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O Ayōndui/Lexicon

2025-03-29T13:27:33Z

Cedh: +33

This is a basic lexicon of [[O Ayōndui]].

The morphology column indicates whether the word has an extended stem (with or without associated morphophonological alternations) that is used before enclitics and suffixes (including derivational morphemes). Where two extended stems are given, the first one appears before consonants and the second one appears before vowels. A couple of other details are also listed in this column; in such a case the relevant category is mentioned.

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
! word
! morphology
! type
! meaning
! etymology
|-
| abo- || || v. || give || ''*abu-''
|-
| abōñiⁿ- || || v. || be generous || ''*abuiŋi-'' ‘give regularly’
|-
| abossə- || || v. || get, receive, be given sth. || (''abo-'' + ''-^ssə-'' ‘{{sc|pass}}’)
|-
| adāyo || || n. || a person from the eastern Lukpanic coast || (''a-'' + {{UB|Daayóo}} ‘the Doayâu language’)
|-
| aduənu || || n. || a person from [[Doanu]] || ''*adoanu[b]''
|-
| agami || agamiⁿ- || n. || bay, inlet || {{gray|''*agbami'' ‘recede-place’}}
|-
| ai || ē+, air- || n. || bean || ''*haəl''
|-
| aigə- || || v. || announce, say publicly, promise || ''*aigba-''
|-
| aihə || || n. || wing || ''*haisa''
|-
| aiho- || || v. || help, support || {{PTul|*aisu}} ‘good’
|-
| ainuⁿ- || || v. || walk || {{PTul|*haignu}}
|-
| aipigə- || || v. || dream || ''*haəpigba-''
|-
| airai || airā+, airar- || n. || buckwheat || ''*haəlal'' ‘mass of small objects’ (via ‘grain’)
|-
| aīshi || || n. || a person from [[Isi]] || (''a-'' + {{UB|Íši}})
|-
| aka || || adj. || big, thick, wide, loose || ''*akpa''
|-
| akaru || || n. || sea, ocean || ''*akpa lu'' ‘wide ocean’
|-
| āki || || n. || fog, mist || ''*akpea''
|-
| akken(i)- || || v. || understand || {{PTul|*apken}} ‘know’
|-
| anīm(i)- || || v. || wear tattoos || ''*aniəm-'' ‘colored, painted’
|-
| anīnda || anīndau-, anīndab^- || n. || adult, full member of the community || ''*aniəm tab'' ‘one who has been tattoed’
|-
| annə || annəⁿ- || n. || neck || ''*amina''
|-
| anzo- || || v. || be sacred || {{PTul|*anso}} ‘spirit, god’
|-
| añaⁿ- || || v. || exert influence on || ''*aŋea-'' ‘push’
|-
| añaigə- || || v. || urge, convince, persuade || ''*aŋeaigba-'' ‘push (socially)’
|-
| añauhe- || || v. || push, shove || ''*aŋeausi-'' ‘push (physically)’
|-
| añauheō- || || v. || get pushed || (''añauhe-'' + ''-ō-'' ‘{{sc|pass}}’)
|-
| añi || añiⁿ- || n. || tooth || ''*haŋi''
|-
| āŋu || āŋu-, āŋumb^- || n. || awl, needle || ''*haŋmoab'' ‘that which pierces’
|-
| āo || āo-, āob^- || n. || wind || ''*ahub''
|-
| aōppa || aōppau-, aōppab^- || n. || kite || ''*ahub-hibab'' ‘wind-flyer’
|-
| apāji || apāji-, apāz- || n. || root || {{PTul|*aplek}}
|-
| appi || app(i)- || n. || smoke || {{PTul|*asep}}
|-
| āpu || || n. || lizard || ''*apoa''
|-
| apui || apuə-, apur- || adj. || bad, rotten, damaged, flawed, ugly, wrong || ''*apul''
|-
| arāmi || arāmiⁿ- || n. || farmer || (''a-'' + ''rāmi'': ‘field-person’)
|-
| āru || āru-, ārup- || n. || carrot || ''*aloap''
|-
| atau- || ataⁿ-, atam- || v. || release, let go || {{gray|''*hatam-''}}
|-
| atima || atimau-, atīmb^- || n. || old person || ''*atimab''
|-
| atiu || atiⁿ-, atim- || adj. || old || ''*atim''
|-
| atta- || || v. || spit || ''*adita-''
|-
| aube || || cj. || so, therefore, as a result || ''*haubi'' ‘causing’
|-
| auvoku || || n. || lightning || {{gray|''*auvukpu''}}
|-
| ayōndui || ayōnduə-, ayōndur- || n. || an Ayōndui person || ''*aeaunutul[ib]''
|-
| ayu || ayuⁿ-, ayum- || n. || night || ''*haim''
|-
| ayūi- || || v. || stay, remain || {{PTul|*ayo}} ‘stand’ + ''*-ai-''
|-
| ayūishi- || || v. || leave, abandon || (''ayūi-'' + ''-shi-'': ‘do not stay’)
|-
| āza || āz(a)- || n. || (land) animal || {{PTul|*halak}}
|-
| azōu || azōⁿ-, azōm- || n. || food, meal || ''*hagaum'' ‘that which is eaten’
|-
| baibə || || n. || snow || ''*baəba''
|-
| bē || || cj. || if || ''*bib''
|-
| beho || || n. || bug, insect || ''*bisu'' ‘woodlouse’
|-
| benji || || n. || head || {{PTul|*benki}}
|-
| bēsso || || n. || sword || {{PCW|besògù}} ‘sharp blade’
|-
| beta || || adj. || green, raw, unripe || ''*bita''
|-
| biu || || num. || zero, no, none || ''*-biu''
|-
| bohə || || adj. || odd, strange, unusual || ''*busa'' ‘crazy’
|-
| bopitu || || n. || mead || ''*bupitu'' ‘honey‹{{sc|dim}}›’
|-
| bott(a)- || || v. || stand out; behave weirdly; violate the traditions; make a mistake || ''*busa t-'' ‘be crazy’
|-
| botu || || n. || honey || ''*butu''
|-
| buəmēi- || || v. || flow (of tides) || ''*buimeai-''
|-
| buəmiⁿ- || || v. || return; go home || ''*buimi-''
|-
| dā || || n. || father || {{PTul|*dasa}} (irr.)
|-
| dāb(i)- || || v. || stand || ''*dalap-''
|-
| dai || dai-, daib^- || n. || woman || ''*daəb''
|-
| daiñə || daiñaⁿ- || n. || tail || ''*daəŋa''
|-
| dakamo || dakamoⁿ- || n. || spear || {{PTul|*dakmo}}
|-
| dāma || dāmau-, dāmb^- || n. || nose || ''*damab'' ‘that which breathes’
|-
| damaiⁿ- || || v. || live, be alive || ''*damai-'' ‘keep breathing’
|-
| dāni || dāniⁿ- || adj. || full, whole, complete || ''*danisa'' (irr.)
|-
| dāra || dāra-, dāb- || n. || situation, circumstances || ''*dalap'' ‘stand ({{sc|vn}})’
|-
| dasada || dasada-, dasadap- || n. || nonsense, joke || ''*dakadap''
|-
| daya- || || v. || shout, call || {{UB|dáya}}
|-
| dē || {{sc|ord}} odē < ''*u deai'' ‘of twenty’ || num. || twenty || ''*deai''
|-
| deāt(a)- || || v. || cook || {{PTul|*dayat}} ‘cook’
|-
| dēigə- || || v. || hear, listen || {{PTul|*dahe}} + ''*-igba-''
|-
| dendo || || n. || fence || {{PTul|*dendu}} ‘wall’
|-
| dēni || dēn(i)- || n. || ear || {{PTul|*dilen}}
|-
| detto- || || v. || marry || ''*disi du-'' ‘become a husband’
|-
| dədauhe- || || v. || swim || ''*dadausi-''
|-
| dimiru || dimī+, dimir- || n. || child || {{PTul|*dimlu}}
|-
| dīsu- || || v. || trade, exchange || ''*diəku-''
|-
| dīsund(a)- || || v. || be traded, be exchanged (of goods) || ''*diəkum t-''
|-
| dīsūñiⁿ- || || v. || trade regularly; be a merchant || ''*diəkuiŋi-''
|-
| dō || {{sc|ord}} odō < ''*u deau'' ‘of four’ || num. || four || ''*deau'' (irr.)
|-
| dodo- || || v. || appear, emerge || ''*dudu-'' ‘come suddenly, spring forth’
|-
| dōni || dōniⁿ- || n. || the world || {{PTul|*donya}}
|-
| duədo- || || v. || grow || ''*dui du-'' ‘become big’
|-
| duədobo- || || v. || raise, keep (of animals) || (''duədo-'' + ''-(a)bo-'': ‘let grow’)
|-
| duəguniⁿ- || || v. || be bigger than || (''dui'' + ''-guniⁿ-'': ‘big-{{sc|intens}}’)
|-
| Duənu || Duənuⁿ- || top. || Doanu (a city) || ''*Doanu''
|-
| duəŋai || duəŋaiⁿ-, duəŋar- || n. || the mainland || ''*dui ŋmal'' ‘big land’
|-
| dui || dui-, duip- || adj. || big, large, important || {{PTul|*doip}}
|-
| duīdi- || || v. || be smaller than || (''dui'' + ''-ːdi-'': ‘big-{{sc|atten}}’)
|-
| dūmi || dūmiⁿ- || n. || sail (of a boat) || ''*dumea''
|-
| Dunūo || Dunūⁿ-, Dunūm- || n. || Dunūo (the god of knowledge and skill) || ''*Dunoam''
|-
| ēba || ēba-, ēmb^- || n. || bird || ''*hibab'' ‘one who can fly’
|-
| ebāob(e)- || || v. || throw || ''*hibahaub-'' ‘cause to fly’
|-
| ebedaigə- || || v. || waver, hesitate, have no idea what to do || ''*ibidaigba-'' ‘float (mentally)’
|-
| ebedə- || || v. || float || ''*ibida-''
|-
| edeb(e)- || || v. || be sweet || ''*hidib-''
|-
| ēfai- || || v. || behave properly, be a kind person || {{PTul|*aisu}} ‘good’ + ''-ai-''
|-
| ēga || ēg(a)- || n. || flour || {{PTul|*elak}} ‘dust’
|-
| ēhēm(i)- || || v. || die || {{PTul|*aisim}}
|-
| eki || || n. || crab || ''*hikpi''
|-
| embə || || n. || idea, inspiration || {{PTul|*emba}} ‘dream’
|-
| ēnd(a)- || || v. || be mysterious, be obscure || ''*haim t-'' ‘be night’
|-
| enza || || n. || hill, mountain || {{PTul|*henka}}
|-
| enzaŋai || enzaŋaiⁿ-, enzaŋar- || n. || highlands || (''ēnza'' + ''-(i)ŋai'')
|-
| ēŋgan(i)- || || v. || be to the west of || ''*haimikpani'' ‘facing towards the night’
|-
| ēregə- || || v. || argue in favor of || ''*hiəligba-'' ‘defend (socially)’
|-
| erīre || erīrai- || n. || toe || ''*hil u ilai'' ‘child of the foot’
|-
| ērohe- || || v. || defend, protect || ''*hiəlusi-'' ‘defend (physically)’
|-
| ēru || ēruⁿ-, ērum- || n. || wall (defensive), barrier, palisade || ''*hiəlum''
|-
| eshi || || n. || ice || {{PTul|*etsi}}
|-
| eshita- || || v. || freeze || (''eshi'' + ''-ta'')
|-
| ēsshimi || ēsshimiⁿ- || n. || nest (of a bird) || {{PTul|*eipki}} ‘sit’ + ''*-mi''
|-
| ēyōnə || ēyōnaⁿ- || n. || tip (of an arrow or spear) || ''*eahoana''
|-
| ēza || ēzau-, ēzab^- || n. || number, amount || ''*igab'' ‘count ({{sc|vn}})’
|-
| ēzāpi || ēzāpi-, ēzāpir- || n. || flame, spark || ''*hil u kapil'' ‘child of the fire’
|-
| ezēgaza- || || v. || welcome, entertain, impress (with dubious intentions) || {{UB|eseegaasá}} ‘seat’
|-
| ezəb(e)- || || v. || count || ''*igab-''
|-
| ədēndaⁿ- || || v. || play a drum || ''*adal madam-'' ‘hit repeatedly’
|-
| əŋūⁿ- || || v. || stab, pierce || ''*haŋmoa-''
|-
| əŋūmi || əŋūmiⁿ- || n. || wound || ''*haŋmoami'' ‘stab-place’
|-
| əttaigə- || || v. || curse, cuss, insult || ''*aditaigba-'' ‘spit (socially)’
|-
| fāda || fādau-, fādab^-|| n. || narrow passage, lane, hallway || ''*soalitab'' ‘that which is narrow’
|-
| fō || || pron. || (3rd person plural) || ''*susu''
|-
| fuəm(i)- || || v. || be curious, investigate || ''*susam-''
|-
| gaigə- || || v. || confront, oppose, resist || ''*gbaigba-''
|-
| gaugu || gauguⁿ-, gaugum- || n. || member of the village council || ''*gba u gbum'' ‘elder of the city’
|-
| gaugund(a)- || || v. || take responsibility || ''*gba u gbum t-'' ‘be an elder’
|-
| gāya || gāyau-, gāyab^- || n. || fisherman || ''*voaeab'' ‘one who goes fishing’
|-
| getai || getai-, getar- || n. || forest || ''*gbital''
|-
| gīhe- || || v. || build, make, create || ''*gbiusi-'' ‘build (physically)’
|-
| giəssa- || giəssau-, giəssab^- || v. || rebuild, repair || ''*gbiusi kab-'' ‘build again’
|-
| goāri || goāri-, goārib^- || n. || tattoo || ''*gboaleab'' ‘that which is under the skin’
|-
| gōzu || || n. || warrior || {{UB|góoju}} ‘head’
|-
| gōzūmuⁿ- || || v. || fight (collectively), be at war with || (''gōzu'' + ''-(u)muⁿ-'' ‘use warriors’)
|-
| gōzushim(i)- || || v. || be brave, show courage || (''gōzu'' + ''-shim(i)-'': ‘be like a warrior’)
|-
| gōzushinji- || || v. || be shy, be timid || (''gōzushim(i)-'' + ''-shi-'': ‘have no courage’)
|-
| guŋgan(i)- || || v. || be to the east of || ''*gbumikpani'' ‘facing towards the cities’
|-
| gūonə || gūonaⁿ- || n. || tree bark || ''*gboa u na'' ‘skin of the tree’
|-
| ha || || pron. || (3rd person singular masculine) || ''*sa''
|-
| hagai || hagai-, hagaip- || n. || silver || ''*savoaəp'' ‘white metal’
|-
| hai || || adv. || indeed, exactly || {{PTul|*sayi}} ‘be (by nature)’
|-
| haika- || || v. || carry, bring || ''*saəkpa-''
|-
| haikasa- || haikasau-, haikasab^- || v. || bring back || ''*saəkpa kab-'' ‘bring again’
|-
| hāji || hāji-, hāz- || n. || ground, floor, base || {{PTul|*salik}} ‘foot’
|-
| hamuⁿ- || || v. || pull || ''*samu-''
|-
| hamuŋguniⁿ- || || v. || pull strongly, pull tight || (''hamuⁿ-'' + ''-guni-'': ‘pull-{{sc|intens}}’)
|-
| hāpi || hāpi-, hāpp- || n. || talisman || ''*sapip'' ‘god‹{{sc|dim}}›’
|-
| happūi || happū+, happūr- || n. || stranger, foreigner || ''*sapibuəl'' ‘unknown person from far away’
|-
| hashi || || n. || lavender || ''*saki''
|-
| haudə || || n. || shrimp, prawn || {{PTul|*sabda}}
|-
| hauk(u)- || || v. || watch, observe, control || {{PTul|*sauk}} ‘see’
|-
| havo || || adj. || white, bright || ''*savu''
|-
| hebe || || n. || eye || {{PTul|*sibi}}
|-
| hebessu- || || v. || be blind || (''hebe'' + ''-^ssu-'': ‘have no eyes’)
|-
| hēkkāŋgə- || || v. || pray || ''*[sa]saipikpanigba-'' ‘mentally face towards the gods’
|-
| hēm(i)- || || v. || burn, be on fire || ''*seam-''
|-
| hēmōb(e)- || || v. || light up, ignite || (''hēm(i)-'' + ''-ːob(e)-'': ‘burn-{{sc|caus}}’)
|-
| hēŋgə- || || v. || be angry || ''*seamigba-'' ‘burn (mentally)’
|-
| hēŋgəbo- || || v. || annoy, disturb, irritate || (''hēŋgə-'' + ''-(a)bo-'': ‘make angry’)
|-
| hēŋgəssə- || || v. || get blamed, have anger directed at oneself || (''hēŋgə-'' + ''-^ssə-'' ‘{{sc|pass}}’)
|-
| hepunu || hepun(u)- || n. || egg || {{PTul|*sepun}}
|-
| heta || || n. || sand || ''*sita'' ‘beach’
|-
| həmmohe- || || v. || bite || ''*saŋimusi-''
|-
| ho || || pron. || (3rd person singular feminine) || ''*su''
|-
| hōi || hōi-, hōr- || adj. || small, thin, narrow, tight || ''*soal''
|-
| homi || homiⁿ- || n. || rain || ''*sumi''
|-
| homīhe- || || v. || be raining (of weather) || ''*sumiusi-''
|-
| hōmu || hōmuⁿ- || n. || stuff, things, possessions || ''*sumoa''
|-
| honda || hond(a)- || n. || day || {{PTul|*sumat}}
|-
| hōre || hōrai- || n. || blood || {{PTul|*sulai}}
|-
| hōrēgə- || || v. || hurt (emotionally) || (''hōre'' + ''-igə-'': ‘draw blood by communication’)
|-
| hotōgu || hotōg(u)- || n. || horn || {{PTul|*sotlok}} ‘horn’
|-
| hōvu || hōvuⁿ-, hōvum- || n. || leaf || ''*suvum''
|-
| hōzau || hōzaⁿ-, hōzam- || n. || latch, doorbolt || {{gray|''*suəgam''}}
|-
| i || || cj. || and || {{PTul|*i}}
|-
| īde || īde-, īdeb^- || adj. || proper, real, true, correct || ''*il dib'' ‘strong and good’
|-
| īdehe || || n. || arrow || {{PCW|jidzi}}
|-
| īe || || n. || water || {{PTul|*yihe}}
|-
| iədami || iədamiⁿ- || n. || death || ''*eadami'' ‘cessation of breath’
|-
| iəffa- || || v. || spoil, sabotage || ''*eavusoa-'' (irr.)
|-
| iəkai || iəkai-, iəkar- || n. || bag || {{gray|''*eakpal''}}
|-
| iəmə || iəmaⁿ- || adj. || high, long, tall || ''*eama'' ‘straight’
|-
| iətu || || n. || brick || ''*eatu''
|-
| īhe || īhē-, īhēp- || n. || spirit, god || ''*il saip'' ‘great spirit ({{sc|hon}})’
|-
| ijīka || || n. || politeness; urban manners || {{UB|isiiká}} ‘honey, sweetness’
|-
| ikīhe- || || v. || split, separate || ''*ikuiusi-'' ‘split (physically)’
|-
| īmi || īm(i)- || n. || garden || {{PTul|*yelem}}
|-
| īndi || īnd(i)- || n. || heron || {{PTul|*egnit}}
|-
| iŋgīgə- || || v. || be headstrong, be stubborn || {{PTul|*imbak}} + ''*-igba-'': ‘be like a goat (mentally)’
|-
| īpau || īpaⁿ-, īpam- || n. || path, trail || ''*iəpam'' ‘shortcut; mountain pass’
|-
| ipiu || ipiə-, ipiəb^- || n. || cowrie shell (used as a currency) || ''*ipiub''
|-
| īre || īrai- || n. || foot || ''*ilai''
|-
| irūi || irū+, irūr- || n. || sun || ''*il uəl'' ‘the great sun ({{sc|hon}})’
|-
| īsaishi || || n. || conflict, war || ''*eakaikea'' ‘game, competition’
|-
| Īshi || || top. || [[Isi]] (a city) || {{UB|Íši}}
|-
| isset(i)- || || v. || talk to || {{PTul|*yikket}}
|-
| isuəgə- || || v. || share, divide, distribute || ''*ikuigba-'' ‘split (socially)’
|-
| īta || || n. || river || ''*iəta''
|-
| ītasai || ītasai-, ītasaip- || n. || gold || ''*iətakaəp'' ‘river metal’
|-
| itimu || itimuⁿ-, itimm- || n. || boat (without a sail) || ''*itimum'' ‘canoe’
|-
| ittoi || || adv. || not yet || {{PTul|*iptoi}} ‘be not (currently)’
|-
| itubu || itubuⁿ-, itubum- || n. || blanket || {{gray|''*itubum'' ‘wrap-thing’}}
|-
| Īvasu || || top. || Iəvaku (a city) || ''*Iəvaku''
|-
| ive || || n. || worm || ''*ivi''
|-
| jiəda || jiədau-, jiədab^- || n. || potter || {{gray|''*geadab'' ‘one who sculpts’}}
|-
| jiədə- || || v. || form, shape, sculpt, mold || {{gray|''*geada-''}}
|-
| jiəga || || n. || upper-class person from a city || {{UB|jéega}} ‘clan, lineage’
|-
| jīgə- || || v. || wait for || {{gray|''*giəligba-''}}
|-
| jimbuhe- || || v. || harvest, reap || ''*ginipusi-''
|-
| jimiⁿ- || || v. || kill || ''*gimi-''
|-
| jimiō- || || v. || get killed || (''jimiⁿ-'' + ''-ō-'' ‘{{sc|pass}}’)
|-
| jīri- || || v. || continue, keep doing || {{gray|''*giəli-'' ‘stay, remain’}}
|-
| kabātu || || n. || gathering, celebration || ''*koabatoa''
|-
| kādu || || n. || beehive || ''*kpalutu''
|-
| kai || kai-, kar- || n. || bee || ''*kpal''
|-
| kainuⁿ- || || v. || sleep || ''*kpaənu-''
|-
| kainūob(e)- || || v. || put to sleep (of children) || (''kainuⁿ-'' + ''-ːob(e)-'')
|-
| kaite || kaitī-, kaitib^- || n. || beekeeper || ''*kpaətib'' ‘bee-person’
|-
| karutt(a)- || || v. || be busy || ''*kpalutu t-'' ‘be like a beehive’
|-
| kashim(i)- || || v. || be scary || ''*kpakim-''
|-
| katarau || kataraⁿ-, kataram- || n. || fruit || {{PTul|*katlam}}
|-
| kaubo || || n. || rope || ''*kpaubu''
|-
| kaunau || kaunaⁿ-, kaunam- || n. || meat || {{PTul|*kabnam}}
|-
| kayo || || n. || wood || {{PTul|*kayo}}
|-
| kayōhe- || || v. || carve || (''kayo'' + ''-ohe-'': ‘wood-{{sc|vblz}}’)
|-
| kēmmi || kēmmiⁿ- || n. || bed || ''*kpaənumi'' ‘sleep-place’
|-
| kī || || adj. || yellow || ''*kuea''
|-
| ki || || pron. || what, who? (interrogative) || ''*kpi''
|-
| kida || || n. || city-dweller || {{UB|kidá}} ‘citizen’
|-
| kihə || || pron. || when? || ''*kpisa''
|-
| kinai || || pron. || how, in what manner? || ''*kpinal''
|-
| kita || || n. || fat, grease, oil || ''*kpita'' ‘butter’
|-
| kiu || || pron. || so what, what of it? || ''*kpim''
|-
| koiri- || || v. || come, arrive, accomplish || {{PTul|*koile}} ‘come’
|-
| kōppo || || n. || yarn, thread || ''*kpaupibu'' ‘rope‹{{sc|dim}}›’
|-
| kōppoge- || || v. || spin || (''kōppo'' + ''-(i)ge-'': ‘make yarn’)
|-
| koruəgə- || || v. || decide || ({{UB|kólu}} ‘tie, fasten’ + ''-igə-'')
|-
| kuboi- || || v. || hurt, injure (physically) || {{PTul|*kuboi}} ‘bite’
|-
| kugə || || n. || liver || ''*kpugba''
|-
| kūi- || kūi-, kūy- || v. || put, set || {{gray|''*kpoai-''}}
|-
| kupuri || kupū+, kupur- || n. || flower || {{PTul|*kupli}} ‘flower’
|-
| ma || || intj. || yes! indeed! || ''*ma''
|-
| māgu || māguⁿ-, māgum- || n. || town, city || ''*mab gbum'' ‘big city’
|-
| mai || maiⁿ-, mar- || adj. || blue || ''*mal''
|-
| mainohe- || || v. || dig || ''*maənusi-''
|-
| māmbo || māmbo-, māmbob^- || n. || storm || ''*mab ahub'' ‘big wind’
|-
| mandami || || adv. || over and over || ''*madami''
|-
| mandau || mandaⁿ-, mandam- || n. || habit, custom, tradition || ''*madam'' ‘do repeatedly ({{sc|vn}})’
|-
| mānzossu- || || v. || taste bland; be boring || (''mānzu'' + ''-^ssu-'': ‘have no salt’)
|-
| mānzu || || n. || salt || ''*magoa''
|-
| māra || māra-, mārap- || n. || high tide || ''*mab lap'' ‘big water’
|-
| mbeki || || n. || lobster || ''*mab hikpi'' ‘big crab’
|-
| mbeshim(i)- || || v. || be related to || ''*ŋimibikim-'' ‘be like a family’ (irr.)
|-
| mbīmi- || mbīmiⁿ- || n. || pair, couple || ''*ŋmibimea'' ‘all two’
|-
| mbīrə- || || v. || tie, fasten || ''*napila-''
|-
| mbirōu || mbirōⁿ-, mbirōm- || n. || knot || ''*napilaum'' ‘that which is tied’
|-
| mbīrund(a)- || || v. || be attached to, be restrained || (''mbīrə-'' + ''-und(a)-'' ‘{{sc|pass}}’)
|-
| mbūəgə- || || v. || concentrate, focus on || ''*nipuigba-'' ‘chew (mentally)’
|-
| meādo || || n. || military commander || {{PCW|meʔludu}} ‘warrior ({{sc|hon}})’
|-
| menzu || || n. || husband || {{PTul|*metsu}}
|-
| məppiəni || məppiəniⁿ- || n. || storehouse || ''*mab peani'' ‘big basket’
|-
| mimbita || || n. || puppie, baby dog || ''*mipita'' ‘dog‹{{sc|dim}}›’
|-
| mimeffu || mimeffuⁿ-, mimeffum- || n. || herbal tea || ''*mimisuvum'' ‘hot leaves’
|-
| mimiⁿ- || || v. || be pleasant, be comfortable || ''*mimi'' ‘warm’
|-
| minda || || n. || dog || ''*mita''
|-
| mīvə- || || v. || refine, elaborate, decorate || {{gray|''*miəva''}}
|-
| mō || || n. || mother || {{PTul|*mau}}
|-
| mōndo- || || v. || give birth || ''*mau du-'' ‘become a mother’
|-
| mosu- || || v. || sew || {{UB|mósu}}
|-
| mūmb(i)- || || v. || blow, breathe || ''*moap-''
|-
| mūnzo || || n. || sheep || {{PCW|mòğu}}
|-
| mūnzote || mūnzotī-, mūnzotib^- || n. || shepherd || (''mūnzo'' + ''-te'': ‘sheep-person’)
|-
| mūŋga || || n. || lookout, observation point || ''*moakpa'' ‘tower’
|-
| mūoru || || n. || port, harbor || ''*moa u lu'' ‘harbor of the ocean’
|-
| nai || nēⁿ-, nēmb- || adj. || new, young || ''*naəp''
|-
| Naibu || Naibuⁿ-, Naibum- || top. || [[Naəgbum]] (a city) || {{UB|Naibum}}
|-
| naigo || {{sc|ord}} unaigo < ''*u naəp ugbu'' ‘of six’ || num. || six || ''*naəp ugbu'' ‘new hand’
|-
| naishi || naishi-, naishib^- || n. || terrace || ''*naib [u] kib'' ‘terrace of the house’
|-
| naitāmi || naitāmiⁿ- || n. || body || ''*naətamea'' ‘all the ribs’
|-
| naivo || || n. || belly, stomach || ''*naivu''
|-
| naivoh(ə)- || || v. || be strong, be sturdy || ''*naivu s-'' ‘have a stomach’
|-
| nanzanau || nanzanaⁿ-, nanzanam- || n. || yoghurt || ''*naŋi ganam'' ‘rotten milk’
|-
| narāgə- || || v. || rest, take a break || ''*nalaligba-''
|-
| narr(i)- || || v. || lie, recline || ''*nalal-''
|-
| navuəmmuⁿ- || || v. || be wise; make a wise decision || ''*navoanu umu-'' ‘hold knowledge’
|-
| ndāgə- || || v. || narrate, tell a story || ''*mitaligba-'' ‘flow with words’
|-
| ndaimi- || ndaimiⁿ- || n. || spring, source (of a river) || ''*mitaəmi'' ‘flow-place’
|-
| ndārai- || || v. || flow (of rivers) || ''*mitalai-''
|-
| ndūhe- || || v. || fall || {{gray|''*nadulusi-'' ‘stumble (physically)’}}
|-
| ndūtu- || ndūtu-, ndūtuəb^- || n. || hat, cap, headscarf || ''*mututoab'' ‘that which is next to the head’
|-
| nēhāgə- || || v. || think, consider || ''*neasaligba-''
|-
| nēhai || nēhai-, nēhar- || n. || thought, idea, notion, opinion || ''*neasal'' ‘think ({{sc|vn}})’
|-
| nēi || || n. || belt || ''*neahi''
|-
| nēmbai || nēmbai-, nēmbar- || n. || baby, toddler || ''*naəpal''
|-
| nēmbaiha || nēmbaihau-, nēmbaihab^- || n. || pregnant woman || ''*naəpal sab'' ‘one who has a baby’
|-
| nēmbaih(ə)- || || v. || be pregnant || ''*naəpal s-'' ‘have a baby’
|-
| nēnda || || n. || rib || ''*naəta''
|-
| nēndo || || n. || headman, chief, leader || {{PTul|*nayido}}
|-
| niəmə || niəmaⁿ- || n. || ship, boat (with a sail) || ''*neama'' ‘boat’
|-
| nīgə- || || v. || feel (of emotions) || ''*niligba-''
|-
| nimbu- || || v. || chew || ''*nipu-''
|-
| nimīm(i)- || || v. || be soft, be smooth || ''*nimeam-''
|-
