-'' before initial /a/, /o/ or /e/. Before initial /i~ī/, /i~yē/ or /yē~yē/,it simply replaces/merges with the vowel, so that ''yēnakē-, yēnāxi-, θēnaxi-, θēnāxi-'' has infinitives ''ēnāxitāni'' and ''ināximitāni''.<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15732Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-30T09:11:21Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Article}}<br />
[[Image:Tome_niloyi.png|thumb|right|500px|Extent of the Tomē Nilōyi language.]]<br />
<br />
''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary. (...actually, I may just list the stems).<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The present indicative will irregu<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' is always ''θā-'' in the yellow cells. Similarly, the non-finite prefix is always ''ē-'' in the positive, but ''i-'' in the negative. Note that the positive and negative forms are exact inverses of each other in terms of prefix length and stem choice.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θā-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Our team of postdocs is working overtime to work out the conjugation of irregular verbs.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15618Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T18:35:38Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Lexicon ==<br />
<br />
[[Tomē Nilōyi Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15614Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T14:41:12Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The present indicative will irregu<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' may be ''θā-'' in some forms, and the non-finite prefix ''i-/ē-'' will alternate similarly. Note that all the cyan cells and all the yellow cells will take the same forms of the prefixes, but which takes which is arbitrary--the general indicative, for example, may take ''θa-'' or ''θā-'', but will always take the same prefix as the non-indicative moods.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Our team of postdocs is working overtime to work out the conjugation of irregular verbs.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15613Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T14:38:56Z<p>Dhok: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, all four stems are listed.<br />
<br />
'''θitē-, θēsi- {θēsi}, θāsitē-, θatēsi-''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the second stem, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems, but this is the maximum for 'regular' verbs, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' may be ''θā-'' in some forms, and the non-finite prefix ''i-/ē-'' will alternate similarly. Note that all the cyan cells and all the yellow cells will take the same forms of the prefixes, but which takes which is arbitrary--the general indicative, for example, may take ''θa-'' or ''θā-'', but will always take the same prefix as the non-indicative moods.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Our team of postdocs is working overtime to work out the conjugation of irregular verbs.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15612Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T14:38:39Z<p>Dhok: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, all four stems are listed.<br />
<br />
'''θitē-, θēsi- {θēsi}, θāsitē-, θatēsi-'', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the second stem, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems, but this is the maximum for 'regular' verbs, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' may be ''θā-'' in some forms, and the non-finite prefix ''i-/ē-'' will alternate similarly. Note that all the cyan cells and all the yellow cells will take the same forms of the prefixes, but which takes which is arbitrary--the general indicative, for example, may take ''θa-'' or ''θā-'', but will always take the same prefix as the non-indicative moods.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Our team of postdocs is working overtime to work out the conjugation of irregular verbs.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15611Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T14:04:48Z<p>Dhok: </p>
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<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the four (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsikōli {θēsi}, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The bracketed form is the impersonal present general positive, which always uses the same stem as the second principal part, but sometimes with a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Thre are really two different sets of forms here. One is the personal conjugation--the forms that show ''θa-''. The tenses and moods here should be familiar; they're the same as those found in the impersonal conjugation, but the prefix ''θa-'' marks that at least one of the verb's core arguments (up to two, the subject and object) is first- or second-person.<br />
<br />
The infinitive, gerund and adverbial forms of the verb don't have anything to do with the personal conjugation, except that they also take a prefix and so use the same stems (stems III and IV). The infinitive is essentially a verbal noun, and used as such, particularly as subject or object. The gerund is essentially a participial form that can only agree with the subject, and expresses simultaneous action. The adverbial expresses a sense of 'by...-ing'. We will cover them more in syntax.<br />
<br />
Note that both prefixes show length alternation. The personal prefix ''θa-'' may be ''θā-'' in some forms, and the non-finite prefix ''i-/ē-'' will alternate similarly. Note that all the cyan cells and all the yellow cells will take the same forms of the prefixes, but which takes which is arbitrary--the general indicative, for example, may take ''θa-'' or ''θā-'', but will always take the same prefix as the non-indicative moods.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-li<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-yēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-xa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...tāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-tēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | i/ē-...-sēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitētēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | ēsitēseθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Prefixed'''<br />
<br />
Fairly straightforward. Note that the stem choice of the negative prefixed conjugation is exactly flipped from the positive. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θa-...-mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θa-...-mīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-mitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | i/ē-...-misēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmekāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmi<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#fffc9e;" | θāsitēmēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | θatēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="4" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| infinitive<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitāni<br />
|-<br />