| nimīññ(e)- || || v. || be rough, pose obstacles || ''*nimeam ŋ-'' ‘be not smooth’
|-
| nīŋga- || || v. || fear || ''*niəkpa-''
|-
| nōⁿ- || || v. || eat || {{PTul|*nou}}
|-
| noāve- || || v. || ride || {{PCW|noʔuʔaju-}} ‘mount (of horses)’
|-
| nombādi- || || v. || be less warm than || (''nombə'' + ''-ːdi-'': ‘be warm-{{sc|atten}}’)
|-
| nombə- || || v. || be warm || {{PTul|*noba}} ‘hot’
|-
| nombəguniⁿ- || || v. || be hotter than || (''nombə-'' + ''-guni-'': ‘be hot-{{sc|intens}}’)
|-
| nōmbin(i)- || || v. || capture, seize, conquer || {{PTul|*naubbin}} ‘take (by force)’
|-
| nōnji- || || v. || fast, abstain from eating || (''nōⁿ-'' + ''-shi-'': ‘do not eat’)
|-
| nōub(e)- || || v. || feed || (''nōⁿ-'' + ''-ːob(e)-'': ‘eat-{{sc|caus}}’)
|-
| nūniəmə || nūniəmaⁿ- || n. || anchor || ''*nuəp u neama'' ‘root of the boat’
|-
| nūŋg(e)- || || v. || be visible, be obvious || ''*nuigb[i]'' ‘touching the eyes’
|-
| nūpumuⁿ- || || v. || anchor (a boat) || ''*nuəp umu-'' ‘use an anchor’
|-
| nurai || nurai-, nuraip- || n. || face || ''*nu laəp'' ‘eyes and nose’
|-
| nzoigə- || || v. || want, wish, desire || {{PTul|*nakso}} + ''*-igba-''
|-
| nzuəŋai || nzuəŋaiⁿ-, nzuəŋar- || n. || marsh, wetland || ''*magoaŋmal'' ‘salt-land’
|-
| ñaihe- || || v. || wash || ''*ŋaisi-''
|-
| ñakkə- || || v. || be ashamed, be disgraced || ''*ŋasigba-'' ‘die (socially)’
|-
| ñanaⁿ- || || v. || say, speak || ''*ŋana-''
|-
| ñanandaⁿ- || || v. || say again, say several times || (''ñanaⁿ-'' + ''-ndaⁿ-'')
|-
| ñaumuⁿ- || || v. || hit || ''*ŋau umu-'' ‘use a club’
|-
| ñē || || aux. || (negative copula; stative non-past) || ''*ŋai''
|-
| ñehēsa || || n. || attractive person || ''*ŋeaseaka'' ‘gem, jewel’
|-
| ñepp(i)- || || v. || blend, mix || ''*ŋisap-''
|-
| ñeppu || ñeppuⁿ-, ñeppum- || n. || stew || ''*ŋisapum'' ‘that which is mixed’
|-
| ñettadə- || || v. || bathe || ''*ŋaisidada-'' ‘wash and swim’
|-
| ñīme || ñīme-, ñīmb^- || n. || family, clan || ''*ŋimib'' ‘cluster of buildings’
|-
| ñoēndu || || n. || beak || ''*ŋuhim u toa'' ‘horn of a bird’
|-
| ñū || {{sc|ord}} uñū < ''*u nium'' ‘of five’ || num. || five || ''*nium'' (irr.)
|-
| ñui || || aux. || (negative copula; stative past) || ''*ŋul''
|-
| ñumba- || || v. || be round || ''*ŋunupa-''
|-
| ñuru || ñū+, ñur- || n. || onion || ''*ŋulu''
|-
| ŋa || || pron. || (1st person singular masculine) || ''*ŋma''
|-
| ŋāgan(i)- || || v. || be to the north of || ''*ŋmalikpani'' ‘facing towards the land’
|-
| ŋai || ŋaiⁿ-, ŋar- || n. || land, region, area || ''*ŋmal''
|-
| ŋanzo || || pron. || (1st person plural inclusive) || ''*ŋmagu'' ‘me [and] you’
|-
| ŋau || ŋaⁿ-, ŋam- || n. || dust, dirt || ''*ŋmam'' ‘sand’
|-
| ŋē || {{sc|ord}} otti < ''*u hiti'' ‘of two’ < {{PTul|*het}} || num. || two || ''*ŋmib''
|-
| ŋgunīe- || || v. || swell, rise (of water), increase, approach, become more important || ''*mab gbuneai-'' ‘swell bigger’
|-
| ŋgunīerūi || ŋgunīerū+, ŋgunīerūr- || n. || summer solstice || ''*mab gbunea [u] il uəl'' ‘high tide of the sun’
|-
| ŋīmb(i)- || || v. || fight (individually) || ''*ŋmeap-''
|-
| ŋiərə || || n. || goat || ''*ŋmiula''
|-
| ŋīmbe || {{sc|ord}} uŋīmbe < ''*u ŋmibai'' ‘of ten’ || num. || ten || ''*ŋmibai''
|-
| ŋu || || pron. || (1st person singular feminine) || ''*ŋmu''
|-
| ŋundo || || n. || corpse, dead body || ''*ŋmudu''
|-
| ŋuŋgo || || pron. || (1st person plural exclusive) || ''*ŋmugbu'' (variant of ''*ŋmuŋmu'')
|-
| o || || n. || speech, language || ''*hu''
|-
| O Adāyo || || n. || the [[Doayâu]] language || (''o'' + ''adāyo'')
|-
| O Aduənu || || n. || the [[U Bol]] language || (''o'' + ''aduənu'')
|-
| O Aīshi || || n. || the [[Ishoʻu ʻOhu]] language || (''o'' + ''aīshi'')
|-
| O Ayōndui || || n. || the [[O Ayōndui]] language || ''*hu aeaunutul[ib]''
|-
| obe- || || v. || cut || ''*ubi-''
|-
| ōbimi || ōbimiⁿ- || n. || sky, air || ''*ahubimi'' ‘wind-place’
|-
| obiu || obīⁿ-, obiəm- || n. || knife || ''*ubium''
|-
| ōbohe- || || v. || be windy, be stormy (of weather) || ''*ahubusi-''
|-
| ōbuo || ōbōⁿ-, ōbōm-|| n. || fur || ''*huəb u hum'' ‘hair of animals’
|-
| odau || odaⁿ-, odam- || n. || fish || {{PTul|*udam}}
|-
| odini || || adj. || black, dark || {{PTul|*udin}}
|-
| odoni- || odoniⁿ- || v. || sweat, perspire || {{gray|''*uduni-''}}
|-
| odōppət(a)- || || v. || go fishing || (''odau'' + ''-^ppət(a)-'': ‘take fish’)
|-
| ogo || || n. || hand || ''*ugbu''
|-
| ogōmuⁿ- || || v. || touch, handle, take || ''*ugbu umu-'' ‘use the hand’
|-
| ogōñai || ogōñaiⁿ-, ogōñar- || n. || crew (of a ship) || ''*ugbulaŋal'' ‘many hands’
|-
| ōhaigə- || || v. || sing || ''*huəsaigba-''
|-
| ohonu || ohon(u)- || n. || tree || {{PTul|*hoson}}
|-
| ōhōu || ōhōⁿ-, ōhōm- || n. || song, tale, legend || ''*huəsaum'' ‘that which is sung’
|-
| oi || {{sc|ord}} ūi < ''*u hul'' ‘of three’ || num. || three || ''*hul''
|-
| oita || || n. || cave || ''*huita''
|-
| oizo || || n. || chest || ''*huigu'' ‘lung’
|-
| omeŋgə- || || v. || tame, train (of animals) || ''*humigbigba-'' ‘touch animals (mentally)’
|-
| omuⁿ- || || v. || be lazy || ''*humu'' ‘dull’
|-
| ōmūndu || || n. || hair || ''*huəb u mutu'' ‘hair of the head’
|-
| ōŋgana || ōŋganau-, ōŋgāmb^- || n. || stock breeder || ''*humukpanab'' ‘one who is facing towards animals’
|-
| oŋu || oŋuⁿ- || n. || captain (of a ship) || ''*huŋmu'' ‘leader’
|-
| ōpada || ōpadau-, ōpadab^- || n. || albatross || ''*ahupadab'' ‘one who is above the wind’
|-
| ōre || {{sc|ord}} ūre < ''*u hulai'' ‘of fifteen’ || num. || fifteen || ''*hulai''
|-
| ōssu- || || v. || be unhappy (about sth.) || ''*huəsaku[i]'' ‘not singing’
|-
| pai || pai-, paip- || n. || word || ''*paip'' ‘name’
|-
| pam(i)- || || v. || see, notice, perceive || ''*pam-''
|-
| pamīgə- || || v. || recognize, be familiar with || ''*pamiligba-'' ‘see and know (mentally)’
|-
| pānji- || || v. || sail, navigate || ''*pamiki-'' ‘see and turn’
|-
| pāŋa || pāŋa-, pāmb- || n. || fingernail, claw || ''*paŋmap''
|-
| pāŋaumuⁿ- || || v. || scratch || (''pāŋa'' + ''-(u)mu-'': ‘use the fingernails’)
|-
| papar(i)- || || v. || squeeze, put pressure on || ''*papal-''
|-
| papata- || || v. || shoot, throw (as a weapon) || {{PCW|phaphaʔta-}}
|-
| passai || passai-, passaip- || n. || copper || ''*pasakaəp'' ‘copper metal’
|-
| pata || || n. || forehead || {{PTul|*pata}} ‘roof’
|-
| paugə- || || v. || be surprised || ''*pauigba-'' (irr.)
|-
| paushim(i)- || || v. || be loud, make noise || ''*paukim-'' ‘be like an animal's cry’
|-
| pazui || pazuə- || n. || door || ''*pagui''
|-
| pēhə || || n. || tongue || ''*peasa''
|-
| pende || || n. || skin || {{PTul|*pente}}
|-
| pi || || pron. || which one? (interrogative) || ''*pi''
|-
| pībaigə- || || v. || say the truth, have a point || ''*piəbaigba-'' ‘be correct (in communication)’
|-
| pida- || || v. || be weak, be sick || {{UB|pída}} ‘weak, small’
|-
| piəni || piəniⁿ- || n. || basket || ''*peani''
|-
| pimə || pimaⁿ- || n. || laurel tree || ''*pima''
|-
| Pitomo || || top. || [[Kpitamoa]] (a city) || {{UB|Pítomo}}
|-
| pōe || || n. || mouth || ''*poahi''
|-
| pōessu- || || v. || be silent || ''*poahisiku[i]'' ‘have no mouth’
|-
| Puərubu || Puərubuⁿ-, Puərubum- || top. || [[Poalugbum]] (a city) || {{UB|Polubum}} (reconnected with ''Puəru'')
|-
| Puəru || || n. || Puəru (the goddess of the sea) || ''*Poalu''
|-
| puhə- || || v. || meet, gather || ''*pusa-''
|-
| puhəŋai || puhəŋaiⁿ-, puhəŋar- || n. || village square || (''puhə-'' + ''-(i)ŋai'')
|-
| puka || || n. || wine || ''*pukpa''
|-
| pūma || pūmau-, pūmb^- || n. || teenager, adolescent || ''*pumab'' ‘one who grows’
|-
| puŋgə- || || v. || learn, collect experience || ''*pumigba-'' ‘grow (mentally)’
|-
| pūra || || n. || gift || ''*pulaha''
|-
| pūrauhe- || || v. || give (as a gift) || (''pūra'' + ''-ohe-'' ‘gift-{{sc|vblz}}’)
|-
| pūva || pūvau-, pūvab^- || n. || star || ''*puvab''
|-
| puvo || || n. || road || ''*puvu''
|-
| puzuə- || || v. || clean, tidy up || ''*pugui-'' ‘wipe’
|-
| rab(e)- || || v. || crawl || ''*lab-''
|-
| raino || || n. || arm || {{PTul|*lagno}}
|-
| rairavo || || n. || sorcerer, magician (evil) || {{PCW|łàğlawo}} ‘priest’
|-
| raivo- || || v. || get ready, prepare for || {{gray|''*laəvu-''}}
|-
| rāmi || rāmi-, rāmir- || n. || field, arable land || ''*lamil'' ‘earth, soil’
|-
| ranahēu || ranahēⁿ-, ranahēm- || n. || concern, problem, issue || ''*lanaseam''
|-
| rāñi || rāñiⁿ- || n. || leather || ''*laŋea''
|-
| rāñēhe || || n. || armor || ''*laŋeasi'' ‘made from leather’
|-
| raŋgə- || || v. || imitate, pretend || {{PTul|*lam}} ‘exist’ + ''*-igba-''
|-
| rapimi || rapimiⁿ- || n. || water well (artificial) || ''*lapimi'' ‘water-place’
|-
| rapishi || || n. || nail, peg || ''*lapiki'' ‘finger‹{{sc|dim}}›’
|-
| rappada || rappadau-, rappadab^- || n. || bridge || ''*lapipadab'' ‘that which is above the water’
|-
| rari- || || v. || lick; taste || {{gray|''*lali-''}}
|-
| rashi || || n. || finger || ''*laki''
|-
| rashīmuⁿ- || || v. || point at || ''*laki umu-'' ‘use the finger’
|-
| ratui || ratuə- || n. || pole, column, mast || ''*latui'' ‘stick’
|-
| regə- || || v. || be friends with sb. || ''*ligba-'' ‘know (socially)’
|-
| regədo- || || v. || get to know sb. || (''regə-'' + ''-(i)do-'': ‘come to be friends with’)
|-
| rēhe || || n. || horse || {{PCW|łèzi}}
|-
| retta || rett(a)- || n. || beach || {{PTul|*lisat}} ‘sand’
|-
| reveti || revet(i)- || n. || link, connection || {{PTul|*lewet}} ‘neck’
|-
| riəmuⁿ- || || v. || know, remember || ''*liumu-'' ‘know and hold’
|-
| rim(i)- || || v. || be sour || ''*lim-''
|-
| riŋi || riŋiⁿ- || n. || wall (of a house) || ''*liŋmi''
|-
| roād(a)- || || v. || sink, dive || ''*loali t-'' ‘be below the ocean’
|-
| robūru || || n. || mermaid, sea-woman || ''*lubuəlu''
|-
| rojimi || rojimiⁿ- || n. || islet, rock in the water (too small to be inhabited) || ''*lugimi''
|-
| rondi || rond(i)- || n. || hole, opening, gap || {{PTul|*lomet}} ‘mouth’
|-
| rū || || n. || rack, frame || ''*loa'' ‘leg’
|-
| rūde || || n. || heart || {{PTul|*lubde}}
|-
| ruəka- || || v. || rub, wipe || ''*loakpa-''
|-
| rukana || rukanau-, rukāmb^- || n. || a person of [[Lukpanic languages|Lukpanic]] ethnicity || ''*lukpanab'' ‘one who is facing towards the sea’
|-
| rumi || rumiⁿ- || n. || island || ''*lumi''
|-
| runūha || runūhau-, runūhab^- || n. || a person of Western ethnicity || ''*lunuəsab'' ‘one who is facing away from the sea’
|-
| sa || {{sc|ord}} oppu < ''*u supu'' ‘of one’ || num. || one || ''*ka'' ‘each one’
|-
| sabe || || adv. || again (once) || ''*kabi''
|-
| sañēŋgə- || || v. || travel || ''*kaŋaigba-''
|-
| sāpi || sāpi-, sāpir- || n. || fire || ''*kapil''
|-
| sāpihe || sāpiQ°- || n. || ashes || (''sāpi'' + ''-^(e)he'': ‘made from fire’)
|-
| sapīdu || || n. || hearth, oven || ''*kapilutu'' ‘fire womb’
|-
| sapp(i)- || || v. || scream, cry || ''*kasap-'' ‘growl’
|-
| sasa- || || v. || drink || ''*kaka-''
|-
| sasau || sasauⁿ-, sasaum- || n. || litter (of animals) || ''*kakaəm''
|-
| sau || sauⁿ-, saum- || n. || baby animal || ''*kaəm''
|-
| sāva || sāvau-, sāvab^- || n. || neighbor || ''*kaoab'' ‘one who is near’
|-
| seda- || || v. || show, guide, explain || {{UB|sída}} ‘teach’
|-
| sedaigə- || || v. || teach, explain (knowledge) || (''seda-'' + ''-igə-'': ‘show (mentally)’)
|-
| sedauhe- || || v. || teach, show (how to do sth.) || (''seda-'' + ''-ohe-'': ‘show (physically)’)
|-
| sēhə || || adj. || sharp, hard, solid || ''*keasa'' ‘sharp’
|-
| sendou || sendōⁿ-, sendom- || n. || village || {{PTul|*kentom}}
|-
| sembu || semb(u)- || n. || edge, corner || {{PTul|*kenop}} ‘knee’
|-
| seti || || n. || grape || {{PTul|*ketye}}
|-
| seyēgi- || || v. || be broken, be useless, be unwanted || {{UB|seyeegí}} ‘junk, rubbish’
|-
| shī || || dem. || this || ''*kib'' ‘house; here’
|-
| shidə || || n. || man || ''*kida''
|-
| shigə- || || v. || change one's mind || ''*kigba-'' ‘turn (mentally)’
|-
| shīhe- || || v. || turn around, shift one's position || ''*kiusi-'' ‘turn (physically)’
|-
| shiəno || shiənoⁿ- || n. || seed || {{PTul|*kedno}}
|-
| shiəto || || n. || shovel || {{UB|šéto}}
|-
| shīgāza- || || v. || claim (as a possession); establish || {{UB|síigaasa}} ‘stick in the ground’
|-
| Shimeshita || || top. || [[Siŋmeasita]] (a city) || {{UB|Šiméšita}}
|-
| shindaⁿ- || || v. || dance || ''*kimadam-'' ‘turn repeatedly’
|-
| shinēⁿ- || || v. || be dry, be barren || {{PTul|*kinai}}
|-
| shippada || shippadau-, shippadab^- || n. || roof || ''*kibipadab'' ‘that which is above the house’
|-
| shīrə || || n. || year || {{PTul|*kikla}}
|-
| shizo- || || v. || go, move, be in motion || ''*kigu-'' ‘wave, wag’
|-
| sō- || || v. || be there, be present || ''*kau'' ‘near’
|-
| sūhe || || aux. || (negative; eventive non-past) || ''*[tu]kusip'' ‘does not do at all (physically)’
|-
| sui || suə-, sur- || adj. || small, short || ''*kul'' ‘short’
|-
| sūmbu || sūmbuⁿ-, sūmbum- || n. || shrine, sacred place || ''*kumupum''
|-
| Sūmi || Sūmiⁿ- || n. || Sūmi (the god of fate and of the weather) || ''*Kulami''
|-
| summi || summiⁿ- || n. || shoulder || ''*kuŋimi'' ‘arm-place’
|-
| sumūŋgə- || || v. || bless, consecrate || ''*kumuigba-''
|-
| sūnde || sūndī-, sūndib^- || n. || priest || ''*kumutib'' ‘consecrate-person’
|-
| suñāvi || suñaō+, suñaur- || n. || octopus || ''*kuŋi [u]eahul'' ‘eight arms’
|-
| suñi || suñiⁿ- || n. || oar (of a boat); handle (of a tool); branch (of a tree) || ''*kuŋi'' ‘arm’
|-
| sūshi || || aux. || (negative; eventive past) || ''*[tu]kuəki'' ‘did not do’
|-
| tābe || tābe-, tamb^- || n. || throat || ''*tabib''
|-
| Tāgabuŋai || Tāgabuŋaiⁿ-, Tāgabuŋar- || top. || the Western steppe || ({{UB|taagábue}} + ''-ŋai'': ‘grassland area’)
|-
| taihə || || n. || back (of the body) || ''*taəsa''
|-
| taira || taira-, tairap- || n. || wave (of water) || ''*taəl [u] lap'' ‘hill of water’
|-
| tambega || tambegau-, tambegab^- || n. || collar, leash || ''*tabibigbab'' ‘that which is touching the throat’
|-
| tamuⁿ- || || v. || be heavy, weigh (as much as) || ''*tamu-''
|-
| tamūŋgə- || || v. || be worried || ''*tamuigba-'' ‘be heavy (mentally)’
|-
| tanarə || tanā+, tanar- || n. || lake || {{PTul|*tanla}}
|-
| tañño || taññoⁿ- || n. || club (weapon) || ''*tamu ŋau'' ‘heavy club’
|-
| tapa || || dem. || other || ''*tapa''
|-
| Tarīnə || Tarīnaⁿ- || n. || Tarīnə (the goddess of fire and emotion) || ''*Taliəlina''
|-
| tatto || || n. || sign, symbol || {{PTul|*takto}}
|-
| tau || taⁿ-, tam- || n. || parsley || ''*tam''
|-
| tauhe- || || v. || sit || ''*tausi-''
|-
| tavāzo || || n. || bow (weapon) || {{PCW|thawògù}}
|-
| tazai || tazai-, tazar- || n. || shirt || {{PCW|tagala}} ‘cloth’
|-
| tazēppət(a)- || || v. || get dressed || (''tazai'' + ''-^ppət(a)-'': ‘take the shirt’)
|-
| tē- || {{sc|pst}} ''tui'' (t-); {{sc|irr/vol}} ''ta-'' || v. || (copula) || ''*t-'' ‘{{sc|copula}}’ + ''*ta-'' ‘sit’
|-
| Tēdai || Tēdai+, Tedair- || n. || Tēdai (the god of fertility and agriculture) || ''*Taəlitaəl''
|-
| tēi || || n. || cow, cattle || {{PTul|*tehi}}
|-
| tēŋau || tēŋaⁿ-, tēŋam- || n. || dune || ''*taəl u ŋmam'' ‘hill of sand’
|-
| teppo || || n. || leg || {{PTul|*teppo}}
|-
| tī || tī-, tib^- || n. || person || ''*tib''
|-
| tibe- || || v. || play || ''*tibi-''
|-
| tibiu || tibīⁿ-, tibiəm- || n. || toy || ''*tibium'' ‘that which is played with’
|-
| tiəri || || n. || lip || {{gray|''*teali''}}
|-
| tige- || || v. || be located at || ''*tigbi-'' ‘live’ (by association with ''*-igbi-'' ‘touching’)
|-
| tigīe- || || v. || dwell at || ''*tigbeai-'' ‘live (permanently)’
|-
| tihe- || || v. || draw, sketch || ''*tisi-'' ‘scratch’
|-
| tikkə- || || v. || invent, come up with, design || ''*tisigba-'' ‘draw (mentally)’
|-
| tīzai || tīzai-, tīzaip- || n. || tin || ''*tilakaəp'' ‘tin metal’
|-
| tō- || || v. || be cold || ''*tau-''
|-
| tu || || n. || bone || ''*tu''
|-
| tuəbə || || n. || cloud || ''*toaba''
|-
| tuədo || || n. || stone, rock || {{PTul|*togdu}}
|-
| tuədumi || tuədumiⁿ- || n. || cliff || {{PTul|*togdu}} + ''*-mi'': ‘rock-place’
|-
| tuəp(i)- || || v. || hunt || ''*tuip-''
|-
| tuəpīñi || tuəpiñī-, tuəpiñīmb^- || n. || hunter || ''*tuipiŋeab'' ‘one who hunts regularly’
|-
| tuəpu || tuəpuⁿ-, tuəpum- || n. || game animal, prey || ''*tuipum'' ‘that which is hunted’
|-
| tuəru- || || v. || laugh || ''*tuilu-''
|-
| tuərūdi- || || v. || smile (just a little bit) || (''tuəru-'' + ''-ːdi-'': ‘laugh-{{sc|atten}}’)
|-
| tūmmui || tūmmuəⁿ-, tūmmur- || n. || porridge || ''*tuəm u mul'' ‘porridge of buckwheat’
|-
| tūnə || tūnaⁿ- || n. || spike, thorn || {{gray|''*tuəna''}}
|-
| tuku- || || v. || kiss || ''*tukpu-'' ‘suck’
|-
| turai- || || v. || shine, glow || {{PTul|*tula}} ‘sun’ + ''-ai-'': ‘do as the sun does’
|-
| tusu- || || v. || do || ''*tuku-''
|-
| tusubo- || || v. || allow, permit || (''tusu-'' + ''-(a)bo-'': ‘let do’)
|-
| tusuboshi- || || v. || deny, forbid || (''tusubo-'' + ''-shi-'': ‘let not do’)
|-
| tusuəgə- || || v. || perform (of rituals) || ''*tukuigba-''
|-
| tuve || || n. || feather || ''*tuvi''
|-
| tuyōn(u)- || || v. || fly || {{PTul|*tuyon}}
|-
| ūdo || || n. || peak || {{PTul|*ugdo}} ‘mountain’
|-
| uəbe- || || v. || be wet || ''*oabi-''
|-
| uəda || uədau-, uədab^- || n. || cheek || {{gray|''*oadab'' ‘face’}}
|-
| uəsa- || || v. || break, destroy || {{gray|''*oaka-''}}
|-
| ūgan(i)- || || v. || be to the south of || ''*uəlikpani'' ‘facing towards the sun’
|-
| ūgai- || || v. || smell (emit scent) || ''*uəvoai-''
|-
| ūma || ūma-, ūmb^- || adj. || middle-sized || ''*ub mab'' ‘small and big’
|-
| umuⁿ- || || v. || use, hold, be equipped with || ''*umu-''
|-
| ūnda || || n. || wife || {{PTul|*wenta}} ‘woman’
|-
| undiəbe- || || v. || ebb away, recede, decrease, become less important || ''*ub deabai-'' ‘ebb smaller’
|-
| undiəbirūi || undiəbirū+, undiəbirūr- || n. || winter solstice || ''*ub deab [u] il uəl'' ‘low tide of the sun’
|-
| uñə || || cj. || and then, next || ''*uŋa''
|-
| ūo || ūo-, ūob^- || n. || grass || ''*uhub''
|-
| ūra || ūra-, ūrap- || n. || ebb, low tide || ''*ub lap'' ‘small water’
|-
| utu || || n. || womb || ''*utu''
|-
| ūvohe- || || v. || smell (perceive scent) || ''*uəvusi-''
|-
| ūze || ūzai- || n. || thing, item, piece || ''*ub gai'' ‘small piece’
|-
| uzubui || uzubuə- || n. || breast || {{UB|usubúi}}
|-
| vai || vai-, var- || adj. || empty, hungry, clean, lacking usual conditions || ''*val'' ‘dry’
|-
| vañi || vañiⁿ- || adj. || red, brown || ''*vaŋi''
|-
| vañīhe- || || v. || paint sth. red || ''*vaŋiusi-''
|-
| vaŋgana || vaŋganauⁿ-, vaŋgāmb^- || n. || wolf || ''*vamikpanab'' ‘one who is facing the moon’
|-
| varōu || varōⁿ-, varaum- || n. || set, collection || {{gray|''*oalaum'' ‘that which is put together’}}
|-
| vasu || || n. || house, building || ''*vaku''
|-
| vasuəga || vasuəgau-, vasuəgab^- || n. || inhabitant (of a house) || ''*vakuigb[e]ab'' ‘one who is in the house’
|-
| vau || vaⁿ-, vam- || n. || moon || ''*vam''
|-
| veri || vē+, ver- || adj. || good, nice, beautiful, valuable, useful || ''*vili''
|-
| vēyai || vēyai-, vēyaip- || n. || bronze || ''*vileaəp'' ‘fine metal’
|-
| viəsa || || n. || task, duty || ''*veaka''
|-
| viəsassu- || || v. || have fun, enjoy oneself || (''viəsa'' + ''-^ssu-'': ‘have no duties’)
|-
| vīhe- || || v. || cultivate (of crops) || ''*viusi-''
|-
| viñar(i) || || v. || collect, gather || ''*viŋal-''
|-
| vinda || || n. || ritual, ceremony || ''*vinita''
|-
| viŋə || viŋaⁿ- || n. || hibiscus || ''*viŋma''
|-
| vīu || vīⁿ-, viəm- || n. || seedling (of plants) || ''*vium'' ‘that which is planted’
|-
| vō || || n. || snake || ''*vau''
|-
| vōhe || vōhai- || n. || fig || ''*vusai''
|-
| voraigə- || || v. || gesture, make a sign || ''*vulaigba-''
|-
| vove- || || v. || be drunk, be intoxicated || (back-formed from ''vovēhe-''; reanalysed as containing ''-ohe-'')
|-
| vovēhe- || || v. || drink alcohol, take drugs || ''*vuveasi-'' (back-formed from ''*vuveasum'')
|-
| vovēho || vovēhoⁿ-, vovēhom- || n. || liquor || ''*vuveasum''
|-
| yādo || {{sc|ord}} uyādo < ''*u [u]eadu'' ‘of nine’ || num. || nine || ''*[u]eadu''
|-
| yāŋe || {{sc|ord}} uyāŋe < ''*u [u]eaŋmib'' ‘of seven’ || num. || seven || ''*[u]eaŋmib''
|-
| yassau || yassaⁿ-, yassam- || n. || people, ethnic group || {{PTul|*yatkam}} ‘tribe’
|-
| yatādai || || n. || captive, hostage || {{UB|iataadáya}} ‘slave’
|-
| yauhe- || || v. || stop, cease, halt || ''*eausi-''
|-
| yaunuⁿ- || || v. || rest, relax || {{PTul|*yabnu}} ‘sleep’
|-
| yē || || adv. || finally || ''*eai'' ‘stopping’
|-
| yēzaigə- || || v. || threaten, force, oblige || ({{UB|ieesá}} ‘push’ + ''-igə-'': ‘push (socially)’)
|-
| yēzauhe- || || v. || attack, strike || ({{UB|ieesá}} ‘push’ + ''-ohe-'': ‘push (physically)’)
|-
| yōi || {{sc|ord}} uyōi < ''*u [u]eahul'' ‘of eight’ || num. || eight || ''*[u]eahul''
|-
| Yōndui || Yōnduə-, Yōndur- || top. || the Yōndui islands || ''*eaunutul'' < {{PTul|*yabnu-tula}} ‘bed of the sun’
|-
| yoti- || || v. || lift, raise || {{PTul|*yotye}} ‘hold’
|-
| yūga || || n. || pig || {{UB|iúuga}}
|-
| yuru || yū+, yur- || n. || name || {{PTul|*yulu}}
|-
| zai || zai+, zair- || n. || knee || ''*gaəl''
|-
| zabau || {{sc|ord}} ombau < ''*u gabam'' ‘of twenty-five’ || num. || twenty-five || ''*gabam''
|-
| zanāŋge- || || v. || milk || ''*ganam gbi-'' ‘make milk’
|-
| zanau || zanaⁿ-, zanam- || n. || milk || ''*ganam''
|-
| ze || || pron. || (2nd person singular masculine) || ''*gi''
|-
| zēhēmi || zēhēmiⁿ- || n. || torch || ''*gai seami'' ‘burning thing’
|-
| zēte || zētī-, zētib^- || n. || whale || ''*gitib''
|-
| zo || || pron. || (2nd person singular feminine) || ''*gu''
|-
| zorehe || || n. || millet || {{PCW|ğulzi}}
|-
| zōtaigə- || || v. || find, discover || {{gray|''*gutaigba-''}}
|-
| zozo || || pron. || (2nd person plural) || ''*gugu''
|-
| zū || || dem. || that || ''*goa'' ‘origin; there’
|-
| zūnzo || || n. || eagle || {{PCW|ğogugu}}
|-
| zūru- || || v. || be dirty, be unordered || ''*guəlu-''
|-
|}

615 words.

[[Category:Lukpanic languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

O Ayōndui

2025-03-29T13:23:28Z

Cedh: update

{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = O Ayōndui
| phonetic = [o aˈjoːndui̯]
| date = c. -300 YP
| place = Yōndui islands (Lukpanic coast)
| speakers = c. 8,000
| script = Lukpanic script
| family = Lukpanic  Eaunutul dialect
| word-or = head-initial
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = unknown
| author = [[User:Dunomapuka|Dunomapuka]]; this dialect: [[User:Cedh|Cedh]]
}}

This is a short description of the [[Lukpanic languages|Lukpanic]] dialect spoken on the Yōndui islands off the southwestern corner of the Lukpanic Coast. The dialect is fairly innovative phonologically and exhibits several developments that are unique within the Lukpanic family (e.g. palatalisation of original velars, phonemic vowel length, consonant gemination, and a series of prenasalised voiced stops). Due to its isolated location, the Yōndui dialect has experienced comparatively little [[Western languages|Western]] influence, and is in no immediate danger of extinction.

The name '''Yōndui''' is a reflex of {{PL|*eaunutul}}, borrowed from the local Tulameya dialect (ultimately from [[Proto-Tulameya]] ''*yabnu-tula'' ‘bed of the sun’).

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!     labial    
! alveolar
!   palatal  
!     velar    
!    glottal   
|-
! plosive
| p · b · mb
| t · d · nd
|
| k · ɡ · ŋɡ
|
|-
! affricate
|
| ndz
| {{gray|ɲdʑ}}
|
|
|-
! fricative
| f · v
| s · z
| {{gray|ɕ · ʑ}}
|
| h
|-
! nasal
| m
| n
| ɲ
| ŋ
|
|-
! approximant
|
| ɺ
| j
|
|
|}

* The sibilants /s z ndz/ essentially pattern as a fourth set of plosives; this is because most instances of these phonemes are reflexes of Proto-Lukpanic velar stops.
* /ndz ɲ ŋ ŋɡ ɡ ɺ j/ are written '''nz ñ ŋ ŋg g r y'''.
* [ɕ ʑ ɲdʑ] are allophones of /s z ndz/ before /i iː iə̯/. They are written '''sh j nj'''.
* /p t k f s m n ɲ ŋ ɺ/ can appear as geminates in word-medial position, written '''pp tt kk ff ss mm nn ññ ŋŋ rr'''. Geminate /ss/ becomes [ɕː] (written '''ssh''') before /i iː iə̯/. Geminate /ɺɺ/ is typically pronounced as a trill [rː], but may also appear as [lː], especially on the easternmost islands.
* Non-geminated /f/ is fairly rare, but it does contrast with /v/ both word-initially and intervocalically.

===Vowels===
{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i · iː
|
| u · uː
|-
! Mid
| e · eː
| ə
| o · oː
|-
! Low
|
| a · aː
|
|}

* Long vowels are written with a macron: '''ī ē ā ō ū'''
* Vowel hiatus is fairly common, but the combinations /ai̯ au̯ iə̯ uə̯/ (plus /iu̯ ui̯/ in word-final position) are much more frequent than other vowel sequences. Since these specific combinations are also pronounced as a single syllable, they are analysed as phonemic diphthongs, written '''ai au iə uə iu ui'''.
* Vowels after a nasal and vowels before a prenasalised consonant are allophonically nasalised, but vowels before a plain nasal are not.

===Phonotactics and prosody===
Syllable structure is mostly (C)V. Coda consonants only appear in the form of the first half of geminate consonants in word-medial position.

O Ayōndui has a light dynamic stress accent coupled with higher pitch, which generally falls on the third-to-last mora in a word. This means that the antepenultimate syllable is accented, unless the penultimate syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or is followed by a geminate consonant. In those situations, or when the word has only two syllables, the accent falls on the penultimate syllable instead. (It's worth noting that a word-final falling diphthong /ai au ui iu/ generally does not count as dimoraic, unlike vowel sequences in other positions.)

A rare but significant exception is that long vowels in a word-final syllable override the usual stress rules and pull the accent onto themselves. As long vowels do not occur in word-final position when unaccented, this irregularity does not need to be marked in the orthography though.