| gerund<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimitēka<br />
|-<br />
| adverbial<br />
| style="background-color:#96fffb;" | itēsimisēθēni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Our team of postdocs is working overtime to work out the conjugation of irregular verbs.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15610Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T13:35:43Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the five (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsi, θēsikōli, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The second and third principle parts never differ in stem, but there is sometimes a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
I think I'll call this and get some bread baked...<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15609Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T13:13:00Z<p>Dhok: unprefixed verb conjugation</p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew/-ey'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiyōwi<br />
| ēsiyōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīyotōni<br />
| ēsīyotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīyokwe<br />
| ēsīyokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi verb is moderately inflected, with approximately sixty forms. The following categories are present: <br />
<br />
'''Personal/impersonal''': If at least one of the arguments of the verb is first or second person, a finite verb takes the prefix ''θa-/θā-/θ-''.<br />
'''Tense''': Verbs have a present, past and 'general/future' tense in all four moods. Additionally, the indicative has a rather archaic tense, the ''narrative'', used mostly in storytelling.<br />
'''Mood''': Verbs possess indicative, subordinative, subjunctive and causal moods--the causal and subordinative are not really moods, in the usual sense, but form a single system with the indicative and subjunctive.<br />
'''Polarity''': Negative marking is verb-internal.<br />
<br />
Additionally, there are several non-finite forms.<br />
<br />
This sounds easy-peasy. In practice, verb conjugation is somewhat complicated, because each verb may have up to four different stems, with both vowel and consonant alternation. In the lexicon, the five (note below) principle parts listed are the ''present indicative impersonal, present subordinative impersonal, present indicative personal and present subordinative personal'', like so:<br />
<br />
'''θitēli, θēsi, θēsikōli, θāsitēli, θatēsikōli''', vi, 'to stand up (once)'.<br />
<br />
This is an intransitive verb (''vi''). Its stems are ''θitē-'', ''θēsi-'', ''-sitē-'', and ''-tēsi-''. The second and third principle parts never differ in stem, but there is sometimes a change to final vowel. Not all verbs have four different stems in these roots, but these forms are always distinguished, so this is what will be found in the dictionary.<br />
<br />
There is no aspect distinction in inflection, but most verbs have an inherent aspect, either semelfactive or iterative/habitual. There is, for example, a habitual counterpart ''θihkōli, θihkwekōli, θātihkōli, θatihkwekōli'' 'to stand up (repeatedly, habitually).' This distinction is lexical, not inflectional. <br />
<br />
A few verbs have a suppletive number distinction, which agrees with the absolutive argument. An example is the highly irregular verb 'to see', with present indicative impersonal ''nikwēli'' 'sees (one thing)' vs. ''nehpōli'' 'sees (many things)'.<br />
<br />
Due to the number of forms, we'll split all this into fourths.<br />
<br />
'''Positive Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
These are forms of the verb which take no prefix and are in the positive, not the negative. This means all the impersonal finite forms, as well as the supine, which can be used to indicate purpose (more on this in syntax).<br />
<br />
The present indicative alone takes the root from the first principle part (purple cell); all other forms take the second (pink cell).<br />
<br />
Note that there aren't any consonant-final stems among the regular verbs in Tomē Nilōyi. Except for a few very common verbs with serious conjugational irregularities, all verb stems end in a vowel.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -li<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -wāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -Ø<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -yēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -xa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -kwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A few notes.<br />
<br />
- The general indicative always takes the same stem as all the other forms (except the present indicative), but its final vowel can be unpredictable, so it gets its own principle part.<br />
<br />
- The mood distinctions will be covered more in syntax, but in general, the subordinative is used in various subordinate constructions (like relative clauses, result clauses and conditionals), the subjunctive is used in purpose clauses and counterfactual conditionals, and the causal can almost always be translated with 'because'. <br />
<br />
- There is an irregular morphophonological rule whereby ''-iye/-iyē'' between the root and a causal ending can be reduced simply to ''-e/-ē''.<br />
<br />
- The narrative is rare, mostly used in stories, and only occurs in the indicative. In other moods, the past is used.<br />
<br />
- The supine has no mood or tense (it is lumped in with the indicative here merely for convenience), and is a general form used for purpose whose understood subject would be the same as the subject of the main verb. (For different subjects, the subjunctive is used).<br />
<br />
Conjugated example:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōli<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsiwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsi<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwa<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsēli<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsixa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Negative Polarity--Unprefixed'''<br />
<br />
Same stems as the above, but different endings. Note that the subordinative and subjunctive use Stem I (the present indicative positive); all others use Stem II. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -miyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -menēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | -mīwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | -mikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Conjugated:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | indicative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subordinative<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subjunctive<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | causal<br />
|-<br />
| present<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimiyēli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōli<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiyōkwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimenēli<br />
|-<br />
| past<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwāni<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwāwekwe<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēkāni<br />