===Sound changes from Proto-Lukpanic===
* Prevocalic [ku ko], [ɡu ɡo vu vo], and [ŋu ŋo] sporadically merge with [kp], [ɡb], and [ŋm].
* [k ɡ ŋ] are fronted to [c ɟ ɲ].
* [kp ɡb ŋm] are simplified to [k ɡ ŋ].
* Unstressed [ai au] become [eː oː] when not preceded or followed by a vowel.
* Vowels preceded by one of [m n ɲ ŋ] are nasalised, causing a following plosive to acquire prenasalisation.
* Word-final [m l] are vocalised to [u i].
* In other positions, [l] shifts to a lateral flap [ɺ].
* [i e] shift to [j] when intervocalic or when followed by a long vowel or two consecutive vowels, and [u o] shift to [w] in the same environment. Additionally, [ea oa iu ui] become [ja wa ju wi] whenever preceded by [h], except when stressed on the first mora of the diphthong.
* [i a u] become [e ə o] adjacent to [b d ɟ ɡ s h]. [a] also becomes [ə] word-finally, and [i u] also become [e o] after [j w v]. However, vowels after a voiceless plosive are not affected except before word-final [b], vowels before a nasal consonant or before a word-final [ɺi] or [ɺu] sequence are usually not affected, and all stressed instances of [ə] later shift back to [a].
* Word-final [p b] are deleted with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.
* [iə uə aə] shift to [iː uː ai]. After this, [ea oa] become [eː oː] when adjacent to one of [s h], and raise to [iə uə] otherwise.
* Sequences of the shape HeH HoH HəH (where H {{--}} [s h]) metathesize to HHje HHwo HHə, even if the vowel carries stress.
* Unstressed short vowels are deleted between two (near-)identical consonants, between [h] and a semivowel, between one of [s h] and an obstruent, and between one of [ɺ m n ɲ ŋ] and a plosive or nasal. (Some instances of deleted vowels are later restored by analogy with related words where they were stressed and hence not deleted.)
* Cluster simplification:
** [hj sj] become [ɕ], and [hw sw] become [f].
** Voiced plosives become nasals before another voiced plosive.
** Voiceless plosives become voiced after [ɺ] or a nasal.
** Voiced obstruents become voiceless adjacent to a voiceless consonant.
** [h s] assimilate completely into a following obstruent, forming a geminate.
** Geminate [vv] is devoiced to [ff].
** Nasals assimilate in POA to a following consonant.
** Clusters of a nasal and a plosive merge with the prenasalised plosives, which end up voiced in all positions.
* [h] is deleted, but geminate [hh] remains.
* [s] debuccalises to [h], but geminate [ss] remains.
* Sequences of two adjacent short vowels are simplified as follows:
** Two identical short vowels become a single long vowel.
** [eə ea ia ie] and word-medial [io iu] all merge into [iə].
** [oə oa ua uo] and word-medial [ue ui] all merge into [uə].
** [ae əe əi] all merge into [ai], and [ao əo əu] all merge into [au].
** Word-final [io ue] merge into [iu ui].
** [eo oe] merge into [eu oi].
** [ai au] become [eː oː] before a coda consonant.
* [h] is deleted when the preceding syllable also starts with [h].
* Geminate [hh] is simplified, and coda [ɺ] is deleted, both with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. However, geminate [ɺɺ] remains, and shifts to a trilled [rr].
* Intervocalic [i u] become [j w], and sequences of three or more vowels are sometimes separated by an epenthetic [ɰ], which quickly shifts to [j] after front vowels, and to [w] after back vowels. [j ɰ] then become [ʑ] before [i iː iə] and after [ai oi], and [w ɰ] become [v] before [u uː uə] and after [au eu].
* [w] merges into [v] in word-initial and intervocalic positions.
* The clusters [kj ŋɡj ɡj ŋj nj] undergo secondary palatalisation to [c ɲɟ ɟ ɲ ɲ], and [ss] becomes [ɕɕ] before [i iː iə]
* [c ɟ ɲɟ] shift to [ɕ ʑ ɲdʑ].
* [ɕ ʑ ɲdʑ] become [s z ndz] before all vowels other than [i iː iə].
* Prosodic restructuring:
** [iə uə] become [iː uː] in unstressed word-final position, before a prenasalised plosive, before [h] or their corresponding semivowel, and when adjacent to another vowel.
** [jə] becomes [i] after [a] or a long vowel other than [iː], and [e] otherwise. Likewise, [wə] becomes [u] after [a] or a long vowel other than [uː], and [o] otherwise.
** Remaining postconsonantal [j w] become syllabic, giving [e o] before [e a o], and [i u] otherwise.
** Long [əː] merges with [aː], and word-final short [ə] shifts to [a] if the preceding syllable also has [ə].
** Word-final [e o] raise to [i u] if the preceding syllable contains unstressed [i u].
** Unstressed long vowels are shortened before a geminate consonant and word-finally, and stressed short vowels in the penultimate syllable are lengthened (a) in compensation for the shortening of a word-final long vowel, and (b) when preceded by an unstressed syllable unless also followed by a geminate consonant or a final-syllable diphthong.
** In sequences of two vowels of the same quality, the shorter or less accented vowel dissimilates in height (e.g. [iːi eːe aːa oːo uːu] → [iːe eːi aːe oːu uːo]).

===Example phrases===
* ''*gbagba lukpani'' "the people facing toward the sea" > '''gagə rukani'''
* ''*mitalai iəta'' "the river flows" > '''ndāre īta'''
* ''*hupusi sumi'' "it's raining" > '''opuhi homi'''
* ''*gbiusi liŋmili'' "[they] are building the wall" > '''gīhe riŋiri'''
* ''*tukuigba vinitali'' "[they] are performing a ceremony" > '''tusuəgə vinindari'''
* ''*ŋanaigba...'' "[someone] is saying..." > '''ñanēŋgə'''
* ''*gbikiŋibita neamali'' "He builds boats [apparently; so I heard]" > '''geshiñimbeta ñamari'''
* ''*gbiusiŋmaukeab'' "one who isn't going to build a boat." > '''gīheŋōnji'''
* ''*haŋmoausigilip daəb disili'' "I don't think the woman will stab her husband" > '''əŋūohezeri dai deheri'''
* ''*naəpal nali'' "the vomiting baby" > '''nēmbai nari'''
* ''*daəb huəsadai'' "the woman [that I see is] singing" > '''dai ōhāde'''
* ''*pamigbaul ŋma tuipili'' "I witnessed the hunting" > '''pamiŋgōi ŋa tuəpiri'''

NOTE: the above just illustrates the sound changes; it does not accurately represent O Ayōndui grammar.

===Morphophonological alternations===
====Vowel lengthening====
Certain suffixes cause morphologically conditioned ''lengthening'' of a preceding short vowel or diphthong. This is marked with a colon '''‹ː›'''. In addition, stressed short vowels in the penultimate syllable of a word with at least three syllables are prosodically lengthened unless they are followed by a geminate consonant or a word-final diphthong, and underlying word-final vowel length is always transferred to an immediately preceding stressed vowel.

The alternations found in morphophonological lengthening are mostly straightforward. However, there are some irregularities with the centering diphthongs /iə̯ uə̯/, which may both lengthen in two different ways depending on their historical source.
* '''i e a o u''' → '''ī ē ā ō ū'''
* '''ə''' → '''ā'''
* '''ai au''' → '''ē ō'''
* '''iə uə''' → '''eā oā''' (when derived from PL ''*ea *oa'') or '''iū uī''' (when derived from PL ''*iu *ui'')

====Vowel laxing and tensing====
When followed by /h/ or preceded by one of /v h b mb d nd z ndz ɡ ŋɡ/, vowels may sometimes undergo a shift in quality which is known as ''laxing''. This is marked with a circumflex '''‹^›'''. However, the shift is blocked after a voiceless plosive, and for short vowels also before a nasal or a prenasalised consonant.
* '''i a u''' → '''e ə o'''
* '''ī ū''' → '''ē ō'''
* '''iə uə''' → '''ē ō'''
The reverse process, called ''vowel tensing'', also occurs. For short vowels, it is general before nasals and prenasalised consonants. In all other positions, vowel tensing is marked with a caron '''‹ˇ›'''. Note that this process may have the side effect of triggering palatalisation of preceding '''s z nz''' to '''sh j nj''' when they come to be followed by one of /i iː iə̯/.

====Gemination====
In certain morphological environments, consonants may be affected by ''gemination'' (or, for voiced obstruents, prenasalisation). This is marked with the archiphoneme symbol '''‹Q›''' at morpheme boundaries. In addition to this, gemination sometimes occurs lexically when an unstressed vowel is deleted between two (nearly) identical consonants.
* '''p t s sh k''' → '''pp tt ss ssh kk'''
* '''m n ñ ŋ''' → '''mm nn ññ ŋŋ'''
* '''f r''' → '''ff rr'''
* '''v h''' → '''ff ss'''
* '''b d z j g''' → '''mb nd nz nj ŋg'''
Occasionally, affixes may trigger a second type of gemination which works identically for the most part, except that voiced plosives shift to voiceless geminates '''pp tt ss ssh kk''', effectively merging with the voiceless plosives. This variant is marked as '''‹Q°›'''.

Both variants of gemination cause immediately preceding diphthongs /ai au/ to monophthongise into '''ē ō'''.

====Prenasalisation====
Obstruent consonants usually undergo ''prenasalisation'' when preceded by a syllable starting with a nasal consonant. Where this happens for morphological reasons, it is marked with a superscript '''‹ⁿ›'''.
* '''p t s sh k''' → '''mb nd nz nj ŋg'''
* '''b d z j g''' → '''mb nd nz nj ŋg'''
As a side effect, prenasalisation causes immediately preceding diphthongs /ai au ui uə iu iə/ to become long monophthongs '''ē ō ū ū ī ī'''.

====Obstruent voicing====
Voiceless obstruents may sometimes undergo ''voicing'' without prenasalisation. This process happens when they are preceded by a long vowel which represents an underlying '''-VrV-''' sequence. When followed by a vowel, the /r/ reappears, and the vowel is generally shortened. This type of morpheme boundary is marked with a plus sign '''‹+›'''.

==Inflectional morphology==
O Ayōndui is a strongly agglutinating language, and words of any part of speech may feature a large number of affixes. However, only a handful of these morphemes are syntactically required on noun phrases or finite verbs, and thus clearly inflectional in character.

===Verbal inflection===
====Tense, modality, and evidentiality====
True inflection on the O Ayōndui verb itself consists of only seven overt morphemes (two prefixes and five suffixes) with temporal, modal, and evidential meanings. It can be summed up as follows:

{| {{softtable|c}}
|- class="bg2 b l"
| modality A || STEM || tense & modality B || certainty & evidentiality
|- class="l t"
|
Ø- indicative 
'''su-''' ({{sc|imp}}) imperative 
'''u-''' ({{sc|opt}}) optative
|
''(contains the root, and often also one or more derivational morphemes)''
|
-Ø- present 
'''-ui, -vi, -ū-''' ({{sc|pst}}) completed past 
'''-ːji, -jī-''' ({{sc|irr}}) future, potential, irrealis 
'''-ːŋo, -ŋōⁿ-''' ({{sc|vol}}) future, intentional, volitional
|
-Ø- normal 
'''-də''' ({{sc|aff}}) affirmative, secure evidence available 
'''-tta''' ({{sc|hsy}}) speculation, hearsay
|}

* The imperative and optative prefixes (which have been borrowed from the local Tulameya dialect) do not co-occur with the irrealis and volitional suffixes. Marking a verb both for imperative/optative and for the past tense is rare, but grammatical.
* The past tense suffix is '''-ui''' ('''-vi''' after the vowels /i iː e eː a aː ə/, and just '''-i''' after /oː uː/) when word-final, and '''-ū-''' when followed by an evidential suffix. When immediately preceded by /h/, the suffix appears as '''-oi/-ō-''', and it combines with preceding short /o u/ into '''-ōi, -ūi''' word-finally and '''-uō-''' when followed by an evidential suffix.
* The irrealis suffix is '''-ːji''' when word-final (with lengthening of a preceding short vowel), and '''-jī-''' when followed by an evidential suffix. When preceded by a syllable of the shape NVː, the suffix appears as '''-nji/-njī-'''. It combines with preceding /m n ɲ ŋ z ʑ/ followed by a short vowel into '''-ːnji/-njī-''', and with preceding /h s ɕ/ followed by a short vowel into '''-sshi/-sshī-'''. Note that lengthening of a preceding short vowel does not occur before the '''-sshi''' allomorph.
* The volitional suffix is '''-ːŋo''' when word-final (with lengthening of a preceding short vowel), '''-ŋōn-''' when followed by the affirmative evidential, and '''-ŋō-''' when followed by the hearsay evidential.
* The affirmative suffix combines with preceding /m n ɲ ŋ d t/ followed by a short vowel into '''-ːndə'''. It also appears as '''-ndə''' when preceded by a syllable of the shape NVː.

====Negation====
Negation is expressed with a special negative auxiliary verb, which precedes the main verb and appears in a total of four forms:

* '''sūhe''' ({{sc|neg}}) ‘does not do’ (used with eventive verbs in all non-past variants)
* '''sūshi''' ({{sc|neg.pst}}) ‘did not do’ (used with eventive verbs in the past tense)
* '''ñē''' ({{sc|neg.cop}}) ‘is not’ (used with stative predicates in all non-past variants)
* '''ñui''' ({{sc|neg.cop.pst}}) ‘was not’ (used with stative predicates in the past tense)

===Nominal inflection===
====Number====
Number marking in O Ayōndui offers three options:
* The unmarked form of a noun can be used not only with a ''singular'' meaning, but also with a plural meaning in some situations (e.g. with numerals and other quantifiers, and in generic statements).
* The ''plural'' ({{sc|pl}}) is marked with the phrase-level enclitic '''{{--}}bai''', which becomes '''{{--}}bē-''' before the definite article and '''{{--}}bar-''' before a vowel (which happens only when the plural-marked noun is used as a base for further derivation). It is used mostly for groups consisting of several specific individuals, often with a distributive or even pluractional shade of meaning, or with the implication that the size of the group is remarkable in some way.
* The ''collective'' ({{sc|coll}}) is marked with a phrase-level enclitic that appears as '''{{--}}ːmi''' word-finally (with lengthening of a preceding short vowel), as '''{{--}}mē-''' before the definite article, as '''{{--}}miəⁿ-''' before a consonant otherwise, and as '''{{--}}mī-''' before a vowel. It is used to refer to groups conceptualized as a whole, and it may also indicate that all members of the group are exhaustively referenced at the same time.

====Focus, possession and definiteness====
Noun phrases may also be marked with one out of three different determiner-like morphemes:
* The ''definite article'' ({{sc|def}}) is a phrase-level enclitic that appears as '''{{--}}^sso''' word-finally, as '''{{--}}^h^-''' before a vowel (which happens only when the definiteness-marked noun is used as a base for further derivation), and as '''{{--}}^Q-''' before a consonant (i.e. as morphologically conditioned gemination). It is used for noun phrases that have already been established in the discourse and whose referent is known to both speaker and listener.
* The ''construct state marker'' ({{sc|cnstr}}) is a phrase-level enclitic that usually appears as '''{{--}}u''', attaching to the prevocalic extended stem form for nouns that have one. It replaces preceding short /i e/; when replacing the latter, the clitic appears as '''{{--}}o'''. After /u uː/ it appears as '''{{--}}ːo''', and between two vowels it appears as '''{{--}}v-'''. It is used to indicate that a noun is possessed, most typically in a semantically inalienable relationship. For details about its usage see [[#Possessive constructions|Possessive constructions]].
* The ''focus marker'' ({{sc|foc}}) appears as '''{{--}}ñu''' word-finally, as '''{{--}}ñuⁿ-''' before non-nasal consonants, as '''{{--}}ñ-''' before vowels, and as '''{{--}}Q-''' (i.e. gemination) before nasals. It is used for noun phrases singled out by the speaker as "important" in some way, typically with contrastive emphasis. The focus marker is syntactically distinct from all other nominal morphology in that it operates as an enclitic not on the phrase level, but on the word level, so that it can also appear on non-final words in a noun phrase in order to draw attention to these words. (In the most innovative dialects, it can even be attached to other sentence constituents including verbs and adverbs.)

====Core cases====
There are two core cases in O Ayōndui:
* The ''nominative'' ({{sc|nom}}) is unmarked and functions as the citation form of a noun. It is used for the subjects of intransitive verbs, for the most agent-like argument of transitive verbs, for both arguments of non-verbal predicates, and as a default case in a couple of other situations.
* The ''accusative'' ({{sc|acc}}) is marked with the phrase-final enclitic '''{{--}}ri'''. It is used for the most patient-like argument of monotransitive verbs, for the recipient or experiencer argument of ditransitive verbs (but not for the theme argument, which means that ditransitive alignment in O Ayōndui is secundative), and also in a few specific situations elsewhere.

====Relational pseudo-cases====
In addition to the two core cases, O Ayōndui has a set of nine relational morphemes with adposition-like meanings which cliticise to the end of their referent noun phrase, and thus function more or less like a large extended case system. Morphologically, however, they are neither true case suffixes nor true enclitic postpositions, because they need to be extended with the attributive suffix '''-i''' in order to function as a full relational phrase (cf. the second column of the table below). Since this /i/ is always removed when the relationals serve as a base for further derivational processes, these so-called "pseudo-cases" are best described as derivational extensions themselves.
{| {{softtable}}
|- class="bg2 b l"
| morpheme || extended || gloss || function || translation
|-
| '''{{--}}tu-''' || '''{{--}}tui''' || {{sc|loc/gen}} || locative-genitive || ‘at, on, of, belonging to’
|-
| '''{{--}}naⁿ-''' || '''{{--}}ːne''' || {{sc|ade}} || adessive || ‘near, in sight of, in front of’
|-
| '''{{--}}(i)g^-''' || '''{{--}}(i)ge''' || {{sc|ine/part}} || inessive-partitive || ‘in, inside of, part of, made of’
|-
| '''{{--}}kan-''' || '''{{--}}kani''' || {{sc|lat/ben}} || lative-benefactive || ‘towards, for, in order to, before, until’
|-
| '''{{--}}nūh^-''' || '''{{--}}nūhe''' || {{sc|abl/avers}} || ablative-aversive || ‘from, due to, avoiding, in spite of, after, since’ 
|-
| '''{{--}}nz^-''' || '''{{--}}ːnze''' || {{sc|perl}} || perlative || ‘among, between, through, across, during, while’
|-
| '''{{--}}^h^-''' || '''{{--}}he''' || {{sc|com}} || comitative || ‘along with, having’
|-
| '''{{--}}(u)muⁿ-''' || '''{{--}}(u)mui''' || {{sc|instr}} || instrumental || ‘with, by, using’
|-
| '''{{--}}shim-''' || '''{{--}}shimi''' || {{sc|ess/mod}} || essive-modal || ‘as, like, in the role of, in the manner of’
|-
|}

* The morpheme-initial /i/ of the inessive-partitive pseudo-case is deleted after long vowels, diphthongs, and short /i e/. It combines with preceding /a ə/ into '''ai''', and with preceding /u o/ into '''uə'''.
* The morpheme-initial /u/ of the instrumental pseudo-case is deleted after diphthongs. It combines with preceding /a ə/ into '''au''', and surfaces as lengthening of any other preceding short vowel. After long /uː/ it appears as '''o'''.
* The adessive pseudo-case combines with following short /i e/ into '''{{--}}ːne''' when word-final, and into '''{{--}}nēⁿ-''' otherwise. The equivalent combinations with following short /u o/ are '''{{--}}ːno''' and '''{{--}}nōⁿ-'''.
* The comitative pseudo-case surfaces as '''{{--}}^Q°-''' (i.e. voiceless gemination) before any obstruent consonant. The ablative-aversive behaves similarly and appears as '''{{--}}nūQ°-''' in the same position.
* When preceded by the definite article, the comitative marker is itself geminated to '''{{--}}^ff^-'''.
* The inessive-partitive, ablative-aversive, perlative, and comitative pseudo-cases cause following /i a u iː uː iə̯ uə̯/ to undergo vowel laxing and thus to appear as '''e ə o ē ō ē ō'''.
* The perlative morpheme appears in the allomorph '''{{--}}ːnz^-''' (with lengthening of a preceding short vowel) whenever it forms the onset of a word-final syllable.

==Derivation==
===Verbalisation===
As mentioned above, the relational pseudo-cases are best characterised as derivational morphemes; in particular, as verbalisers. Most of the pseudo-cases transparently create locative verbs, although it is not always predictable whether a given derivation will have stative or dynamic semantics:
* '''retta''' ‘beach’ → '''rettatu-''' ‘be at the beach’ (locative)
* '''sendou''' ‘village’ → '''sendōnaⁿ-''' ‘be near the village’ (adessive)
* '''vasu''' ‘house’ → '''vasuəg(e)-''' ‘be inside the house’ (inessive)
* '''getai''' ‘forest’ → '''getaikan(i)-''' ‘go towards the forest’ (lative)
* '''āo''' ‘wind’ → '''āonūh(e)-''' ‘go away from the wind (i.e. with the wind in one's back)’ (ablative)
* '''rāmi''' ‘field, arable land’ → '''rāminz(e)-''' ‘go across the field’ (perlative)

The comitative '''-^h^-''' tends to create stative verbs that describe a property for which the base noun plays an indirect role, sometimes metaphorically:
* '''nēmbai''' ‘baby’ → '''nēmbaih(ə)-''' ‘be pregnant’
* '''naivo''' ‘belly, stomach’ → '''naivoh(ə)-''' ‘be strong, be sturdy’

The instrumental '''-(u)muⁿ-''' creates verbs that denote an activity in which the (typically inanimate) base noun plays a central role, usually as a tool or as an intermediate participant:
* '''ogo''' ‘hand’ → '''ogōmuⁿ-''' ‘touch, handle, take’
* '''aihə''' ‘wing’ → '''aihaumuⁿ-''' ‘flap the wings’
* '''dūmi(ⁿ)''' ‘sail (of a boat)’ → '''dūmīmuⁿ-''' ‘travel by sailing’
* '''īdehe''' ‘arrow’ → '''īdehēmuⁿ-''' ‘shoot (arrows)’
* '''gōzu''' ‘warrior’ → '''gōzūmuⁿ-''' ‘fight (collectively), be at war with’

The essive-modal '''-shim(i)-''' creates stative verbs that describe a typical property or activity of the referent of the base noun, often based on the idea that the current subject of the verb acts in a similar manner:
* '''odau(ⁿ)''' ‘fish’ → '''odanjim(i)-''' ‘be a good swimmer’
* '''nēmbai''' ‘baby, toddler’ → '''nēmbaishim(i)-''' ‘be clumsy’
* '''gōzu''' ‘warrior’ → '''gōzushim(i)-''' ‘be brave, show courage’

'''-t(a)-''' forms stative or inchoative verbs that describe a typical property or activity of the referent of the base noun. This is often semantically similar to the essive-modal pseudo-case, but the connection is generally more abstract and sometimes idiomatic. (← ''*t(a)-'' ‘{{sc|cop}}’)
* '''eshi''' ‘ice’ → '''eshit(a)-''' ‘freeze’
* '''gaugu(ⁿ)''' ‘member of the village council’ → '''gaugund(a)-''' ‘take responsibility’

The same suffix '''-t(a)-''' may also be used to convert lexical adjectives into verbs, typically with slightly emphatic semantics:
* '''bohə''' ‘odd, strange, unusual’ → '''bott(a)-''' ‘stand out; violate the traditions; make a mistake’

'''-^ssu-''' forms privative verbs (‘be without X, lack X’), often with slightly idiomatic semantics. (← ''*-siku(i)'' ‘not having’)
* '''hebe''' ‘eye’ → '''hebessu-''' ‘be blind’
* '''mānzu''' ‘salt’ → '''mānzossu-''' ‘taste bland; be boring’
* '''viəsa''' ‘task, duty’ → '''viəsassu-''' ‘have fun, enjoy oneself’

'''-^ppət(a)-''' forms verbs that describe the process of taking or acquiring the referent of the base noun. The final /a/ is deleted before a vowel. (← PTul. ''*subat'' ‘get’)
* '''odau(ⁿ)''' ‘fish’ → '''odōppət(a)-''' ‘go fishing’
* '''tazai''' ‘shirt’ → '''tazēppət(a)-''' ‘get dressed’

'''-(i)ge-''' forms factitive verbs that describe the process of producing the referent of the base noun. The suffix appears as '''-(i)gi-''' before vowels, nasals and prenasalised consonants; the initial /i/ surfaces only after a consonant. (← ''*gbi-'' ‘build’)
* '''kōppo''' ‘yarn, thread’ → '''kōppoge-''' ‘spin, make yarn’
* '''zanau(ⁿ)''' ‘milk’ (n.) → '''zanāŋge-''' ‘milk’ (v.)

'''-(i)do-''' forms inchoative verbs that describe becoming something (with nouns), acquiring a quality (with adjectives and stative verbs), or the beginning of an action or process (with dynamic verbs). The suffix appears as '''-(i)du-''' before vowels, nasals and prenasalised consonants; the initial /i/ surfaces only after a consonant. (← ''*du-'' ‘come’)
* '''mō''' ‘mother’ → '''mōndo-''' ‘give birth’
* '''dui''' ‘big’ → '''duədo-''' ‘grow’
* '''regə-''' ‘be friends with sb.’ → '''regədo-''' ‘get to know sb.’

'''-guni-''' forms intensive verbs, attaching to verbal and adjectival stems. With semantically stative stems, it is often used to denote a comparatively higher degree of the quality expressed by the base. (← ''*gbunea-'' ‘swell’)
* '''hamuⁿ-''' ‘pull’ → '''hamuŋguni-''' ‘pull strongly, pull tight’
* '''dui''' ‘big’ → '''duəguni-''' ‘be bigger than’

Similarly, '''-ːdi-''' forms attenuative verbs, attaching to verbal and adjectival stems. With semantically stative stems, it is often used to denote a comparatively lower degree of the quality expressed by the base. The suffix appears as '''-ːdeb-''' before a vowel. (← ''*deab-'' ‘ebb’)
* '''tuəru-''' ‘laugh’ → '''tuərūdi-''' ‘smile (a little)’
* '''nombə-''' ‘be warm’ → '''nombādi-''' ‘be less warm than’

'''-igə-''' forms verbs denoting perception, emotion, communication, or social behavior, attaching to any part of speech. The suffix appears as '''-ːgə-''' after a vowel other than short /a ə/. In older formations, preceding vowels are sometimes not lengthened. (← ''*-igba-'')
* '''ebedə-''' ‘float’ → '''ebedaigə-''' ‘waver, hesitate, have no idea what to do’
* '''añaⁿ-''' ‘exert influence on’ → '''añaigə-''' ‘urge, convince, persuade’
* '''hēm(i)-''' ‘burn, be on fire’ → '''hēŋgə-''' ‘be angry’
* '''hōre''' ‘blood’ → '''hōrēgə-''' ‘hurt (emotionally)’
* '''tamuⁿ-''' ‘be heavy’ → '''tamūŋgə-''' ‘be worried’

'''-ohe-''' is a very common verbaliser which forms dynamic verbs denoting physical actions, attaching to any part of speech. The suffix appears as '''-uhe-''' after /a ə/ and as '''-ːhe-''' after other vowels. Before a derivational suffix starting with an obstruent, the morpheme surfaces as '''-oQ°-''' / '''-uQ°-''' / '''-ːQ°-''' respectively (i.e. with voiceless gemination). Again, older formations do not always exhibit the expected vowel lengthening. (← ''*-usi-'')
* '''vove-''' ‘be drunk, be intoxicated’ → '''vovēhe-''' ‘drink alcohol, take drugs’
* '''añaⁿ-''' ‘exert influence on’ → '''añauhe-''' ‘push, shove’
* '''pūra''' ‘gift’ → '''pūrauhe-''' ‘give (as a gift)’
* '''kayo''' ‘wood’ → '''kayōhe-''' ‘carve’
* '''homi(ⁿ)''' ‘rain’ → '''homīhe-''' ‘be raining (of weather)’
* '''vañi(ⁿ)''' ‘red’ → '''vañīhe-''' ‘paint sth. red’

'''-ai-''' forms gnomic stative verbs that refer to timeless or recurring natural processes or general states of affairs. It may attach to verbs and adjectives. The suffix appears as '''-ːi''' after a vowel (with preceding /i/ lowering to /e/ and preceding /e/ raising to /i/) and as '''-ːCe''' in word-final position after a consonant. (← ''*-ai'')
* '''buəmi-''' ‘return; continue’ → '''buəmēi-''' ‘flow (of tides)’
* '''tige-''' ‘be located at’ → '''tigīe-''' ‘dwell at’

'''-iñiⁿ-''' forms verbs that denote habitual activities, attaching to both verbs and adjectives. The suffix appears as '''-ːñiⁿ-''' after a vowel other than short /a ə/. Note that the initial /i/ is immune to vowel laxing. (← ''*-iŋi-'')
* '''abo-''' ‘give’ → '''abōñiⁿ-''' ‘be generous’
* '''dīsu-''' ‘trade, exchange’ → '''dīsūñiⁿ-''' ‘trade regularly, be a merchant’

'''-sa-''' forms verbs that denote a single repetition of an action or process, attaching only to verbal stems. The suffix appears as '''-sā-''' before non-geminated resonants and before prenasalised stops, as '''-sau-''' before other non-geminated consonants, and as '''-sab^-''' before vowels. Note that this /a/ is immune to vowel laxing and opaque to morphophonological nasalisation. (← ''*kab'' ‘do again (once)’)
* '''gīhe-''' ‘build, create’ → '''giəssa-''' ‘rebuild, repair’
* '''haika-''' ‘carry, bring’ → '''haikasa-''' ‘bring back’

'''-ndaⁿ-''' forms iterative or pluractional verbs, attaching only to verbal stems. The suffix appears as '''-ndam-''' before vowels. (← ''*madam'' ‘do repeatedly’)
* '''ñanaⁿ-''' ‘speak, say’ → '''ñanandaⁿ-''' ‘say again, say several times’
* '''tusu-''' ‘do’ → '''tusundaⁿ-''' ‘repeat, continue, practice’

The three suffixes '''-und(a)-''' (← ''*-um t(a)-'' ‘be X-ed’), '''-ō-''' (← ''*hu-'' ‘fall’), and '''-^ssə-''' (← ''*haga-'' ‘eat’) all attach only to verbal stems and form mediopassive verbs with a reduced valency. The semantic differences between the three markers are not entirely clear. However, with semantically ditransitive base verbs '''-und(a)-''' forms theme-centred passives and '''-^ssə-''' forms recipient-centred passives. The latter also tends to occur mostly with verbs denoting communication or social behaviour, whereas physical action verbs tend to take '''-ō-''' instead. In terms of lexical aspect, both '''-ō-''' and '''-^ssə-''' tend to denote processes, whereas '''-und(a)-''' tends to form resultative passives.
* '''jimiⁿ-''' ‘kill’ → '''jimiō-''' ‘get killed’
* '''añauhe-''' ‘push, shove’ → '''añauheō-''' ‘get pushed’
* '''hēŋgə-''' ‘be angry’ → '''hēŋgəssə-''' ‘get blamed, have anger directed at oneself’
* '''abo-''' ‘give’ → '''abossə-''' ‘get, receive, be given sth.’
* '''dīsu-''' ‘trade, exchange’ → '''dīsund(a)-''' ‘be traded, be exchanged (of goods)’
* '''mbīrə-''' ‘tie, fasten’ → '''mbīrund(a)-''' ‘be attached to, be restrained’

There are also two valency-increasing morphemes that form causative verbs, attaching to other verbal stems:

'''-ːob(e)-''' forms direct causatives. It appears as '''-ːub(e)-''' after /o oː/ and as '''-ōb(e)-''' after consonants; the final /e/ is deleted before vowels and shifts to /i/ before nasals and prenasalised consonants. (← ''*haub-'' ‘cause’)
* '''nōⁿ-''' ‘eat’ → '''nōub(e)-''' ‘feed’
* '''kainuⁿ-''' ‘sleep’ → '''kainūob(e)-''' ‘put to sleep (of children)’
* '''hēm(i)-''' ‘burn, be on fire’ → '''hēmōb(e)-''' ‘light up, ignite’

'''-(a)bo-''' is a more indirect causative, often with permissive semantics. It appears as '''-(a)bu-''' before vowels, nasals and prenasalised consonants; the initial /a/ surfaces only after a consonant. (← ''*abu-'' ‘give’)
* '''tusu-''' ‘do’ → '''tusubo-''' ‘allow, permit’
* '''duədo-''' ‘grow’ → '''duədobo-''' ‘raise, keep (of animals)’
* '''hēŋgə-''' ‘be angry’ → '''hēŋgəbo-''' ‘annoy, disturb, irritate’

Finally, the suffix '''-shi-''' negates the meaning of the base verb, sometimes with not fully predictable semantics. (← ''*-ki-'')
* '''nōⁿ-''' ‘eat’ → '''nōnji-''' ‘fast, abstain from eating’
* '''ayūi-''' ‘stay, remain’ → '''ayūishi-''' ‘leave, abandon’
* '''tusubo-''' ‘allow, permit’ → '''tusuboshi-''' ‘deny, forbid’
* '''gōzushim(i)-''' ‘be brave, show courage’ → '''gōzushinji-''' ‘be shy, be timid’

===Nominalisation===
'''-Ø-''' (i.e. zero derivation) forms action nouns from verbs. It should be noted that these nouns cannot be used as a base for further derivation; or in other words, derivational affixes added to a bare verbal stem always treat the base as a verb, never as an action noun.
* '''tuəru-''' ‘laugh’ → '''tuəru''' ‘laughter’
* '''mōndo-''' ‘give birth’ → '''mōndo''' ‘birth’
* '''gīhe-''' ‘build’ → '''gīhe''' ‘the process of building’

'''-a''' forms nouns for people or things associated with the base verb, usually in a subject role. It is most commonly found immediately after a pseudo-case morpheme. The suffix appears as '''-ā-''' before non-geminated resonants and before prenasalised stops, as '''-au-''' before other non-geminated consonants, and as '''-ab^-''' before vowels. Note that this /a/ is immune to vowel laxing and opaque to morphophonological nasalisation. (← ''*-ab'')
* '''vasu''' ‘house’ + '''-(i)g^-''' ‘{{sc|ine/part}}’ → '''vasuəga''' ‘inhabitant (of a house)’
* '''nēmbai''' ‘baby’ + '''-^h^-''' ‘{{sc|com}}’ → '''nēmbaiha''' ‘pregnant woman’

'''-(i)te''' forms nouns for people from any part of speech. If the base is a transitive verb, the derived noun usually represents the most agent-like participant. The suffix appears as '''-(i)tī-''' before consonants and as '''-(i)tib^-''' before vowels; the initial /i/ surfaces only after a consonant. (← ''*tib'' ‘person’)
* '''mūnzo''' ‘sheep’ → '''mūnzote''' ‘shepherd’
* '''kai''' ‘bee’ → '''kaite''' ‘beekeeper’
* '''mbeshim(i)-''' ‘be related to’ → '''mbeshinde''' ‘relative’

'''-u(ⁿ)''' forms nouns that refer to the patient or theme of the base verb. The suffix appears as '''-ːo(ⁿ)''' after /u uː uə̯/ and as '''-um-/-ːom-''' before vowels. Note that this /u/ is immune to vowel laxing. (← ''*-um'', with some influence from ''*hu'' ‘speech’)
* '''ñepp(i)-''' ‘blend, mix’ → '''ñeppu(ⁿ)''' ‘stew’
* '''tibe-''' ‘play’ → '''tibiu(ⁿ)''' ‘toy’
* '''tuəp(i)-''' ‘hunt’ → '''tuəpu(ⁿ)''' ‘game animal, prey’

'''-^(e)he''' forms inanimate nouns denoting products or derived substances from any part of speech. The suffix appears as '''-^(e)Q°-''' before obstruent consonants; the initial /e/ surfaces only after a consonant. (← ''*-si'')
* '''rāñi(ⁿ)''' ‘leather’ → '''rāñēhe''' ‘armor’
* '''sāpi''' ‘fire’ → '''sāpihe''' ‘ashes’

'''-(i)ŋai''' forms nouns denoting areas or other rather large locations, attaching to any part of speech. The suffix appears as '''-(i)ŋaiⁿ-''' before consonants and as '''-(i)ŋar-''' before vowels. When followed by a sequence of a short vowel and a plosive, the short vowel is elided and the nominaliser appears as '''-(i)ŋā+'''. The initial /i/ surfaces only after a consonant and is immune to vowel laxing. (← ''*ŋmal'' ‘land’)
* '''dui''' ‘big’ → '''duəŋai''' ‘the mainland’
* '''enza''' ‘hill, mountain’ → '''enzaŋai''' ‘highlands’
* '''puhə-''' ‘meet, gather’ → '''puhəŋai''' ‘village square’

'''-ˇ(i)mi''' forms nouns denoting specific places or other rather small locations, attaching to any part of speech. The suffix appears as '''-ˇ(i)ⁿ-''' before obstruent consonants, as '''-ˇ(i)Q-''' before nasals, and as '''-ˇ(i)m-''' before /i iː iə̯ e/. Preceding short vowels are deleted after a nasal, and preceding non-deleted lax vowels become tense. The initial /i/ surfaces only after a consonant and is immune to vowel laxing. (← ''*-mi'')
* '''tuədo''' ‘stone, rock’ → '''tuədumi''' ‘cliff’
* '''əŋūⁿ-''' ‘stab, pierce’ → '''əŋūmi''' ‘wound’

In addition to the above suffixes, O Ayōndui also has some prefixing morphology with nominalising function. These can all attach only to nouns:

'''a-''' forms nouns denoting an associated person. (← ''*a-(-b)'' ‘inhabitant of’)
* '''Yōndui''' ‘Yōndui islands’ → '''ayōndui''' ‘an Ayōndui person’
* '''rāmi''' ‘field, arable land’ → '''arāmi''' ‘farmer’

'''ē+''' forms nouns denoting an associated diminutive or derived entity. The prefix appears as '''er-''' before vowels. (← ''*hil'' ‘child’)
* '''īre''' ‘foot’ → '''erīre''' ‘toe’
* '''sāpi''' ‘fire’ → '''ēzāpi''' ‘flame, spark’

'''məQ-''' forms augmentative nouns. The prefix appears as '''mb^-''' before vowels. (← ''*mab'' ‘big’)
* '''eki''' ‘crab’ → '''mbeki''' ‘lobster’
* '''piəni(ⁿ)''' ‘basket’ → '''məppiəni(ⁿ)''' ‘storehouse’

Last but not least, there is also one productive derivational infix. It can attach only to nouns, and is normally placed before the final syllable of the stem. With monosyllabic nouns, it appears as a suffix instead.

'''‹pi›''' forms diminutive nouns, often with affectionate semantics. If the preceding syllable starts with a nasal, the infix appears as '''‹mbi›''' and a following prenasalised plosive is denasalised (and additionally devoiced when followed by a tense vowel). (← ''*‹pi›'')
* '''minda''' ‘dog’ → '''mimbita''' ‘puppie, baby dog’
* '''botu''' ‘honey’ → '''bopitu''' ‘mead’

===Adjectivalisation===
O Ayōndui has a small closed class of only 21 basic lexical [[#Adjectives|adjectives]]. All other adjectival concepts are lexically encoded as verbs. In order to use a verb attributively, it must be morphologically converted into a participial adjective with an attributive marker. It should be noted that the words derived in this way are still syntactically distinct from true lexical adjectives though.

'''-i''' derives participial adjectives describing the subject of the base verb. This suffix appears as '''-e''' after stem-final long /iː/, as zero after stem-final short /i/, and it combines with stem-final short /e/ into '''-i'''. (← ''*-i'')
* '''fuəm(i)-''' ‘be curious, investigate’ → '''fuəmi''' ‘curious, inquisitive’
* '''nīŋga-''' ‘fear’ → '''nīŋgai''' ‘scared’
* '''kainuⁿ-''' ‘sleep’ → '''kainui''' ‘sleeping’
* '''tauhe-''' ‘sit’ → '''tauhi''' ‘sitting’

'''-sui''' is the negative counterpart to the preceding suffix; it derives participial adjectives describing the subject of a negated base verb. (← ''*-kui'')
* '''kainuⁿ-''' ‘sleep’ → '''kainunzui''' ‘not sleeping’
* '''shizo-''' ‘go, move’ → '''shizosui''' ‘not moving, motionless, still’
* '''yauhe-''' ‘stop, cease, halt’ → '''yōssui''' ‘endless, continuous’

Semantic fine-tuning of participial adjectives is possible with inflectional suffixes and any of the available verb-to-verb derivation strategies. For instance, tense inflection may be used to specify the temporal validity of the attribution:
* '''zūru-''' ‘be dirty, be unordered’ + '''-ū-''' ‘{{sc|pst}}’ → '''zūrūi''' ‘formerly dirty’
* '''ōhaigə-''' ‘sing’ + '''-ŋōⁿ-''' ‘{{sc|vol}}’ → '''ōhaigaŋōi''' ‘wanting to sing’

Or the intensive and attenuative suffixes may be used to indicate a stronger or weaker degree of the attributed property:
* '''tō-''' ‘be cold’ + '''-guni-''' ‘{{sc|intens}}’ → '''tōguni''' ‘very cold; colder’
* '''tamuⁿ-''' ‘be heavy’ + '''-ːdi-''' ‘{{sc|atten}}’ → '''tamūndebi''' ‘a little heavy; less heavy’

Or a valency-decreasing passive suffix may be used in order to arrive at a participial adjective that describes the patient of the base verb:
* '''mbīrə-''' ‘tie, fasten’ + '''-und(a)-''' ‘{{sc|thm.pass}}’ → '''mbīrundi''' ‘attached, connected, fastened’
* '''hēŋgə-''' ‘be angry’ + '''-^ssə-''' ‘{{sc|rec.pass}}’ → '''hēŋgəssai''' ‘blamed, accused’

===Complex derivational strategies===
TO DO...

==Minor word types==
===Adjectives===
There are only 21 basic lexical adjectives in O Ayōndui, which mostly encode concepts from the semantic domains of size, value, age, and color:

{| {{softtable|l}}
! word !! translation
|-
| '''dui''' || ‘big, large, important’
|-
| '''aka''' || ‘big, thick, wide, loose’
|-
| '''iəmə''' || ‘high, long, tall’
|-
| '''ūma''' || ‘middle-sized’
|-
| '''sui''' || ‘small, short’
|-
| '''hōi''' || ‘small, thin, narrow, tight’
|-
| '''īde''' || ‘proper, real, true, correct’
|-
| '''veri''' || ‘good, nice, beautiful, valuable, useful’
|-
| '''apui''' || ‘bad, rotten, damaged, flawed, ugly, wrong’
|-
| '''bohə''' || ‘odd, strange, unusual’
|-
| '''dāni''' || ‘full, whole, complete’
|-
| '''vai''' || ‘empty, hungry, clean, lacking usual conditions’
|-
| '''nai''' || ‘new, young’
|-
| '''atiu''' || ‘old’
|-
| '''sēhə''' || ‘sharp, hard, solid’
|-
| '''havo''' || ‘white, bright’
|-
| '''odini''' || ‘black, dark’
|-
| '''vañi''' || ‘red, brown’
|-
| '''beta''' || ‘green, raw, unripe’
|-
| '''mai''' || ‘blue’
|-
| '''kī''' || ‘yellow’
|-
|}

===Personal pronouns===
Personal pronouns inflect for the two core cases nominative and accusative in a regular manner. However, there is also an additional possessive case in '''-nu''' that has no parallel in full nouns. Masculine and feminine referents are distinguished for all three persons in the singular, and the first person plural has a clusivity distinction.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| singular masc.
! rowspan="5"|
! colspan="3"| singular fem.
! rowspan="5"|
! colspan="4"| plural
|- class="bg2 bold"
| 1sg.m || 2sg.m || 3sg.m
| 1sg.f || 2sg.f || 3sg.f
| 1pl incl. || 1pl excl. || 2pl || 3pl
|-
! nominative
| ŋa || ze || ha
| ŋu || zo || ho
| ŋanzo || ŋuŋgo || zozo || fō
|-
! accusative
| ŋari || zeri || hari
| ŋuri || zori || hori
| ŋanzuri || ŋuŋguri || zozori || fōri
|-
! possessive
| ŋanu || jinu || hanu
| ŋunu || zunu || honu
| ŋanzunu || ŋuŋgunu || zozunu || fōnu
|}

Personal pronouns can also serve as a base for the relational pseudo-case suffixes. These typically attach to the nominative form of the pronoun:

{{+|
{{gl|ŋaŋgani|ŋaⁿ{{--}}kan-i|1SG.M{{--}}LAT/BEN-ATTR}}
{{glend|for me / towards me}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|fōne|fō{{--}}naⁿ-i|3PL{{--}}ADE-ATTR}}
{{glend|in front of them}}
}}

But note that they can also attach to possessive pronouns if the referent is clear from context:

{{+|
{{gl|honushimi|ho-nu{{--}}shim-i|3SG.F-POSS{{--}}ESS/MOD-ATTR}}
{{gl|hai|hai|indeed}}
{{glend|just like hers}}
}}

===Demonstratives===
There are two demonstratives, '''shī''' ‘this’ and '''zū''' ‘that’. They can be used both as pronouns and as determiners; in the latter situation they appear before their referent, which must be marked as focused or definite.