|-<br />
| general<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimi<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmīwa<br />
| style="background-color:#ffccc9;" | θitēmiwēme<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimēni<br />
|-<br />
| narrative<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimīxa<br />
| rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | <br />
|-<br />
| supine<br />
| style="background-color:#cbcefb;" | θēsimikwāwa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that the subordinative and subjunctive endings will always trigger the second-syllable shortening rule, but not always consistently in the same place.<br />
<br />
I think I'll call this and get some bread baked...<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15608Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T12:10:13Z<p>Dhok: /* s */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni'''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīyomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīyomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni''' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni''' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15598Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T07:18:29Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season, though trade with peoples downriver is not unheard of. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15597Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-24T06:30:25Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'. Also in this class is ''ōnēwi'' 'river crab', which has the vowel changes of ''pēwi'' but with vowel length in the ''-ew'' formative following ''nipāwi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15594Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:55:50Z<p>Dhok: /* θ */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni'''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni''' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni''' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15593Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:55:43Z<p>Dhok: /* t */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni'''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni''' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15592Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:55:26Z<p>Dhok: /* m */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni'''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni'' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15591Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:55:04Z<p>Dhok: /* k */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. ''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni'' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15590Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:54:39Z<p>Dhok: /* k */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni''' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. '''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kwetamāni''' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni'' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15589Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-24T05:54:08Z<p>Dhok: /* h */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni''' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni'' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. '''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
''kwetamāni'' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni'' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15545Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-21T10:48:12Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There exists a '''reflexive''' pronoun ''tōmāni'' which declines as a Class V. <br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15544Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-21T10:27:23Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Pronominals ==<br />
<br />
'''Personal Pronouns'''<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns make a number distinction in all three persons, plus a clusivity distinction. Note that 3rd-person pronouns can only be used for animates; inanimates must use demonstratives.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sg.<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | pl.<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| nōto<br />
| pānoto<br />
|-<br />
| 1+2<br />
| <br />
| tēkoto<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| tēto<br />
| tilēto<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| mōto<br />
| momōto<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The personal pronouns decline as regular nouns of the 1D subclass, but with an irregular nominative ''-o'' ending. Additionally, the singulars have irregular possessive forms ''nō, tiyō, mō'' separate from the regular genitives used for verbal and prepositional complements.<br />
<br />
There are two demonstratives ''ihpā'' 'this' and ''mepā'' 'that'. In modifying position before a noun, they do not have any agreement marking. As standalones (for example, as inanimate third-person pronouns) they may decline as class III k-stems, with oblique/non-nominative stems ''ihpak-'' and ''mōhak-''. They do not have separate plural forms.<br />
<br />
There are a few other declinable pronouns. ''hāme'' declines as a Class Ic noun and can be used either as an adjective 'some' or a noun 'something'; its animate counterpart ''hāma'' means 'someone', and declines as a Ia. Like these decline ''pāme'' 'everything', also used as an adjective 'every' or 'all', and ''pāma'' 'everyone'.<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronoun ''mā'' 'who?'' declines as a Ia noun, with irregularly lengthened nominative. ''mī'' 'what? which? which one?' is somewhat more irregular:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'what? which? which one?'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| mī<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| miyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| miyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| mīli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| mīwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| mīnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| mītōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| miyotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| mīkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| miyokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other interrogative particles include ''mōse'' 'when?', ''ēxe'' 'where?', ''ēni'' 'how?' and ''lāni'' 'how much? how many?'; this last belongs to a group of quantity pronominals also including ''tāni'' 'this much', ''mewāni'' 'that much' and ''hetāni'' 'some amount of'. All four of these decline as Class II nouns, and put the noun quantified into the genitive. ''pāme'' distinguishes 'every' from 'all' similarly; in the meaning 'every/each', it acts as a dependent adjective and its head noun declines fully; in the meaning 'all', it takes case marking and puts its noun into the genitive as a dependent.<br />
<br />