{{+|
{{gl|shī|shī|this}}
{{gl|sendōsso|sendouⁿ{{--}}^sso|village{{--}}DEF}}
{{glend|this village}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|zū|zū|that}}
{{gl|ohoññuri|ohon(u){{--}}ñuⁿ{{--}}ri|tree{{--}}FOC{{--}}ACC}}
{{glend|that tree over there (accusative)}}
}}

===Numerals===
O Ayōndui has retained the Proto-Lukpanic base-5 counting system mostly unchanged. The cardinal numeral for ‘one’ was replaced with a reflex of the originally distributive ''*ka'' though, the word for ‘six’ is a shortened reflex of ''*naəp ugbu'' ‘new hand’, and the irregular ordinal for ‘second’ is based on the borrowed root ''*hiti'' (from Proto-Tulameya ''*het''), which was in use as a variant form of ‘two’ for some time.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|-
!
! cardinal !! ordinal !! additive
|-
! 0
| biu || class="bg2"| || class="bg2"|
|-
! 1
| sa || oppu || sarə
|-
! 2
| ŋē || otti || ŋīrə
|-
! 3
| oi || ūi || oirə
|-
! 4
| dō || odō || dōrə
|-
! 5
| ñū || uñū || rowspan="6" class="bg2"|
|-
! 6
| naigo || unaigo
|-
! 7
| yāŋe || uyāŋe
|-
! 8
| yōi || uyōi
|-
! 9
| yādo || uyādo
|-
! 10
| ŋīmbe || uŋīmbe
|-
| class="divider" colspan="4"|
|-
! 15
| ōre || ūre || rowspan="3" class="bg2"|
|-
! 20
| dē || odē
|-
! 25
| zabau || ombau
|-
|}

Numerals follow the noun they modify, which is unmarked for plurality. However, the plural enclitic '''{{--}}bai''' can optionally be added after the numeral; this implies that the number is greater than expected:

{{+|
{{gl|itimu|itimuⁿ|boat}}
{{gl|dō|dō|four}}
{{glend|four boats}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|minda|minda|dog}}
{{gl|yōibai|yōi{{--}}bai|eight{{--}}PL}}
{{glend|eight dogs (wow, so many of them!)}}
}}

Numbers higher than ten are formed with the nearest multiple of five, followed by the additive version of the appropriate numeral between one and four:

{{+|
{{gl|vasu|vasu|house}}
{{gl|ŋīmbe|ŋīmbe|ten}}
{{gl|sarə|sa-rə|one-ADD}}
{{glend|eleven houses}}
}}

For numbers higher than 25, the word '''zabau''' serves as an additional base:

{{+|
{{gl|odau|odauⁿ|fish}}
{{gl|zabau|zabau|twentyfive}}
{{gl|ñū|ñū|five}}
{{gl|oirə|oi-rə|three-ADD}}
{{glend|thirty-three fish}}
}}

Ordinals are formed with the prefix '''u-''' added to the first numeral in the phrase, with a few irregularities.

{{+|
{{gl|honda|honda|day}}
{{gl|odē|u-dē|ORD-twenty}}
{{gl|ŋīrə|ŋē-rə|two-ADD}}
{{glend|the twenty-second day}}
}}

==Syntax==
As in other Lukpanic languages, O Ayōndui syntax is mostly head-initial.

===Simple sentences===
The basic constituent order in O Ayōndui is VS for intransive clauses, VSO for transitive clauses, and VSOX for ditransitive clauses (but note that ditransitive alignment is secundative, i.e. the "O" argument here refers to the recipient, not to the theme). Subject pronouns are often omitted if they can be recovered from context, so that a verb can form a valid sentence on its own despite the lack of person agreement.

{{+|
{{gl|Shindamui|shindaⁿ-ui|dance-PST}}
{{gl|(ho).|(ho)|(3SG.F)}}
{{glend|(She) danced.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Kainu|kainuⁿ|sleep}}
{{gl|nēmbēsso.|nēmbai{{--}}^sso|baby{{--}}DEF}}
{{glend|The baby is sleeping.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Gīhēŋo|gīhe-ŋō|build-VOL}}
{{gl|(ŋa)|(ŋa)|1SG.M}}
{{gl|vasuri.|vasu{{--}}ri|house{{--}}ACC}}
{{glend|I plan to build a house.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Sūhe|sūhe|NEG}}
{{gl|həmmosshīdə|həmmohe-jī-də|bite-IRR-AFF}}
{{gl|shī|shī|this}}
{{gl|mindañu|minda{{--}}ñu|dog{{--}}FOC}}
{{gl|zeri.|ze{{--}}ri|2SG.M{{--}}ACC}}
{{glend|This dog will not bite you.}}
}}

{{+|
{{gl|Abōi|abo-ui|give-PST}}
{{gl|ūnda|ūnda|wife}}
{{gl|menzuri|menzu{{--}}ri|husband{{--}}ACC}}
{{gl|mimeffūmui|mimeffuⁿ{{--}}umuⁿ-i|herbal_tea{{--}}INSTR-ATTR}}
{{glend|The woman gave her husband some herbal tea.}}
}}

==Lexicon==
[[/Lexicon]]

[[Category:Lukpanic languages]]

Fáralo/Lexicon

2025-02-01T19:52:46Z

Cedh: /* Fáralo Lexicon */

{{noticebox|'''''This is an unofficial wiki version of the lexicon.'''''

The official Fáralo lexicon (which is not sortable but may have a few additional words) can be found at the end of the [http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm Fáralo grammar].}}

==Fáralo Lexicon==

(aux) indicates auxiliary verbs; see the Morphology section for morphological irregularities. (pl) indicates nouns that are used in the plural only.

Most roots can serve as nouns or verbs, depending on how they're inflected. If you're looking up an English verb, try the noun form, and vice versa. See ''Derivation'' for details.

Etymology:
* Far. = [[Faraghin]]
* Gez. = [[Gezoro]]
* Mûts. = [[Mûtsipsa']]
* Thok. = [[Thokyunèhòta]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* unmarked = [[Ndak Ta]]

''1022 words (+10)''