Additional demonstrative-like adverbs will be noted in the Lexicon.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15541Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-20T10:57:03Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''aximāni''' nV 'leg', pl. ''āximāni''.<br />
<br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āhimāni''' nV 'father', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''āhilihmāni''' nV 'uncle', pl. = sg. (-hm- > -hn- in the n-cases.)<br />
<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. ''wepēkamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēmāni''' nV 'heart', pl. ''ōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēyemāni, ēyēman-''' nV 'kidney', pl. ''ēhiyēmāni''.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
<br />
'''hāmimāni'' nV 'arm', pl. ''hākamimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hīmamāni''' nV 'finger, toe', pl. ''hīkemamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōyimāni''' nV 'sister', pl. ''hōxoyimāni''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
<br />
'''kalēha''' nIb 'corner, edge', obl. sg. ''kālih-'', pl. ''kāwalēha, kāwālih-''.<br />
<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kālemāni'' nV 'mouth', pl. ''kāwalemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kālihimāni''' nV 'elbow', pl. '''kāwālihimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''kēkwimāni''' nV 'lip', pl. ''kēwikwimāni''<br />
<br />
'''kēlemāni, kēlēman-''' nV 'hair', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwamēwi''' adjVI 'small', obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kwālamāni, kwālāman-''' nV 'skull', pl. ''kwāwalāmāni''.<br />
<br />
''kwetamāni'' nV 'penis', pl. ''kwēwetamāni''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēlamāni''' nV 'name', pl. ''mēmilamāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnilihmāni''' nV 'aunt', pl. '''mimēnilihmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōminimāni''' nV 'grandmother', pl. ''momōminimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōsimāni''' nV 'son', pl. ''mōmosimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''mōwahimāni''' nV 'grandfather', pl. ''momōwahimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nēkwemāni''' nV 'knee', pl. ''nanēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nēlomāni''' nV 'tongue (organ)', pl. ''nēnilomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nilōyi''' nId 'language', obl. ''nēl-'', pl. ''nēnilōyi, nēnil-''.<br />
<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyomāni, nōyōman-''' nV 'back (of a person)', pl. ''nōnoyōmāni''.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōlemāni, ōlēman-''' nV 'vagina', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōsiyamāni''' nV 'testicle', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ōxemāni, ōxēman-''' nV 'liver', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'.<br />
<br />
'''pēkwemāmi''' nV 'foot', pl. ''pīwēkwemāni''.<br />
<br />
'''pēmāni''' nV 'brother', pl. ''pēwēman-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== s ==<br />
'''sēmāni''' nV 'blood'.<br />
<br />
'''simāni''' nV 'head', pl. ''sīsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''siyāni''' nII 'elder, old person', obl. sg. ''sīyan-'', all pl. ''sīsiyan-''.<br />
<br />
'''sīwomāni'''nV 'belly, stomach', pl. ''sīsīwomāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tāka''' nIa 'entrails (of an animal, for haruspicy)', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tākamāni''' nV 'intestines, guts' (of a person), no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tikomāni''' nV 'wife', pl. ''tilikomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwe''' nIC 'tail', pl. ''tolōkwe''.<br />
<br />
'''tōkwemāni'' nV 'buttocks', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.<br />
<br />
'''θimāni'' nV 'ear', pl. ''θēsimāni''.<br />
<br />
'''θōpimāni''' nV 'tooth', pl. ''θotōpimāni''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15540Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-20T10:13:27Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'nose', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15539Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-20T10:13:13Z<p>Dhok: /* ē */</p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''. <br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'nose', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
''kwamēwi'' adjVI, obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi/Lexicon&diff=15538Tomē Nilōyi/Lexicon2020-05-20T10:11:50Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>== a ==<br />
'''aha''' nIb 'elder'. PCA sg. ''ap-'', pl. ''āh-'', PCA pl. ''āp-''.<br />
<br />
'''ahkomāni''' nV 'daughter', pl. ''āhkomāni''.<br />
<br />
'''anākwa''' num 'eighty', combining form ''ānakwēw(a)-''. <br />
== ā ==<br />
'''āna''' num 'four'.<br />
<br />
'''āxanēli''' adjIV 'cloudy'.<br />
<br />
== e ==<br />
'''ekwa''' n1a 'star', pl. ''ēkw-''.<br />
<br />
== ē ==<br />
'''ē''' nVIII 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkōli''' num 'seven'.<br />
<br />
'''ēkwēni''' num 'six'.<br />
<br />
'''ēmamāni''' nV 'eye', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
'''ēpāni''' num 'nine'.<br />
<br />
'''ētēli''' num 'eight'<br />
<br />
'''ēwāmi, ēwam-''' nII 'fish', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== h ==<br />
'''hāwi''' nVII 'mushroom', pl. ''hākāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''hē''' nVIII 'man (''vir'')'<br />
<br />
'''hēni''' num 'one'.<br />
<br />
'''hēni, hen-''' nII 'river', nom. pl. ''hekēni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōkwa''' num 'forty', combining form ''hōkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōli''' num 'two'.<br />
<br />
'''hōni''' n1b 'spring', nom. pl. ''hekōni'', obl. pl. ''hōxen-''.<br />
<br />
'''hōwe''' n1d 'crow', nom. pl. ''hokōwe'', obl. pl. ''hōxōw-''.<br />
<br />
== i ==<br />
'''imēni''' nII 'bee', obl. sg. ''yēmen-'', pl. ''īmēni, īmen-''.<br />
<br />
'''isēwi''' nVI 'fire' (''fogo''), obl. sg. ''ēsiw-'', pl. ''ēsēwi, ēsiw-''.<br />
<br />
== k ==<br />
'''kayāwi''' nVI 'parrotfish', obl. sg. '''kāyaw-''', pl. ''kāwayāwi, kāwayaw-''.<br />
<br />
'''kilē, kēlik-''' nIIIk ''sun'', pl. ''kēwilē, kēwilik-''.<br />
<br />
''kwamēwi'' adjVI, obl. ''kwāmiw-''.<br />
<br />
== m ==<br />
'''māna''' num 'five'.<br />
<br />
'''mēnimāni''' nV 'mother', pl. ''mēminimāni''.<br />
<br />
== n ==<br />
'''nipāwi''' nVI 'sand', obl. ''nēhaw-'', no pl.<br />
<br />
'''nōyōmi, nōyom-''' nII 'back (of a leaf, other object)', pl. ''nōnoyōmi, nōnoyom-''.<br />
<br />
== o ==<br />
'''olāni''' num 'ten'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakwēni''' num 'eleven'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkakōli''' num 'twelve'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanāna''' num 'nineteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanēni''' num 'sixteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkanōli''' num 'seventeen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkapāna''' num 'fourteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkatēli''' num 'thirteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkaθēli''' num 'eighteen'.<br />
<br />
'''olēkāna''' num 'fifteen'.<br />
<br />
'''otā, otap-''' nIIIp ''wind'', pl. ''ōtā, ōtap-''.<br />