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
! Fáralo word
! PoS
! meaning
! etymology
|-
| '''a''' || pron || he/she (3s nom) || ''a''
|-
| '''abe''' || adj || solid, stable || ''abwe''
|-
| '''aboa''' || v || bloom, flourish || ''abbwa''
|-
| '''abu''' || pron || them (2p acc) || ''as ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''abunde''' || n || thunder || ''abwodnodn''
|-
| '''adulsə''' || v || tell, relate || ''atulsa''
|-
| '''adulsu''' || n || story, history ||
|-
| '''adwə''' || adj || dark || ''adwa''
|-
| '''adwəsæt''' || v || bribe || "dark money"
|-
| '''aə''' || n || swamp || ''abâi''
|-
| '''agal''' || adj || active || ''aubai'' + dim.
|-
| '''agiu''' || v || hope || ''awio''
|-
| '''agu''' || adj || happy || ''aubo'' "easy"
|-
| '''Agumosou''' || top || the chief city of the Dagæm islands || "happy port"
|-
| '''ak''' || pron || they (3p nom) || ''ak''
|-
| '''akremu''' || n || wax || ''akremo''
|-
| '''al''' || aux || want, desire (aux) || ''ali'' "fire, be warm, burn"
|-
| '''alégadu''' || n || constitution (a foreign concept) || {{Ad|ālégadu}} "the Laws"
|-
| '''alenin''' || adj || civil (war) || ''alen'' "split" + adj. -''in''
|-
| '''algo''' || pp || despite, against || ''al'' "without" + ''wau'' "for"
|-
| '''alóu''' || n || flower || ''ailàu''
|-
| '''alpo''' || v || manufacture || ''alpau'' "make"
|-
| '''alpobu''' || n || manufacturer, craftsman ||
|-
| '''ammu''' || v || steal || ''aulmo''
|-
| '''ammubu''' || n || thief ||
|-
| '''anǽn''' || adj || dry || ''asnàn''
|-
| '''aoba''' || n || mason || ''arbwa'' "craftsman"
|-
| '''aogə''' || n || uncertainty, confusion || ''arwa'' "fog"
|-
| '''apo''' || n || fruit || ''apwi''
|-
| '''apridu''' || n || horror, terror || ''apridn'' "be horrified"
|-
| '''arélibu''' || n || opponent, dissident || {{Ad|ārêlibu}} "opposers" (reinterpreted as singular)
|-
| '''as''' || qu || many, much || ''ais''
|-
| '''Asalé''' || top || the best-known city of Rathedān in the far west || {{Ad|Athalē}}
|-
| '''asin''' || adj || heavy || "much-ish"
|-
| '''ašu''' || adj || chief, supreme || ''aio''
|-
| '''ašubu''' || n || chieftain, leader ||
|-
| '''ate''' || v || keep || ''aitn''
|-
| '''atelo''' || n || storehouse ||
|-
| '''atelol''' || n || closet, storage area ||
|-
| '''atu''' || n || possession || "something kept"
|-
| '''avávo''' || adj || poor, miserable || {{Ndd|avāvo}} "poor city-dweller"
|-
| '''azə''' || n || woman || ''asa''
|-
| '''æba ''' || adj || sober || ''ambwa'' "moderately"
|-
| '''æbu''' || pron || him/her (2s acc) || ''â ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''æč''' || pron || my (1s poss) || ''âki''
|-
| '''æčih''' || pron || our (1p poss) || ''âkik''
|-
| '''ækə''' || n || air || âka
|-
| '''æda''' || aux || need (aux) || ''âidai''
|-
| '''æda''' || n || corpse || ''ainda'' "ashes"
|-
| '''æde''' || aux || stay, remain, stand; keep at, continue doing; be (aux) || ''ande''
|-
| '''ædelu''' || n || city || "stay-place"
|-
| '''ægah''' || pron || their (3p poss) || ''âkak''
|-
| '''ægə''' || pron || his/her (3s poss) || ''âka''
|-
| '''æglewku''' || pron || thy (2s poss) || ''âklaingko''
|-
| '''ægóu''' || adj || awry, wrong, off || ''ainggàu''
|-
| '''ægóubu''' || n || eccentric, crank || ''ainggàubu''
|-
| '''æjegə''' || pron || whose || ''âk gewa''
|-
| '''æm''' || pron || to him/her/them (3s/3p dat); of, for || ''am''
|-
| '''æməl''' || n || fly (insect) || ''ammi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''æna''' || adj || hungry || ''anai'' "empty"
|-
| '''ænal''' || adv || downward || ''aina'' + dim.
|-
| '''ænal''' || n || hold (of a ship) || ''aina'' "downward" + dim.
|-
| '''æŋéilo''' || n || military || ''angài ''+ ''-lo''
|-
| '''ænil''' || n || a hair (as a mass, use plural) || ''aini ''+ dim.
|-
| '''æŋu''' || pron || your (2p poss) || ''âgdok''
|-
| '''æsečə''' || n || kind, type, sort || ''ansetra'' "prototype"
|-
| '''æti''' || n || river || ''aunti''
|-
| '''æte''' || adj || feeble, weak || ''ainte''
|-
| '''ætu''' || adj || old || ''anto''
|-
| '''baba''' || v || babble; chat || (imitative)
|-
| '''bad''' || adj || sweet, sugary || ''basti'' "gentle"
|-
| '''bage''' || adj || rough || ''bagng''
|-
| '''Balanin''' || n || the first ruling dynasty of imperial Huyfárah || {{Far|balanin}} "ironlike"
|-
| '''bæb''' || v || miss (not hit) || ''bambi'' "fail"
|-
| '''bæbu''' || n || root; anchor || ''bâpu''
|-
| '''bæbur''' || adj || strong || ''bambor''
|-
| '''bæl''' || v || speak with an accent || ''bâil'' "burp"
|-
| '''bæna''' || v || beg, supplicate || ''banai'' "worship"
|-
| '''bænéilo''' || n || pagan temple || ''banailau''
|-
| '''bære''' || v || own (land) || ''bâre'' "have, possess"
|-
| '''bæru''' || n || real estate, land holdings ||
|-
| '''badew''' || n || father || {{Far|badeu}}
|-
| '''baobadew''' || n || uncle: father's older brother || {{Far|barbadeu}} "master of father"
|-
| '''baodat''' || n || judge || {{Far|bartat}} "master of law"
|-
| '''baogas''' || n || captain (of a ship) || {{Far|bargars}}
|-
| '''baoluy''' || n || fifth day of the week || {{Far|barloi}}
|-
| '''baomast''' || n || steward, majordomo || {{Far|barmašt}} "master of the palace"
|-
| '''baonuy''' || v || advance, progress, march || {{Far|branoin}} "go forward"
|-
| '''baosifa''' || n || admiral, naval commander || {{Far|barsifa}} "master of seas"
|-
| '''baoteka''' || n || commander || {{Far|bartekha}} "master of swords"
|-
| '''Barnágo''' || top || a city on the upper Oltu || {{Far|barnagho}} "master of bears"
|-
| '''baruy''' || v || appoint, grant || {{Far|baroin}} "make a master"
|-
| '''bas''' || adj || calm, even-tempered || {{Far|bas}}
|-
| '''baše''' || n || stick, branch; spine; keel || ''batsn''
|-
| '''bašel''' || n || twig || ''batsn ''+ dim.
|-
| '''beibu''' || pp || among, between || ''mbembu''
|-
| '''beibul''' || n || genitals || "between" + dim.
|-
| '''beibulsa''' || n || vagina || "female genitals"
|-
| '''beiča''' || n || leg || ''baitrai''
|-
| '''beidu''' || adj || tight || ''bendut''
|-
| '''beb''' || v || punish || ''bespi''
|-
| '''benuy''' || v || annul || {{Far|benoin}} "make nothing"
|-
| '''bepo''' || adj || dumb, retarded || ''bekwâu'' "insufficient"
|-
| '''bewš''' || n || first day of the week || {{Far|breuš}}, a goddess
|-
| '''bewšin''' || adj || unlucky, unfortunate || {{Far|breušin}}
|-
| '''biəbu''' || v || scratch; massage || ''bimbo'' "rub"
|-
| '''boa''' || cj || or || ''boda'' "xor"
|-
| '''boá''' || aux || can || ''bwa''- permissive prefix
|-
| '''boáš''' || v || sweat || ''bwats''
|-
| '''boéča''' || n || daughter || "female son"
|-
| '''boéd''' || n || son || ''bwed''
|-
| '''boéi''' || n || star || ''bwai''
|-
| '''boéiægə''' || n || declination (of a star); latitude || "(height) of a star"
|-
| '''boéimate''' || n || astronomy, naviation || "star-knowledge"
|-
| '''boéigur''' || n || respect || ''bwenggor'' "honor"
|-
| '''boéisti''' || n || orgy, debauchery || ''bwaikti'' "feast"
|-
| '''Boíəba''' || top || Oigôp'oibauxeu. a city in Lašumu; the river it's on || ''Bwimbai''
|-
| '''bóig''' || n || bay, inlet || ''bwogig''
|-
| '''bomə''' || n || wheat || ''borma''
|-
| '''borə''' || v || nurse || ''bora''
|-
| '''bou''' || adv || again || ''bau''
|-
| '''bougə''' || n || back (side); stern || ''bongga''
|-
| '''boula''' || n || earth, soil || ''baulai''
|-
| '''bous''' || n || ox || ''baus''
|-
| '''boutu''' || v || pierce, penetrate || ''bontu''
|-
| '''bu''' || num || four || ''bu''
|-
| '''bubiš''' || adj || warm || ''bubwits''
|-
| '''buəbu''' || n || spy || ''budnabu''
|-
| '''buədə''' || v || listen || ''budna''
|-
| '''buəŋil''' || v || wound, hurt || ''bungie ''+ dim.
|-
| '''buŋišə''' || v || reward || ''bungia''
|-
| '''but''' || pp || next to, near || ''bwut'' "rightward"
|-
| '''čaok''' || n || king || {{Far|čark}}
|-
| '''čaoksa''' || n || queen || "king" + fem.
|-
| '''čælo''' || n || school || ''kaimlau''
|-
| '''čæme''' || v || study, learn || ''kaime''
|-
| '''čæn''' || n || fire || {{Far|šan}}
|-
| '''čæn''' || v || burn || {{Far|šan}} "fire"
|-
| '''čæniz''' || v || admonish, shame || ''kaumisi'' "reprimand"
|-
| '''čæŋlo''' || n || lavatory || {{Ndd|cainglo}}
|-
| '''čæšum''' || adj || powerful, great || ''kâtsum''
|-
| '''če''' || num || one || ''ke''
|-
| '''čega''' || adj || only, sole ||
|-
| '''čeidu''' || n || jester || ''kendu'' "skeptic"
|-
| '''čeilə''' || n || teacher || ''kenla''
|-
| '''čeino''' || v || ask || ''kenau''
|-
| '''čeiŋ''' || v || walk || ''keng''
|-
| '''ček''' || v || throw || ''kek''
|-
| '''čekəl''' || v || vomit || ''kek ''+ dim.
|-
| '''čelč''' || n || danger || ''kelki''
|-
| '''čeobu''' || n || student, scholar || ''kaimbu''
|-
| '''češus''' || adj || unreliable, risky, unhealty || ''ketsus'' "unsafe"
|-
| '''čičih''' || n || lightning || ''kikik''
|-
| '''čiəba''' || v || tie || ''kîbai''
|-
| '''čiəpal''' || v || whine, rant || ''kimpal'' "complain"
|-
| '''čiən''' || v || marry || {{Far|triban}}
|-
| '''čiənu''' || n || husband || {{Far|tribud}}
|-
| '''čiətu''' || adj || generous, kind || ''kinto''
|-
| '''čil''' || n || barley || ''kil''
|-
| '''čilo''' || n || basket, bushel || ''kilau'' "barley-place"
|-
| '''Čisse''' || top || a city on the eastern coast || (from the local indigens)
|-
| '''čosk''' || adj || threatening, hostile || {{Far|čoks}}
|-
| '''čutu''' || v || spit || (imitative)
|-
| '''daba''' || adj || white || ''dauwai''
|-
| '''dačaok''' || n || princess || {{Far|deučark}}
|-
| '''dada''' || cj || but || ''daldâ''
|-
| '''dagane''' || n || camp || {{Far|daghne}}
|-
| '''Dagæm''' || top || the islands east of Kasadgad || ''Dawaim''
|-
| '''dagubu''' || n || host, proprietor ||
|-
| '''daguy''' || v || host || {{Far|daghoin}} "to make stay"
|-
| '''dalsu''' || n || honey || ''dalsur''
|-
| '''daodan''' || v || dance || {{Far|daradan}}
|-
| '''daom''' || v || warn || ''darem''
|-
| '''das''' || v || fight || ''das''
|-
| '''dašiəm''' || n || hemp; canvas, sail || {{Far|dašim}}
|-
| '''dau''' || adj || male, masculine || ''dado''
|-
| '''dayadok''' || n || (person) from Rathedān, the western mountains || {{Ad|Dāiadak}}
|-
| '''daz''' || n || goddess (of polytheistic religions) || ''dasi''
|-
| '''dæŋ''' || n || mountain || ''daing''
|-
| '''deidin''' || adj || numinous, awesome, frightening || ''dautin'' "holy"
|-
| '''deikəlo''' || n || holy place (in the wild), haunted area || ''dêka'' "spiritual" + "place"
|-
| '''deimit''' || v || support (dependants, crops), receive (guests); yield || ''dalmit'' "host"
|-
| '''deine''' || n || smarts, cunning || ''dene'' "reason"
|-
| '''deiŋ''' || n || finger || ''dengi''
|-
| '''deip''' || n || young (of an animal) || ''dempi'' "child"
|-
| '''demaš''' || n || feast || {{Far|demač}} "celebratory dinner", lit. "gift"
|-
| '''depa''' || v || shave || ''depmai''
|-
| '''dewmuh''' || v || hunt || ''desmog''
|-
| '''diágə''' || n || title of Edák rulers || ''diàka''
|-
| '''dida''' || adj || possible || ''ditai''
|-
| '''diəbæŋ''' || v || lay aside, store, preserve || ''dimbang''
|-
| '''diəbo''' || n || fat, grease, oil || ''dimbau''
|-
| '''digun''' || n || thing, object || ''dikon''
|-
| '''dióa''' || v || imagine || ''dioba''
|-
| '''dizo''' || adj || typical, ordinary || ''disau'' "usual"
|-
| '''do''' || pron || you (2p nom) || ''do ''2s
|-
| '''dogu''' || v || groan, moan || ''dowo'' "grumble"
|-
| '''dorač''' || n || breakfast, lunch || {{Far|drorač}} "awakening meal"
|-
| '''dou''' || num || five || ''dau''
|-
| '''doul''' || adj || weary, tired || ''dodo ''+ dim.
|-
| '''doum''' || pron || to you (2p dat) || ''dom ''2s
|-
| '''doumah''' || n || glass (substance) || {{Far|domagh}}
|-
| '''douŋ''' || pron || you (2p acc) || ''dong ''2s
|-
| '''duə''' || v || praise || ''dungwi''
|-
| '''duəbu''' || v || smell || ''dumbo''
|-
| '''dukəs''' || n || master, teacher || {{Muts|dux}}
|-
| '''duzæm''' || v || regret || ''dusam''
|-
| '''ebǽru''' || n || bark (of tree), husk (of fruits) || ''mbâro''
|-
| '''ebédə''' || v || order, arrange || ''mbesta''
|-
| '''ebewr''' || adj || short || ''mbâur''
|-
| '''ebí''' || v || say, speak || ''mbi''
|-
| '''ebíč''' || adj || necessary || ''mbiski''
|-
| '''ebíəbe''' || v || sing || ''mbîbwe''
|-
| '''ebíəbu''' || n || singer ||
|-
| '''ebíu''' || adj || guilty || ''mbibo''
|-
| '''eboáge''' || v || push, impel || ''mbwawe''
|-
| '''ebóbe''' || adv || enough || ''mbopm''
|-
| '''ebóbu''' || n || musician ||
|-
| '''ebód''' || n || color || ''mbod''
|-
| '''ebóp''' || n || music || ''mbop''
|-
| '''ebórol''' || v || be wary, distrust || ''mboraul'' "be careful"
|-
| '''ebóuta''' || n || seed || ''mbontai''
|-
| '''eboúrə''' || adj || strange, weird || ''mbwura'' "unusual"
|-
| '''ebréibo''' || n || ruins (esp. Edák ones) || {{Ndd|èvrevo}}
|-
| '''ebúəwe''' || v || carry, hold || ''mbunwe''
|-
| '''ebúmu''' || n || belly || ''mbusmu''
|-
| '''ebúrə''' || v || decide || ''mbura''
|-
| '''ečét''' || v || fade, wilt || ''ngket''
|-
| '''ečidálo''' || n || kitchen || ''eskidnalau''
|-
| '''ečíde''' || v || cook || ''eskidn''
|-
| '''edáboə''' || adj || corrupt, rotten || ''ndabwa'' "dirty"
|-
| '''edák''' || n || An ethnonym; the name of the people of Kazəgad || ''Ndak''
|-
| '''edálide''' || n || energy, vigor || ''ndalidn''
|-
| '''edástə''' || n || the Edák language, parent of Fáralo || ''Ndak Ta''
|-
| '''edázə''' || v || change || ''estasa''
|-
| '''edé''' || v || rub; play (an instrument) || ''nde'' "touch"
|-
| '''edébu''' || n || musician ||
|-
| '''edéi''' || n || tree; mast || ''ndai''
|-
| '''edélo''' || n || theater, stage || "play-place"
|-
| '''edéinæ''' || v || live || ''ndenam'' "breathe"
|-
| '''edéio''' || adj || safe, secure || ''ndêwu''
|-
| '''edewn''' || adj || pure || ''ndaun''
|-
| '''edewnin''' || adj || holy || ''"purer"''
|-
| '''edíəmu''' || v || spare someone's life; set free || ''ndimu'' "mercy"
|-
| '''edúgə''' || pron || why || ''nduwa''
|-
| '''edu-''' || det || some (indefinite article clitic) || ''ndo''
|-
| '''egág''' || v || put || ''nggawi''
|-
| '''ege''' || qu || all, every || ''ewe''
|-
| '''egéi''' || adv || upward || ''nggai''
|-
| '''egemalə''' || pron || everywhere || "every" + "where"
|-
| '''egew''' || pron || everyone, everything || ''ege'' "every" +'' -bu''
|-
| '''egól''' || n || foot || ''nggol''
|-
| '''egræn''' || v || satisfy || ''egran'' "scratch"
|-
| '''egúgo''' || v || deceive || ''ngguko''
|-
| '''egúgo''' || n || fool || ''ngguko'' "deceive"
|-
| '''eib''' || v || freeze || ''aipi''
|-
| '''eibəl''' || adj || green || ''auspi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''eibur''' || v || swim || ''embur''
|-
| '''eidu''' || v || fall; fail || ''endu''
|-
| '''eigə''' || adj || good || ''aiwa''
|-
| '''eigə''' || n || name of the great river of Kazəgad and Lašumu || ''aiwa''
|-
| '''eikə''' || n || (land) animal ||
|-
| '''eikəmate''' || n || animal husbandry ||
|-
| '''eiku''' || v || kill || ''engku''
|-
| '''eim''' || v || turn || ''em''
|-
| '''eimo''' || adj || loose || ''emau''
|-
| '''einišə''' || v || fly || ''alnia''
|-
| '''einu''' || adj || bitter; vicious, resentful || ''eno''
|-
| '''eione''' || adj || obscure, hard to understand || ''aurne'' "muddy"
|-
| '''eioti''' || n || day, daytime || ''airti''
|-
| '''eiwəl''' || n || west || ''emwel''
|-
| '''eiz''' || v || paint, color || ''aisi''
|-
| '''eiziw''' || n || painter, artist || ''aisibu''
|-
| '''ekéi''' || n || egg || ''ngkai''
|-
| '''ekúi''' || n || blessing, benefit || {{Muts|hexu'i}}
|-
| '''elje''' || adj || clean || ''elge''
|-
| '''ekádə''' || v || continue, persist || ''ngkasta''
|-
| '''elpe''' || v || melt || ''ailpabm''
|-
| '''eluoga''' || adj || abundant, common || ''elul'' "everywhere" + "way"
|-
| '''enǽdə''' || v || feel (an emotion) ||
|-
| '''Enčélade''' || top || Ngahêxôldod, a city in Lašumu || ''Ngkeladadn''
|-
| '''enóuno''' || v || mess up, get in trouble || {{Ndd|èrnàrno}} "do to one's own detriment"
|-
| '''eobu''' || v || sleep || ''erbo'' "rest"
|-
| '''eobulo''' || n || bed || ''erbolau'' "rest-place"
|-
| '''eočeiŋ''' || v || limp, stumble || "fail to walk"
|-
| '''eodás''' || v || be a coward || "fail to fight"
|-
| '''eomate''' || v || guess || "fail to know"
|-
| '''eonáonu''' || v || harm, injure || ''ernarno'' "do to one's detriment"
|-
| '''eosíən''' || v || choke || "fail to drink"
|-
| '''epaf''' || adj || light (not heavy) || ''epwaip''
|-
| '''epág''' || adj || far || ''mpag''
|-
| '''epágal''' || v || exaggerate, claim || ''mpaskali'' "assert", influenced by "far"
|-
| '''epágægə''' || n || distance; longitude || "distance of"
|-
| '''epáte''' || v || investigate, research || ''upmatn''
|-
| '''epǽm''' || v || cry || ''mpaim''
|-
| '''epǽpoge''' || v || curse || ''ngkwaimpaugng'' "vomit"
|-
| '''epé''' || v || sit; meet (councils) || ''mpe''
|-
| '''epélo''' || n || chair || "sit-place"
|-
| '''epéilu''' || v || rain || ''mpêlo''
|-
| '''epél''' || v || rest || ''mpe ''+ dim.
|-
| '''epéiša''' || n || fish, seafood || ''mpaiswa''
|-
| '''epépe''' || n || breast || ''mpepm''
|-
| '''epído''' || adj || private || ''mpitau''
|-
| '''epoǽn''' || n || ball || ''eplain''
|-
| '''epóu''' || cj || because || ''mpau''
|-
| '''epš''' || v || destroy || ''ebri''
|-
| '''epšilo''' || n || ruins || ''ebrilau''
|-
| '''epúonim''' || n || pagan, polytheist, infidel || ''mpurnim'' "heathen"
|-
| '''erǽbu''' || n || drunkard ||
|-
| '''erǽde''' || v || be drunk or stoned || ''erande'' "fail to stand"
|-
| '''ereibur''' || v || drown || "fail to swim"
|-
| '''eríba''' || v || be clumsy || ''erimbwa''
|-
| '''erólo''' || adj || impotent || {{Ndd|èrola}}
|-
| '''eróušu''' || v || defraud, con || ''eraitsu''
|-
| '''erúdu''' || v || strive for, attempt || ''eroto'' "work for"
|-
| '''esé''' || v || bleed; ooze || ''ntse'' "blood"
|-
| '''eséotim''' || v || discuss, debate || ''ntsertim''
|-
| '''eš''' || num || six || ''ets''
|-
| '''ešǽd''' || qu || much || ''ntsand'' "greatly"
|-
| '''eše''' || n || method, operation, process || ''etsn'' "manner"
|-
| '''ešen''' || v || act, behave || ''etsen''
|-
| '''ešo''' || adv || always || ''etsau''
|-
| '''etá''' || aux || stop (aux) || ''nta''
|-
| '''etáše''' || pp || surrounding, all around; throughout || ''ntatsn''
|-
| '''eté''' || pp || with, by, using (instrumental) || ''nte''
|-
| '''etéiwa''' || n || tiller; tail || ''ntêwâ''
|-
| '''etéišə''' || adj || wrong, incorrect || ''ntausia'' "false"
|-
| '''etéše''' || v || sail; govern, run || ''ntetsn'' "float"
|-
| '''etéšu''' || n || sailboat ||
|-
| '''etewg''' || n || forest || ''ntâug''
|-
| '''etíədu''' || n || metal || ''ntindo''
|-
| '''etíšə''' || adj || right, correct || ''ntia''
|-
| '''etíšal''' || adj || same || ''ntial''
|-
| '''etóumate''' || adj || complex, complicated || ''ntomatn''
|-
| '''etúbə''' || adj || docile, submissive || ''ntupa'' "peaceful"
|-
| '''etúgə''' || n || action, deeds; the main religion of Huyfárah || {{Muts|ntû'a}} "religion"
|-
| '''ewa''' || n || snake || ''aimwa''
|-
| '''ewbu''' || n || urchin, petty criminal || ''aimbu'' "peasant"
|-
| '''ewmu''' || v || reject, hate || ''aumu'' "spit"
|-
| '''ewpa''' || n || statue || ''âukwai''
|-
| '''ezul''' || v || take || ''esul''
|-
| '''fáralo''' || n || (person) from Huyfárah; the Fáralo language || "Faraghin" + -''lo''
|-
| '''ferój''' || n || Feråjin (people to the east of the Faraghin) || {{Far|feroi}}
|-
| '''fistaš''' || adj || unlawful, illegal || {{Far|fistats}}
|-
| '''fizætud''' || n || rookie, newbie, wet behind the ears || {{Far|fisrantud}} "inexperienced"
|-
| '''foga''' || v || make, create || {{Far|foghan}}
|-
| '''fogalo''' || n || workshop ||
|-
| '''gaba''' || v || share || ''gabbwa''
|-
| '''gafač''' || n || crime || {{Far|ghafač}} "theft"
|-
| '''gafaču''' || n || criminal ||
|-
| '''gah''' || v || mock, disdain || ''gagak'' "smile"
|-
| '''gaos''' || n || boat || {{Far|gars}}
|-
| '''gašu''' || n || rabbit || ''gaido''
|-
| '''gatač''' || n || galley || {{Far|ghantač}} "dragon"
|-
| '''gate''' || n || wood || ''gatn''
|-
| '''gatel''' || n || plank, board ||
|-
| '''gæje''' || pron || those things, those people || (pluralizer + "that one")
|-
| '''geč''' || adj || mighty, powerful || {{Far|gheč}}
|-
| '''geipša''' || n || sheep || ''gaibra''
|-
| '''geirit''' || pp || until, up to || ''nggairit''
|-
| '''geiru''' || n || atheist, cynic || {{Ndd|gèddo}} "skeptic"
|-
| '''geoč''' || n || fourth day of the week || {{Far|gereč}}, the moon goddess
|-
| '''gis''' || n || dagger || {{Far|ghisk}} "knife"
|-
| '''gissa''' || v || cut || {{Far|ghiskan}}
|-
| '''goá''' || v || follow || ''gua''
|-
| '''goda''' || v || descend, derive || {{Far|gudan}}
|-
| '''gonin''' || n || elder; elder brother || {{Far|gonin}}
|-
| '''gou''' || n || road || ''gau''
|-
| '''goubu''' || n || traveler ||
|-
| '''goudah''' || v || dream || ''gondag''
|-
| '''goul''' || n || path, way || ''gau'' + dim.
|-
| '''gouga''' || v || break || ''gonggai''
|-
| '''goum''' || adj || high || ''gom''
|-
| '''goumoudu''' || n || cross-staff (for measuring angles) || "way-measure"
|-
| '''gourun''' || n || desert || ''gauron'' "semiarid land"
|-
| '''gout''' || adj || dull (not sharp) || ''gaut''
|-
| '''gozu''' || adj || difficult || ''goso''
|-
| '''guab''' || v || mark, draw || ''gubab''
|-
| '''guabu''' || n || drawing ||
|-
| '''gube''' || v || survive, escape || ''gubm'' "survival"
|-
| '''guətu''' || cj || so, therefore || ''gunto''
|-
| '''guru''' || n || guts, intestines || ''guro''
|-
| '''ha''' || n || meat || ''sa''
|-
| '''hab''' || v || eat || ''sab'' "drink", confused with "meat"
|-
| '''hačiš''' || n || garlic || {{Gez|sakits}}
|-
| '''hadír''' || pp || outside, out of; outdoors || ''sa tiri'' "from out of door"
|-
| '''hadírlo''' || adj || open, overt, superficial || "outside-ish"
|-
| '''hadlu''' || adj || spicy || ''sadlo'' "rich-tasting"
|-
| '''Hagíbəl''' || n || ancient or poetic name for Huyfárah || ''Sau Ibli'' "north coast"
|-
| '''haglu''' || adj || gross, nasty || ''aklu'' "ugly" with some contamination from h- words
|-
| '''halapu''' || v || throw away, discard || ''salatpu''
|-
| '''halenadu''' || n || republic (form of government found among Dāiadak) || {{Ad|hālenadu}}
|-
| '''hape''' || v || force, coerce || ''sapmi''
|-
| '''haran''' || n || Faraghin (person or language) || ''saragin'', from {{Far|Faraghin}}
|-
| '''harsa''' || n || tube, pipe || ''sarsâ''
|-
| '''hæpabe''' || aux || begin, start (aux) || ''sâpabm''"lift"
|-
| '''hætud''' || n || veteran || {{Far|rantud}} "experienced"
|-
| '''heben''' || v || mutter, murmur, mumble || ''sepen''
|-
| '''hei''' || adj || blue || ''sai''
|-
| '''heil''' || adj || foreign || ''sai'' + dim.
|-
| '''heimə''' || v || wait || ''sema''
|-
| '''heipud''' || adj || crooked, twisted; deformed || {{Far|sempud}} "twisted"
|-
| '''heite''' || adj || neat, proper || ''sête'' "tidy"
|-
| '''helkun''' || n || enemy || ''selkon'' "hostile"
|-
| '''hewe''' || n || water || ''saungwe''
|-
| '''hewegou''' || n || dock || "water-road"
|-
| '''heweteka''' || n || navy, fleet || "water-army"
|-
| '''hewpu''' || adj || alone, solitary || ''saimpo''
|-
| '''hiebu''' || n || frog || ''sidespu'' "jumper"
|-
| '''híen''' || v || prove, demonstrate || ''sien''
|-
| '''hiəbur''' || v || boil || ''simbor''
|-
| '''hiəm''' || n || cloud || ''sim''
|-
| '''hiəteŋ''' || adj || different || ''sîteng''
|-
| '''hiəwa''' || adj || rotten || ''simwai''
|-
| '''hičidə''' || n || misuse of office || ''sikîda'' "corrupt"
|-
| '''hies''' || v || jump || ''sides''
|-
| '''higade''' || n || hurricane || ''sikadn''
|-
| '''hisəl''' || v || bequeath || {{Far|khisel}}
|-
| '''hislu''' || n || child, heir || {{Far|khislud}}
|-
| '''Histuənə''' || top || an eastern nation, homeland of Etúgə || {{Muts|siixtaguna}}
|-
| '''hitugə''' || n || physical necessity; the mundane world || {{Muts|sihtû'a}}
|-