<br />
== ō ==<br />
'''ōtamāni''', nV 'husband', pl. = sg.<br />
<br />
== p ==<br />
'''pamōkwa''' num 'twenty', combining form ''pamekwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pāwi''' adjVII 'large'<br />
<br />
'''pēpāni''' num 'hundred', combining form ''pēpēk(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēni, pin-''' nII 'male peer, comrade', pl. ''pēwēni, pēwin-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwāni''' nII 'island', obl. sg. ''pōwan-'', pl. ''pōwewāni, pōwēwan-''.<br />
<br />
'''pēwi''' nVI 'louse', decl. irregular.<br />
<br />
'''pīlimāni''' nV 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni''.<br />
<br />
== t ==<br />
'''tēna''' nIb 'lake', PCA sg. ''tin-'', pl. nom. ''tilēna'', pl. obl. ''tēlin-''.<br />
<br />
'''tōle''' nIc 'chicken', PCA sg. ''tel-'', pl. ''telōl-'', pl. PCA ''tōlel-''.<br />
<br />
== θ ==<br />
'''θāli''' nIV 'center, middle', pl. ''θāyal-''.<br />
<br />
'''θāwi''' nVII 'hummingbird', pl. ''θāsāwi''.<br />
<br />
'''θēkwa''' num 'sixty', combining form ''θēkwēw(a)-''.<br />
<br />
'''θēli''' num 'three'.<br />
<br />
'''θēwēsi, θēwet-''' nIIIt ''axe'', pl. ''θēsewēsi, θēsēwet-''.<br />
<br />
'''θilōli''' nIV 'seed', obl. sg. ''θēlol-'', pl. ''θēyilol-''.</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15537Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-20T10:11:27Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'eye', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'man, male' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15520Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-19T13:05:08Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'eye', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'person' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15519Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-19T13:04:38Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekwēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'eye', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline exactly the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'person' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15518Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-19T13:03:41Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekwēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'eye', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom' and ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird'. All decline essentially the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Plurals of ''mushroom'' and ''hummingbird'' (remember, no plurals on adjectives) are ''hākāwi'' and ''θāsāwi'', with uniform oblique stems ''hākāw-'' and ''θāsāw-''.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'person' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhokhttp://akana.conlang.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%C4%93_Nil%C5%8Dyi&diff=15517Tomē Nilōyi2020-05-19T12:54:38Z<p>Dhok: </p>
<hr />
<div>''Tomē Nilōyi'' is the foremost member of the Tomic branch of the Team B languages, spoken in the northern foothills of the central highlands of Peilaš and in the upper valley of the θōsi river, hugging the equator. The contemporary range of what can fairly be called a single language or closely-knit dialect continuum is marked in red.<br />
<br />
[[File:http://akana.conlang.org/w/images/3/33/Tome_niloyi.png<br />
]]<br />
Its speakers engage in a general mix of pastoralism and agriculture, with the latter predominating along the river, in the mountains and during the rainy season. As grant money is scarce, only one dialect has been documented so far.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi possesses a relatively simple phonology, perhaps indeed the simplest of all Team B languages, with only twelve or thirteen consonants and four vowels plus length.<br />
<br />
''Consonants''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! labial<br />
! dental<br />
! alveolar<br />
! palatal<br />
! velar<br />
! labiovelar<br />
! glottal<br />
|-<br />
| stop<br />
| p<br />
| t<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| k<br />
| kʷ <kw><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nasal<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| fricative<br />
| <br />
| θ<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
| x<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| approximant<br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| j <y><br />
| <br />
| w<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
We transcribe /j/ as <y> in all following material. /kʷ/ is not phonemically or phonetically distinguishable from /kw/, and will be transcribed as <kw> in all following material, but is regarded as a single consonant because no other cluster of the form CR exists.<br />
<br />
'''Vowels'''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | front<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | center<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | back<br />
|-<br />
| high<br />
| i iː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mid-high<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| o oː<br />
|-<br />
| mid-low<br />
| ɛ ɛː<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| low<br />
| <br />
| a aː<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
In all following material, /ɛ ɛː/ are transcribed as <e ē>, and long vowels are transcribed with macrons <ā ē ī ō>.<br />
<br />
'''Phonotactics'''<br />
<br />
Tomē Nilōyi is heavily enamored of open syllables. As such, the only clusters that may occur (ignoring the question of /kʷ/) are of the form /h/ followed by a consonant, which may only occur medially. There are no word-final coda consonants, and no word-initial clusters (except, again, for /kʷ/). <br />
<br />
Two synchronic phonological rules are given here. The fieldworkers have determined that all else belongs to morphophonology.<br />
<br />
1. Second-syllable shortening.--In a chain of three syllables or (rarely) four syllables all containing long vowels, the second is shortened. No underlying chains of five long vowels or more have been found.<br />
<br />
2. kw-unrounding.--Before /o/ (either short /o/ or long /ō/), /kw/ derounds to plain /k/.<br />
<br />
== Nominals ==<br />
<br />
The Tomē Nilōyi nominal (nouns and adjectives) is inflected in ten cases (nominative, genitive, instrumental, prepositional, comitative, dative, inessive, illative, adessive and allative); additionally, nouns have two numbers (singular and plural). There is no gender or animacy distinction, but we distinguish eight major classes (in Roman numerals) based on declension pattern, with various subclasses.<br />
<br />
Adjectives agree with their head in case, but not number.<br />
<br />
'''A note on stem alternation''' <br />
<br />
A handful of common nominals show alternation of the first syllable of the stem across the paradigm. Most often, the prepositional, comitative and adessive (so-called "PCA" cases) possess a different stem from that used elsewhere; irregular nominatives are also sometimes met with, in both numbers.<br />
<br />
Additionally, most nouns possess a regular-ish but not always predictable plural stem with the addition of an extra syllable. The plural takes the same endings as the singular, so it is regarded as part of the lexical entry and not a problem for inflection; it may also possess PCA irregularities or an irregular nominative. However, if there is no PCA alternation in the singular, there will be none in the plural (the converse is not always true; some nouns have PCA alternation in the singular but not the plural). <br />
<br />
A noun entry in the lexicon will note, as its first two principle parts, its nominative singular and plural, then any additional irregularities, e.g.<br />
<br />
'''ekwa, ēkwa''' ''n. Ia'' star<br />
<br />
''ekwa'' is a regular noun with plural stem ''ēkwa'', and belongs to subclass a of declension class I.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class I'''<br />
<br />
Nouns of Class I are characterized by a final vowel ending in the nominative that is changed in the oblique (= all non-nominative) cases. In a few instances, not shown below for convenience, a Class I noun may have a nominative ending in a long vowel plus ''-yi''; an example is ''hesēyi'', gen. ''hōsiyōwi'' 'bone'. All cases except the nominative decline as if the nominative were ''**hōsi''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | case<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass A<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass B<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass C<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | subclass D<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| -a<br />
| -a/-i<br />
| -e<br />
| -e<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -āwi<br />
| -iyōwi<br />
| -eyōwi<br />
| -ōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -ayēni<br />
| -iyēni<br />
| -eyēni<br />
| -oyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -āli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ēli<br />
| -ōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -āwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ēwa<br />
| -ōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -ānā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ēnā<br />
| -ōnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -ātōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ētōni<br />
| -ātōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
| -iyotōni<br />
| -eyotōni<br />
| -ōtōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -ākwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ēkwe<br />
| -ākwe<br />
|-<br />
| vocative<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
| -iyōkwe<br />
| -eyōkwe<br />
| -ōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Remember, this isn't IE: plurality is marked by lexically-determined stem change, ''not'' by ending.<br />
<br />
Paradigms ahoy, showcasing not only the endings but also some stem variation that occasionally arises: ''aha'' 'ancestor' has a PCA stem ''ap-'', and ''tōle'' 'chicken' has a PCA stem ''tel-''. Note also in several instances the second-syllable shortening rule at work, e.g. in ''tōlenā' 'to/for a chicken', underlyingly ''*tōlēnā''. Additionally, the illative and allative of 'star' show derounding of /kʷ/ before /o/.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | ekwa 'star'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | aha 'elder'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōni 'spring (of water)'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | tōle 'chicken'<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hōwe 'crow'<br />
|-<br />
| nominative<br />
| ekwa<br />
| aha<br />
| hōni<br />
| tōle<br />
| hōwe<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| ekwāwi<br />
| ahiyōwi<br />
| hōniyōwi<br />
| tōleyōwi<br />
| hōwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| ekwayēni<br />
| ahiyēni<br />
| hōniyēni<br />
| tōleyēni<br />
| hōwoyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| ekwāli<br />
| apēli<br />
| hōnēli<br />
| telēli<br />
| hōwōli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| ekwāwa<br />
| apēwa<br />
| hōnēwa<br />
| telēwa<br />
| hōwōwa<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| ekwānā<br />
| ahēnā<br />
| hōnenā<br />
| tōlenā<br />
| hōwonā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| ekwātōni<br />
| ahētōni<br />
| hōnetōni<br />
| tōletōni<br />
| hōwatōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōtōni<br />
| ahiyotōni<br />
| hōniyotōni<br />
| tōleyotōni<br />
| hōwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| ekwākwe<br />
| apēkwe<br />
| hōnēkwe<br />
| telēkwe<br />
| hōwākwe<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| ekōkwe<br />
| apiyōkwe<br />
| hōniyōkwe<br />
| tōleyōkwe<br />
| hōwōkwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plurals of these nouns are "lexically determined"/semi-arbitrary, and will decline the same way as the singulars (nouns never switch declension classes between singular and plural). PCA alternation can only be present in the plural if it was also present in the singular, but some nouns only have PCA alternation in the singular. The plural will be marked in the lexicon, if there is a separate one. Some nouns have plurals identical to their singulars. Others have no PCA alternation, but have an irregular nominative plural distinct from the stem of the oblique cases: ''hekōni'' 'springs (nom.)' vs.''hōxeniyōwi'' 'springs (gen.)'. Rounding out the example nouns are "ēkwa" 'stars', ''āha'' 'elders' (PCA ''āp-''), ''telōle'' 'chickens' (oblique stem ''tōlel-''), and ''hokōwe'' 'crows' (obl. ''hōxōw-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class II'''<br />
<br />
These nouns end in a long vowel plus ''-mi'' or ''-ni'' in the nominative, and their stem ends in a nasal that is subject to diseappearance in certain forms. The stem is best found in the genitive, not the nominative; the genitive will always end in ''-VNōwi'' where V is a short vowel and N is {m n}.<br />
<br />
Certain endings may cause changes to the end of the stem as found in the genitive (this is orthagonal to PCA, plural marking and irregular nominatives). Here's a table of underlying endings. <N> means the nasal of the stem (either /m/ or /n/), and vowel changes will be marked with superscripts. V⁰ is the short vowel of the underlying stem, as found in the genitive.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! nominative<br />
! -V¹Ni<br />
|-<br />
| genitive<br />
| -V⁰Nōwi<br />
|-<br />
| instrumental<br />
| -V²θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prepositional<br />
| -V⁰Nēli<br />
|-<br />
| comitative<br />
| -V²ka<br />
|-<br />
| dative<br />
| -V⁰Nēnā<br />
|-<br />
| inessive<br />
| -V⁰Nētōni<br />
|-<br />
| illative<br />
| -V⁰Notōni<br />
|-<br />
| adessive<br />
| -V⁰Nēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| allative<br />
| -V⁰Nokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In other words, the end of the stem will be found in three 'grades' . Whether the nasal is /m/ or /n/ is essentially irrelevant to declension; it will always disappear in the instrumental and comitative. <br />
<br />
Happily, V¹ (the nominative) and V² (the instrumental/comitative) can be mechanically derived from V⁰:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! V⁰<br />
! V¹ (nom.)<br />
! V² (ins., com.)<br />
|-<br />
| -aN-<br />
| -āNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -eN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -iN-<br />
| -ēNi<br />
| -ēθēni, -ēka<br />
|-<br />
| -oN-<br />
| -ōNi<br />
| -ōθēni, -ōka<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This is pretty simple, really. The vowel is lengthened in the nominative, but underlying /ĭ/ goes to /ē/. The vowel is lengthened and the nasal deleted in the instrumental and comitative, but all of underlying /ă ĕ ĭ/ go to /ē/ and only /ŏ/ goes to /ō/. In all other cases, the underlying/genitive stem is used.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for some paradigms.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'fish'<br />
! 'river'<br />
! 'similar-age male peer'<br />
! 'back (of a leaf, other object)'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| ēwāmi<br />
| hēni<br />
| pēni<br />
| nōyōmi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| ēwamōwi<br />
| henōwi<br />
| pinōwi<br />
| nōyomōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| ēweθēni<br />
| hēθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
| nōyoθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| ēwamēli<br />
| henēli<br />
| pinēli<br />
| nōyomēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| ēwēka<br />
| hēka<br />
| pēka<br />
| nōyōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| ēwamēnā<br />
| henēnā<br />
| pinēnā<br />
| nōyomēnā<br />
|-<br />
| iness.<br />
| ēwamētōni<br />
| henētōni<br />
| pinētōni<br />
| nōyomētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| ēwamotōni<br />
| henotōni<br />
| pinotōni<br />
| nōyomotōni<br />
|-<br />
| adess.<br />
| ēwamēkwe<br />
| henēkwe<br />
| pinēkwe<br />
| nōyomēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| ēwamokwe<br />
| henokwe<br />
| pinokwe<br />
| nōyomokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
None of these nouns have PCA alternation--no Class II noun does. However, a few have irregular nominatives, like ''pēwāni'' 'island' (oblique stem ''pōwan-'') and ''imēni'' 'bee' (oblique ''yēmen-'').<br />
<br />
Plurals as usual are lexically determined. Only two Class II nouns have an irregular nominative plural: 'river' has nom. pl. ''hekwēni'' and oblique plural stem ''hōxen-'', and 'dog' (sg. ''āni, anōwi'') has nom. pl. ''apāni'' and oblique ''āhan-''. Since no Class II noun has PCA alternation in the singular, none do in the plural either.<br />
<br />
The plural stems of the other nouns given here are ''ēwam-'' 'fish' (singular and plural coincidentally equivalent in both Tomē Nilōyi and English), ''pēwin-'' 'male peers' and ''nōnoyom-'' 'backs'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class III'''<br />
<br />
The nominative of class III nouns always ends in either a long vowel alone (e.g. ''otā'' 'liver') or in a long vowel plus ''-si'' (e.g. ''θēwēsi'' 'axe'). The genitive gives you the underlying stem: it will take the form ''-Vpōwi'', ''-Vtōwi'' or ''-Vkōwi'', where V is a short vowel. Without fail, genitives in ''p'' and ''k'' correspond to long-vowel nominatives, and genitives in ''t'' correspond to a nominative in ''-si''.<br />
<br />
We will treat Class III endings the same way as Class II; the final ''-{p t k}'' of the stem found in the genitive undergoes various changes in juncture with the endings. Mercifully, however, there are no changes to the preceding vowel, '''except''' that stems in ''-ip -it -ik'' yield ''-ē -ēsi -ē'' in the nominative: ''hamē, hāmipōwi'' 'yarn'; ''nīwēsi, nīwitōwi'' 'glue, sap'. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! p-stems<br />
! t-stems<br />
! k-stems<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ːsi<br />
| -Ø<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -pōwi<br />
| -tōwi<br />
| -kōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
| -θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -pēli<br />
| -tēli<br />
| -kēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
| -hka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -hēnā<br />
| -sēnā<br />
| -xēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -hētōni<br />
| -sētōni<br />
| -xētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -hotōni<br />
| -sotōni<br />
| -xotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -pēkwe<br />
| -tēkwe<br />
| -kēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -pokwe<br />
| -tokwe<br />
| -kokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Pretty simple, really. The underlying ''p t k'' of the stem is mutated to ''h s x'' in the dative, inessive and illative and deleted entirely before uniform instrumental and comitative endings. Again, no vowel changes, except in the nominative, which always has a long vowel and changes short /ĭ/ to /ē/.<br />
<br />
No Class III noun has PCA alternation, but a few show an irregular nominative (beyond the regular changes found in the nominative), such as ''kilē, kēlikōwi'' 'sun'.<br />
<br />
Bottoms up for paradigms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'wind'<br />
! 'axe'<br />
! 'sun'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| otā<br />
| θēwēsi<br />
| kilē<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| otapōwi<br />
| θēwetōwi<br />
| kēlikōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| otaθēni<br />
| θēweθēni<br />
| kēliθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| otapēli<br />
| θēwetēli<br />
| kēlikēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| otahka<br />
| θēwehka<br />
| kēlihka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| otahēnā<br />
| θēwesēnā<br />
| kēlixēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| otahētōni<br />
| θēwesētōni<br />
| kēlixētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| otahotōni<br />
| θēwesotōni<br />
| kēlixotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| otapēkwe<br />
| θēwetēkwe<br />
| kēlikēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| otapokwe<br />
| θēwetokwe<br />
| kēlikokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As usual, there are no changes to be made to declension in the plural. The plurals of these words are ''ōtā/ōtapōwi'' 'winds', ''θēsewēsi/θēsēwetōwi'' 'axes', and ''kēwilē/kēwilikōwi'' 'suns'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class IV'''<br />
<br />
Nominals of this class have a nominative in ''-āli'', ''-ēli'' or ''-ōli'', and a genitive in ''-Vlōwi'' where V is short. They all decline about the same way. A large number of adjectives ending in ''-ēli'' belong to this class. There are only two vowel grades, V⁰ and V¹: V⁰ /ă ĭ ŏ/ correspond to V¹ /ā ē ō/. (There are no Class IVs with V⁰ /ĕ/ or V¹ /ī/.)<br />
<br />
The endings:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! ending<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -V¹li<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -V⁰lōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -V¹θēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -V⁰lēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -V¹ka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -V⁰lēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -V⁰lētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -V⁰lotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -V⁰lēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -V⁰lokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Paradigms are almost unneeded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! 'center'<br />
! 'cloudy'<br />
! 'seed'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| θāli<br />
| āxanēli<br />
| θilōli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| θalōwi<br />
| āxanilōwi<br />
| θēlolōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| θāθēni<br />
| āxanēθēni<br />
| θēloθēni*<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| θalēli<br />
| āxanilēli<br />
| θēlolēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| θāka<br />
| āxanēka<br />
| θēlōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| θalēnā<br />
| āxanilēnā<br />
| θēlolēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| θalētōni<br />
| āxanilētōni<br />
| θēlolētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| θalotōni<br />
| āxanilotōni<br />
| θēlolotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| θalēkwe<br />
| āxanilēkwe<br />
| θēlolēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| θalokwe<br />
| āxanilokwe<br />
| θēlolokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* With second-syllable shortening; underlying /θēlōθēni/.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class V'''<br />
<br />
This class contains many common nouns, including ''ōtamāni'' 'husband', ''ēmamāni'' 'eye', ''ahkomāni'' 'daughter', ''mēnimāni'' 'mother', and so forth. All nouns of this class decline the same way, with no PCA changes or special nominatives, but the endings are peculiar. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | endings<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'husband'<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| -māni<br />
| ōtamāni<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| -manōwi<br />
| ōtamanōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| -mēθēni<br />
| ōtamēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| -nanēli<br />
| ōtananēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| -mēka<br />
| ōtamēka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| -nēnā<br />
| ōtanēna<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| -nētōni<br />
| ōtanētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| -manotōni<br />
| ōtamanotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| -nēkwe<br />
| ōtanēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| -manokwe<br />
| ōtamanokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Separate plurals, of course, still exist: consider ''pīlimāni'' 'breast', pl. ''pīwilimāni'' 'breasts'.<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VI'''<br />
<br />
A small but obnoxious class consisting of five nominals and their derivatives, including the adjective ''kwamēwi'' 'small'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | small<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | fire<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | parrotfish<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sand<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | louse<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| kwamēwi<br />
| isēwi<br />
| kayāwi<br />
| nipāwi<br />
| pēwi<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| kwāmiwōwi<br />
| ēsiwōwi<br />
| kāyawōwi<br />
| nēhawōwi<br />
| pēwōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| kwāmeθēni<br />
| ēseθēni<br />
| kāyoθēni<br />
| nēhoθēni<br />
| pēθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| kwāmiwēli<br />
| ēsiwēli<br />
| kāyawēli<br />
| nēhawēli<br />
| pēwēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| kwāmōka<br />
| ēsōka<br />
| kāyōka<br />
| nēhōka<br />
| pōka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| kwāmiwēnā<br />
| ēsiwēnā<br />
| kāyawēnā<br />
| nēhawēnā<br />
| pēwenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| kwāmiwētōni<br />
| ēsiwētōni<br />
| kāyawētōni<br />
| nēhawētōni<br />
| pēwetōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| kwāmīwotōni<br />
| ēsīwotōni<br />
| kāyāwotōni<br />
| nēhāwotōni<br />
| pēwotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| kwāmiwēkwe<br />
| ēsiwēkwe<br />
| kāyawēkwe<br />
| nēhawēkwe<br />
| pēwēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| kwāmīwokwe<br />
| ēsīwokwe<br />
| kāyāwokwe<br />
| nēhāwokwe<br />
| pēwokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VII'''<br />
<br />
A small class comprising the nominals ''pāwi'' 'large', ''hāwi'' 'mushroom', ''θāwi'' 'hummingbird' and ''θēli'' 'sap', homophonous with the (indeclinable) number ''θēli'' 'three'. All decline essentially the same way.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | large<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | mushroom<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | hummingbird<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | sap<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| pāwi<br />
| hāwi<br />
| θāwi<br />
| θēli<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| pāwōwi<br />
| hāwōwi<br />
| θāwōwi<br />
| θēlōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| pāwoθēni<br />
| hāwoθēni<br />
| θāwoθēni<br />
| θēloθēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| pāwēli<br />
| hāwēli<br />
| θāwēli<br />
| θēlēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| pāwoka<br />
| hāwoka<br />
| θāwoka<br />
| θēloka<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| pāwenā<br />
| hāwenā<br />
| θāwenā<br />
| θēlenā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| pāwetōni<br />
| hāwetōni<br />
| θāwetōni<br />
| θēletōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| pāwotōni<br />
| hāwotōni<br />
| θāwotōni<br />
| θēlotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| pāwēkwe<br />
| hāwēkwe<br />
| θāwēkwe<br />
| θēlēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| pāwokwe<br />
| hāwokwe<br />
| θāwokwe<br />
| θēlokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Declension Class VIII'''<br />
<br />
Two highly irregular nouns ''hē'' 'person' and ''ē'' 'spirit, being'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! <br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'person' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'people' (pl.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirit' (sg.)<br />
! style="text-decoration:underline;" | 'spirits' (pl.)<br />
|-<br />
| nom.<br />
| hē<br />
| hēkwa<br />
| ē<br />
| iha<br />
|-<br />
| gen.<br />
| hiyōwi<br />
| hēkwiyōwi<br />
| iyōwi<br />
| ihiyōwi<br />
|-<br />
| ins.<br />
| hiyēni<br />
| hēkwiyēni<br />
| iyēni<br />
| ihiyēni<br />
|-<br />
| prep.<br />
| hēli<br />
| hikwēli<br />
| ēli<br />
| ipēli<br />
|-<br />
| com.<br />
| hēwa<br />
| hikwēwa<br />
| ēwa<br />
| ipēwa<br />
|-<br />
| dat.<br />
| hēnā<br />
| hēkwēnā<br />
| ēnā<br />
| ihēnā<br />
|-<br />
| ines.<br />
| hētōni<br />
| hēkwētōni<br />
| ētōni<br />
| ihētōni<br />
|-<br />
| ill.<br />
| hiyotōni<br />
| hēkotōni<br />
| iyotōni<br />
| ihotōni<br />
|-<br />
| ades.<br />
| hēkwe<br />
| hikwēkwe<br />
| ēkwe<br />
| ipēkwe<br />
|-<br />
| all.<br />
| hiyokwe<br />
| hēkokwe<br />
| iyokwe<br />
| ihokwe<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Team B languages]]</div>Dhok