| '''holə''' || pron || when || ''sola''
|-
| '''hou''' || n || coast || ''sau''
|-
| '''hounilin''' || adj || numinous, scary in a supernatural way || ''sonulak'' "imaginary" with confusion from ''hounilo''
|-
| '''hounilo''' || n || graveyard, cemetary || ''sonîlaou''
|-
| '''houzuŋ''' || n || left (side); port || ''saisung''
|-
| '''huəmu''' || adj || wrong || ''sumo''
|-
| '''huənšar''' || v || help, aid || ''sungiar''
|-
| '''hude''' || num || eight || ''sudn''
|-
| '''hupís''' || v || defeat, conquer || ''sompīs''
|-
| '''Hutaba''' || n || the founder of Etúgə || {{Muts|Sútapaj}}
|-
| '''Huyfárah''' || n || the nation of the Fáralo || {{Far|Soifaragh}} "Faraghin coast"
|-
| '''huz''' || n || mouse || ''susi''
|-
| '''huzǽtugə''' || n || immorality, vice, perversion, evil || {{Muts|hûsamtû'a}}
|-
| '''i''' || pron || I (1s nom) || ''i''
|-
| '''ibe''' || v || touch, use || ''ispe'' "feel (experience)", merged with *''iba'' from ''imbwa'' "use"
|-
| '''ibəl''' || n || north || ''ibli''
|-
| '''ibu''' || n || tool || ''imbwabu''
|-
| '''iče''' || adj || equal || ''iske''
|-
| '''ičǽməl''' || n || study; knowledge || ''iskaimel''
|-
| '''iden''' || v || lose; fail to find or buy || ''isten''
|-
| '''idər''' || aux || seem, appear (aux) || ''idr''- approximative
|-
| '''idúəŋ''' || n || sea, ocean || ''indùng''
|-
| '''idwæ''' || n || arm || ''itwam''
|-
| '''iəb''' || n || month, moon; one hundred || ''imbi''
|-
| '''iəbu''' || pron || me (1s acc) || ''î ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''iəlænə''' || n || catastrophe, disaster || ''imlana'' "flood"
|-
| '''iəma''' || n || symbol, sign || ''imai''
|-
| '''iəmu''' || n || head; top || ''imu
|-
| '''iəm''' || pron || to me (1s dat) || ''im''
|-
| '''iənə''' || v || see, look || ''ina''
|-
| '''iəptə''' || adj || cheerful, jovial || ''imbenta''
|-
| '''iətə''' || v || hang, suspend || ''inta''
|-
| '''ifisænə''' || n || the spiritual world; salvation; heaven || {{Muts|ifiisana}}
|-
| '''igə''' || pron || which one || ''iwa''
|-
| '''igrih''' || v || absorb, dissolve || ''igrik''
|-
| '''ijir''' || v || whisper || ''idgir''
|-
| '''ilč''' || adj || black || ''ilki''
|-
| '''imə''' || v || sew || ''isma''
|-
| '''io''' || n || noble, lord || ''idâu''
|-
| '''iodol''' || n || sun || "noble" + ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''ior''' || adj || sour, acidic || ''idur''
|-
| '''ioza''' || n || noblewoman, lady || "noble-woman"
|-
| '''iozal''' || n || girl of noble blood; figurehead or bow of a ship ||
|-
| '''ipah''' || v || sense, perceive || ''ingkwak''
|-
| '''ipə''' || adj || straight || ''ikwa''
|-
| '''ipi''' || n || liver || ''ingkwi''
|-
| '''iru''' || v || open || ''iro''
|-
| '''is''' || aux || should (aux) || ''is''- hortative
|-
| '''isə''' || pp || to, towards; before (time) || ''isla''
|-
| '''isəga''' || adj || early; preceding || "before-ish"
|-
| '''išo''' || n || night || ''iswau''
|-
| '''išonoun''' || n || journey, voyage || "night-go"
|-
| '''iwmu''' || adj || beautiful || ''ilmo''
|-
| '''iwmusa''' || n || beautiful girl ||
|-
| '''izin''' || adj || sudden || ''isi ''+ -''in''
|-
| '''jægə''' || adj || indignant, wrathful || ''gâga'' "angry"
|-
| '''jæje''' || pron || that one, that person || ''gâge'' "that yonder"
|-
| '''jæn''' || n || knife || ''gan''
|-
| '''jaŋu''' || v || move || ''gangio''
|-
| '''jegə''' || pron || who, what || ''gewa''
|-
| '''jeipə''' || n || insult || ''gempa''
|-
| '''ješ''' || adv || likely, probably || ''gets''
|-
| '''jiəku''' || adj || hard (not soft) || ''gingko''
|-
| '''jiənih''' || n || iron || ''ginig''
|-
| '''jibe''' || adj || bad || ''gibm''
|-
| '''jiə''' || adj || tall || ''gingwi''
|-
| '''jiwnə''' || adj || slow || ''gilna''
|-
| '''jori''' || v || wake up || {{Far|drorin}}
|-
| '''jos''' || adj || awake, conscious || {{Far|drors}}
|-
| '''juma''' || v || complain, protest || {{Far|druman}} "denounce (officially)"
|-
| '''kada''' || v || amuse, please || {{Far|katan}}
|-
| '''kadal''' || v || like, appreciate || ''kada ''+ dim.
|-
| '''kæda''' || n || ashes (pl) || ''ainda''
|-
| '''kaklo''' || n || border, boundary || ''kaklau'' "borderland"
|-
| '''kaltó''' || n || wind (pl) || ''altò''
|-
| '''kaogádin''' || n || uncle: father's younger brother || {{Far|kargadin}}
|-
| '''kaogə''' || n || fog, mist (pl) || ''arwa''
|-
| '''kaotača''' || n || aunt || {{Far|kartača}}
|-
| '''kape''' || adv || last year || ''kapm''
|-
| '''kaš''' || adj || funny, amusing || {{Far|kats}}
|-
| '''Kazəgad''' || top || Kasca, the ancient Edák nation, now ruled by Huyfárah || ''Kasadgad''
|-
| '''kazil''' || v || look at, watch || ''kasil''
|-
| '''kebač''' || n || dinner, meal || {{Far|kebač}}
|-
| '''Kečǽnə''' || n || the world; the planet Huyfárah is on (pl.) || (pl. of ''ngkana'')
|-
| '''kečem''' || n || honor || {{Far|ketrem}}
|-
| '''keil''' || v || dress; wear || ''kail''
|-
| '''keilu''' || n || tunic, rough skirt, peasant dress || "something worn"
|-
| '''keip''' || n || grass, herb (pl) || ''empi''
|-
| '''keiplo''' || n || pasture ||
|-
| '''keipmate''' || n || herblore ||
|-
| '''keize''' || n || snow (pl) || ''aise''
|-
| '''keoč''' || adj || angry || {{Far|kerts}}
|-
| '''kepéilu''' || n || rain (pl) || ''mpêlo''
|-
| '''kesé''' || n || blood (pl) || ''ntse''
|-
| '''kəwú''' || n || (Etúgeist) priest || {{Muts|kûhuuhu}}
|-
| '''kiki''' || n || a spice from the eastern islands || {{Thok|khiki}}
|-
| '''kipa''' || n || rice alcohol (pl) || {{Thok|kipa}}
|-
| '''kodə''' || v || cover || ''kota''
|-
| '''kolə''' || adj || absurd, crazy || ''kola'' "funny"
|-
| '''kouwə''' || n || tongue; rudder || ''komwa''
|-
| '''kpuəma''' || n || smoke, steam (pl) || ''pumâ''
|-
| '''kraš''' || adj || bold, brave || {{Far|khrans}}
|-
| '''kræwa''' || n || porridge (cheap meal of grain) || ''arâwa'' "dinner"
|-
| '''kreota''' || v || seize, capture || {{Far|krertan}}
|-
| '''ksoudu''' || n || sand (pl) || ''tsondo'' "dust"
|-
| '''ku''' || n || spirit, mind || {{Muts|kuu}}
|-
| '''kučil''' || v || rush, hurry || ''kuk ''+ dim.
|-
| '''kuəbə''' || v || waste || ''kumba''
|-
| '''kuəpéigə''' || v || assume, suppose || ''kumpaiwa'' "believe"
|-
| '''kuən''' || adj || sturdy, strong || ''kun'' "stiff"
|-
| '''kuəma''' || v || redo || ''kumâi'' "repair"
|-
| '''kuət''' || n || devil, demon || {{Far|khunt}}
|-
| '''kufas''' || n || (Etúgeist) temple || {{Muts|kûfase}}
|-
| '''kugal''' || adj || tame, domesticated (of small animals) || ''kukail''
|-
| '''kuin''' || adj || holy, sacred || {{Muts|kuu}} "spirit" + {{Far|-in}}
|-
| '''kuka''' || v || hiccough || (imitative)
|-
| '''kumepél''' || n || grave, burial place || ''ku æm epél'' "rest of the spirit"
|-
| '''kusæp''' || v || worship || "give the spirit"
|-
| '''kusræm''' || n || olive || {{Gez|kusram}}
|-
| '''kušu''' || v || cough || ''kutso''
|-
| '''kuz''' || n || records, archives || (pl. of ''susi'' "record")
|-
| '''kuzlo''' || n || library; archive ||
|-
| '''kwaše''' || pron || these things, these people || (pluralizer + "this one")
|-
| '''labaf''' || v || ignore || ''lapabap''
|-
| '''lad''' || adj || healthy || ''lasti''
|-
| '''lade''' || qu || not much || ''ladn''
|-
| '''ladmate''' || n || medicine ||
|-
| '''lalpo''' || v || heal, cure || "make healthy"
|-
| '''lalpobu''' || n || doctor, physician ||
|-
| '''lanæh''' || adj || rich, fragrant || ''lanag''
|-
| '''laoma''' || adj || long || ''larmai''
|-
| '''laršaošə''' || n || hour || ''lartsartsa''
|-
| '''laš''' || n || land, country || ''lats''
|-
| '''lašin''' || adj || national ||
|-
| '''Lašumu''' || top || Axôltseubeu, the nation upriver from Kazəgad || ''Latsomo''
|-
| '''laz''' || v || close, shut || ''lasi''
|-
| '''læpu''' || n || bone || ''langkwo''
|-
| '''læpusa''' || n || penis || "bone-meat"
|-
| '''læta''' || adj || fast || ''lantai''
|-
| '''leč''' || n || sword || {{Far|lets}} "longsword"
|-
| '''lečew''' || n || eighth day of the week || {{Far|lečeu}}
|-
| '''lega''' || n || word; language || ''lewai''
|-
| '''legal''' || v || write || ''lewai ''+ dim.
|-
| '''legéiša''' || n || poetry || ''lewaitsâi''
|-
| '''lei''' || n || bird || ''lai''
|-
| '''leid''' || n || year || ''laid''
|-
| '''leideiŋ''' || n || wing || "bird-finger"
|-
| '''leidin''' || adj || annual ||
|-
| '''leil''' || v || flow, pour; row || ''lail''
|-
| '''leilu''' || n || rowboat ||
|-
| '''leir''' || adj || young || ''lairi''
|-
| '''leišo''' || adj || cold || ''lêtsau''
|-
| '''lestə''' || v || collect, gather || ''lekta''
|-
| '''lewə''' || n || delta || ''lâwa''
|-
| '''lewku''' || pron || thou (2s-T nom) || ''laingko''
|-
| '''lewkuŋ''' || pron || thee (2s-T acc) || ''laingkong''
|-
| '''lewkum''' || pron || to thee (2s-T dat) || ''laingkom''
|-
| '''lews''' || adj || free, independent || {{Far|leus}}
|-
| '''lewsuy''' || v || free, liberate || {{Far|leusoin}}
|-
| '''liəmu''' || v || smile || ''limu'' "laugh quietly"
|-
| '''lišu''' || v || form, shape || ''ligio''
|-
| '''lizegu''' || v || shake || ''lisedgo''
|-
| '''loušə''' || v || answer, reply || ''lonsia''
|-
| '''loute''' || adj || right, correct || ''lonte''
|-
| '''loumo''' || v || visit || ''lolmau''
|-
| '''lu-''' || det || the; abstract nominalizer (clitic) || ''lu''
|-
| '''luba''' || v || lie || {{Far|lupan}}
|-
| '''luətəm''' || pron || to us (1p dat) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''i''
|-
| '''luki''' || pron || we (1p nom) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''i''
|-
| '''luzis''' || pron || us (1p acc) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''is''
|-
| '''mabe''' || n || mouth || ''mabm''
|-
| '''mač''' || n || table || ''maki''
|-
| '''mačud''' || n || slave || {{Far|magačud}} "captive (from a raid)"
|-
| '''made''' || n || force, violence || ''madn'' "violent"
|-
| '''magač''' || v || loot, pillage || {{Far|magač}}
|-
| '''mai''' || pron || nobody, nothing || ''mage''
|-
| '''maiga''' || adj || empty || "nothingly"
|-
| '''malæwe''' || adj || successful || ''malâwe''
|-
| '''malə''' || pron || where || ''mala''
|-
| '''malge''' || v || suck || ''malwe''
|-
| '''mardu''' || n || human || ''maldo''
|-
| '''marš''' || n || hammer || ''ngwartsi'' "tool"
|-
| '''mas''' || qu || a few || ''mi ais'' "not many"
|-
| '''mastač''' || n || government || {{Far|maštač}} "house" + nom.
|-
| '''mastin''' || adj || royal, governmental; public || {{Far|maštin}}
|-
| '''mašo''' || adv || never || ''matsau''
|-
| '''mate''' || v || know || ''matn''
|-
| '''matel''' || v || think, suspect || ''matn ''+ dim.
|-
| '''mateboéi''' || n || astrolabe || "know-star"
|-
| '''matibəl''' || n || magnet; compass || "know-north"
|-
| '''matugə''' || n || the impossible (to normal men); fantasy, spirituality || {{Muts|gmatû'a}}
|-
| '''mau''' || adj || blunt, dull || ''mabbu'' "blunt thing"
|-
| '''mæ''' || v || believe || ''ngwâi'' "think"
|-
| '''mæde''' || n || heart || ''maunde''
|-
| '''mæde''' || v || feel (an emotion) || ''maunde'' "heart"
|-
| '''mædidə''' || n || intelligence || ''maunde ta'' "mind"
|-
| '''mædu''' || adv || purposeless, pointless || ''mandu'' "for no reason"
|-
| '''mæg''' || adv || today || ''mâg''
|-
| '''mæm''' || num || seven || ''mam''
|-
| '''Mæmedéi''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Oltu || "seven trees"
|-
| '''mæsa''' || n || cow || ''mâisâ''
|-
| '''mebe''' || n || peasant, farmer || ''mebwe'' "father"
|-
| '''mebelo''' || n || farm || "farmer-place"
|-
| '''mei''' || v || trade || ''mê'' "journey"
|-
| '''meibu''' || n || trader, merchant ||
|-
| '''meikut''' || n || bastard, sumbitch || {{Far|menkhunt}} "son of a devil"
|-
| '''meil''' || v || read || ''mêli''
|-
| '''meis''' || v || lack, be insufficient || ''mebis''
|-
| '''melede''' || v || include || ''meledn''
|-
| '''menčaok''' || n || prince || {{Far|menčark}}
|-
| '''mengaos''' || n || first mate || {{Far|mengars}}
|-
| '''menio''' || n || young lord; boy of noble blood ||
|-
| '''Mentek''' || n || first king of the Balanin dynasty || {{Far|mentekh}} "son of a sword"
|-
| '''meode''' || v || squirt, spurt, splatter || ''ngwerde''
|-
| '''meokát''' || n || younger brother, apprentice, cadet || ''merkát''
|-
| '''mewk''' || v || rebel || ''mâuk'' "protest"
|-
| '''mewkil''' || v || oppose, resist || "rebel" + dim
|-
| '''meze''' || v || meet (people), encounter || ''mese''
|-
| '''mezel''' || v || greet || "meet" + dim.
|-
| '''məlew''' || v || figure out, realize || {{NAis|mîleu}} "come to understand"
|-
| '''mi''' || qu || no, none || ''mi''
|-
| '''midišǽna''' || v || fornicate || ''ngwitianal'' "get pregnant"
|-
| '''Miədu''' || top || the southernmost city in Huyfárah proper || ''Mos Mindu''
|-
| '''miəwə''' || adj || heroic || ''mingwa'' "powerful"
|-
| '''miga''' || v || thank || ''midgai''
|-
| '''mik''' || n || bread || ''mik''
|-
| '''mimalə''' || pron || nowhere || "no"+ "where"
|-
| '''miopə''' || adj || deaf || "no ear"
|-
| '''miordo''' || adj || blind || "no eye"
|-
| '''mipimə''' || n || dough, paste || ''mikwisma''
|-
| '''mipól''' || adj || nasty, indecent || ''ngwipaingkwul'' "terrible"
|-
| '''miš''' || adj || modern, novel || ''mits'' "late"
|-
| '''mišǽf''' || v || owe || ''ngwitsampi''
|-
| '''mišagu''' || n || holiday, day off || ''miasko'' "celebrate"
|-
| '''miúgur''' || v || try, attempt || ''miukur''
|-
| '''moge''' || adv || backward || ''ngwogng''
|-
| '''mola''' || adj || full || ''ngwolâi''
|-
| '''molar''' || v || prefer || ''morar''
|-
| '''molən''' || adj || alert, vigilant || ''molan'' "awake"
|-
| '''mordu''' || n || front; chest (of a person) || ''moldau''
|-
| '''more''' || n || magic, mysticism, the occult || ''more'' "dim"
|-
| '''mosin''' || adj || civilized, urban, cultured || ''mos'' "city" + -''in''
|-
| '''mosou''' || n || port, harbor || "city (of) coast"
|-
| '''mospi''' || adj || uncultured, provincial || {{NAis|moispî}} "showing poor judgment"
|-
| '''mou''' || n || skin || ''ngwau''
|-
| '''moudu''' || v || measure || ''mondu'' "count, measure"
|-
| '''moumušezə''' || n || council, senate || {{Far|mašmuršesa}} "house of warriors"
|-
| '''mouru''' || adj || narrow || ''mauro''
|-
| '''mowe''' || n || oral sex || {{Ndd|màwè}} "fellate"
|-
| '''Muəbaz''' || top || a city in Kazəgad, modern Momuva"e || ''Mos Mumbasi''
|-
| '''muəbazin''' || adj || lawless, anarchic || (from conditions in Muəbaz)
|-
| '''muba''' || n || worm || ''mombwai''
|-
| '''mube''' || adj || foolish, rash || ''muspê'' "foolish"
|-
| '''mula''' || n || ice || ''mulâ''
|-
| '''mus''' || v || grow || ''mus''
|-
| '''muslo''' || n || origin || ''muslau''
|-
| '''musmate''' || n || agriculture ||
|-
| '''mušidutə''' || n || belief, philosophy, ideology || {{Muts|mûtsitû'a}}
|-
| '''muymis''' || adj || stupid || ''musmis'' "stupid"
|-
| '''mwáogube''' || adj || ponderous, grave || ''mwarwobm'' "heavy"
|-
| '''na''' || pp || in (locations, substances, regions), inside; on || ''nai''
|-
| '''nabe''' || adj || red || ''napê''
|-
| '''nača''' || n || lady, baroness || ''nat + -sa''
|-
| '''nadír''' || pp || in (containers), inside of, indoors || ''nai tiri'' "in door"
|-
| '''nadírlo''' || adj || secret, hidden || "inside-ish"
|-
| '''naei''' || n || work, labor || ''nagebi''
|-
| '''naga''' || adj || inner, interior || "in-ish"
|-
| '''nagane''' || n || capital; seat (of a noble) || {{Far|nagane}} "lord-place"
|-
| '''nagə''' || n || god (of polytheistic religions) || ''naka''
|-
| '''nagu''' || n || bear (animal) || {{Far|nagho}}
|-
| '''naluŋuh''' || v || organize, arrange || ''nalunguk''
|-
| '''naoga''' || adj || regular, predictable || ''nabâu + -ga''
|-
| '''naonu''' || v || divide, separate || ''narno'' "cut"
|-
| '''naoŋga''' || v || split || ''naonu'' + "way"
|-
| '''napóča''' || v || play (e.g. games), have fun || {{Far|napalčan}} "mess around from boredom"
|-
| '''narór''' || n || horse || ''nalaròr''
|-
| '''naskuy''' || v || exile, cast out || {{Far|naksoin}} "put outside"
|-
| '''našiŋa''' || adv || futile, in vain || ''naisngai'' "pointlessly"
|-
| '''nat''' || n || lord, baron || {{Far|nagat}}
|-
| '''nata''' || n || the nobility, aristocracy || {{Far|nagata}} "lords"
|-
| '''nayu''' || n || noodles (an eastern dish) || {{Thok|nayu}}
|-
| '''nazə''' || n || east || ''nasa''
|-
| '''næbə''' || pron || someone, something || ''nambe''
|-
| '''næbæm''' || adj || small || ''nambam''
|-
| '''næblo''' || pron || sometime || ''nambau + -lo''
|-
| '''nælul''' || pron || somewhere || ''namlul''
|-
| '''næm''' || n || illness, disease || ''nam'' "sick"
|-
| '''næme''' || qu || some, any || ''namê''
|-
| '''næmuh''' || adj || orange || ''namowi'' "brown"
|-
| '''næpe''' || v || swell (up) || ''nambepm''
|-
| '''neča''' || n || wife || ''netrai''
|-
| '''nege''' || n || the most; maximum; azimuth || ''newe''
|-
| '''neib''' || v || aim || ''nembi'' "intend"
|-
| '''neiŋə''' || n || leaf || ''nenga''
|-
| '''neljæn''' || v || twist || ''nelgan''
|-
| '''neobu''' || n || sick person, patient ||
|-
| '''neos''' || adj || sick, ill || {{Far|ners}} "weak"
|-
| '''niən''' || cj || if/then conjunction || ''nin''
|-
| '''nil''' || num || nine || ''nil''
|-
| '''nioga''' || n || war || {{Far|nirgha}}
|-
| '''niogalo''' || n || battlefield ||
|-
| '''noš''' || v || die || ''nots''
|-
| '''noulo''' || n || street || ''nonlau'' "go-place"
|-
| '''noun''' || aux || go (aux) || ''non''
|-
| '''nuaš''' || v || cheat || ''nugats'' "trade"
|-
| '''nubázi''' || n || realization, enlightenment || {{Muts|nuduuhasihi}}
|-
| '''nuəma''' || v || boast || ''numagi''
|-
| '''nuge''' || adj || easy || ''nuwe''
|-
| '''nupáča''' || n || slime, snot || ''nukàkâ''
|-
| '''ŋa-''' || || (prefix forming a participial adjective: ''ŋanoun'' "going") || ''ngwa'' "few"
|-
| '''ŋadə''' || v || make love, have sex || ''ngata'' "sleep"
|-
| '''ŋal''' || adv || very || ''ngal''
|-
| '''ŋalər''' || adv || too, too much; excessive || ''ngal + ''comparative -''ur''
|-
| '''ŋalleil''' || n || flood || "too much water"
|-
| '''ŋastís''' || n || villain, rogue || ''ngaktīs'' "slave"
|-
| '''ŋapšə''' || adj || thick || ''ngabra''
|-
| '''ŋæ''' || n || gaffer; title for an elder peasant || ''ngâ'' "adult"
|-
| '''ŋæne''' || n || neck || ''ngane''
|-
| '''ŋæŋu''' || v || laugh || ''ngango'' "laugh loudly"
|-
| '''ŋeibə''' || n || toe || ''ngemba''
|-
| '''ŋeide''' || v || wipe || ''ngende''
|-
| '''ŋi''' || num || two || ''ngi''
|-
| '''ŋiəbu''' || adj || sharp; acute, clever || ''ngimbu''
|-
| '''ŋiəbul''' || n || needle || "sharp" + dim.
|-
| '''ŋigatač''' || n || bireme || "two-galley"
|-
| '''ŋouru''' || adj || ancient; also an ethnonym || ''ngauro''
|-
| '''Ŋourlo''' || top || a city in Kazəgad || ''Ngaurlau''
|-
| '''ŋuəne''' || adj || prudent, cautious, conservative || ''ngune'' "moderate"
|-
| '''ŋura''' || n || cloves || (uncertain origin)
|-
| '''ŋura''' || adj || brown || "clove-colored"
|-
| '''oa''' || n || salt || ''odai''
|-
| '''oæm''' || n || right (side), starboard || ''odam''
|-
| '''obo''' || pp || for, for the purpose of || ''ob "''at" + ''wau'' "for"
|-
| '''odu''' || v || come || ''oto''
|-
| '''odu''' || aux || come, (aux) be at the moment || ''oto''
|-
| '''odulo''' || n || destination || ''otolau''
|-
| '''ogabe''' || v || suffer, be hurt || ''odgabm''
|-
| '''ogu''' || v || mourn, grieve || ''owu''
|-
| '''olǽtə''' || v || be exhausted, be wiped; be feeble with age || ''olanta'' "do too much"
|-
| '''olinə''' || v || not know, not perceive || ''olina'' "be blind to"
|-
| '''olo''' || n || place, location || ''olau''
|-
| '''oltu''' || adj || new || ''olto''
|-
| '''oltu''' || top || the name of the main river of Huyfárah || ''olto'' "new"
|-
| '''Oltumosou''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Poráš || "new port"
|-
| '''oludo''' || v || deserve, have a right to || ''oloto'' "deserve a place"
|-
| '''oludu''' || n || deserts, things rightfully one's own ||
|-
| '''olyéna''' || v || commit a faux pas || {{Ndd|oljènàn}}
|-
| '''oŋ''' || v || squeeze || ''orngi''
|-
| '''opə''' || n || ear || ''okwa''
|-
| '''opin''' || adj || auditory; audible ||
|-
| '''opwo''' || n || a type of meal popular in Lašumu || {{NAis|opweu}}
|-
| '''ordo''' || n || eye || ''oldau''
|-
| '''ordin''' || adj || visual; visible ||
|-
| '''orgal''' || v || ignite, explode || ''ôriwal''
|-
| '''oslók''' || v || forget || ''oslòk'' (reborrowed)
|-
| '''ošyal''' || v || propose, suggest || ''obial'' "offer"
|-
| '''ote''' || v || run, hurry || ''orte''
|-
| '''otóun''' || adj || thin || ''auntōn''
|-
| '''oubə''' || qu || almost all || ''omba'' "many"
|-
| '''oudisa''' || n || witch ||
|-
| '''oudiz''' || n || magician || ''ondisi'' "expert"
|-
| '''ougə''' || pp || behind, in back of || ''ob bongga'' "at the back"
|-
| '''oumol''' || n || younger sister || ''omai ''+ dim.
|-
| '''oumu''' || n || mother || ''omo''
|-
| '''-oun''' || cj || and || ''on''
|-
| '''ouŋa''' || adj || vulgar, base || ''alngai'' "common"
|-
| '''ouŋu''' || pp || without, except for || ''al'' "without" + ''ngu'' "as"
|-
| '''oupə''' || adj || boring || ''ompa'' "flat"
|-
| '''oupu''' || adj || deep || ''ompu''
|-
| '''oušu''' || v || promise || ''aitsu''
|-
| '''ouwa''' || cj || and || ''ongwâ''
|-
| '''ouzə''' || n || suicide || ''ausa'' "sacrifice"
|-
| '''ouzu''' || adv || yesterday || ''auso''
|-
| '''oymə''' || adj || recent || ''osma''
|-
| '''oyŋǽŋga''' || adj || serious, solemn || ''olngango'' "be serious"
|-
| '''pabo''' || v || analyze, categorize || ''papau'' "name" (reborrowed)
|-
| '''pačuna''' || v || count, reckon || {{Far|pačunan}}, from ''pat-sun'' "one-two"
|-
| '''padu''' || v || attack || ''pasto''
|-
| '''padupe''' || v || smash, break || ''kwatopm''
|-
| '''Palge''' || top || a free city in Kazəgad, modern Pawé || ''Palwe''
|-
| '''pap''' || n || defense || ''pap'' "shield"
|-
| '''pardə''' || n || valley || ''palda''
|-
| '''paš''' || n || socket, niche || ''kwats'' "chair"
|-
| '''pat''' || adj || stinky, smelly || ''kwat''
|-
| '''pæm''' || adj || round || ''kwaim''
|-
| '''pæn''' || v || bite, chew || ''kwain''
|-
| '''pea''' || adj || ready || ''kweda''
|-
| '''pei''' || adj || big || ''pai''
|-
| '''peiblo''' || n || beach || ''pailbelau''
|-
| '''peide''' || adj || loud || ''kwaidn''
|-
| '''peilaš''' || n || mainland (as opposed to the sea) || "big land"
|-
| '''peilbu''' || n || hourglass || ''pailbe "''sand" + -''bu''
|-
| '''peimæb''' || n || mystery || ''palmambi'' "secret"
|-
| '''Peimast''' || top || a city on the upper Poráš || "big house"
|-
| '''pein''' || pp || with, accompanied by, having || ''kwen''
|-
| '''peitə''' || aux || fucking do (aux) || ''penta'' "fuck up"
|-
| '''peitu''' || adv || apart || ''kwentu''
|-
| '''pepə''' || adj || last, final || ''pekwa''
|-
| '''peras''' || n || knight, first rank of noble || ''peras'' "brave"
|-
| '''peše''' || v || drop, let go; abandon || ''kwetsn''
|-
| '''pezə''' || v || shit || ''pesa''
|-
| '''pezəlo''' || n || outhouse, toilet ||
|-
| '''pi''' || n || fingernail || ''kwi''
|-
| '''piədæmis''' || v || understand || ''kwindamis''
|-
| '''piəm''' || adj || low || ''pim''
|-
| '''piəm''' || v || abase; (refl) submit, lower oneself, sacrifice || ''pim'' "low"
|-
| '''pigəl''' || adv || first || ''piwel'' "early"
|-
| '''pila''' || v || send || ''pilai''
|-
| '''pila''' || aux || have done, send for (aux) || ''pilai'' "send"
|-
| '''pipe''' || adj || practical, earthy || ''pipm'' "useful"
|-
| '''pir''' || n || goat || ''kwir''
|-
| '''pišil''' || adj || pale, gray || ''pitsi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''popu''' || v || fear || ''paingkwu''
|-
| '''porat''' || adj || trustworthy, sound || {{Far|porat}} "clean, pure"
|-
| '''Poráš''' || top || the river east of the Oltu ||
|-
| '''pouku''' || v || refuse, deny || ''pokpo''
|-
| '''poun''' || n || island || ''pon''
|-
| '''pouni''' || n || plant, vegetation || ''ponî''
|-
| '''pragu''' || adj || tamed, broken (of horses) || {{Far|pragud}} "accustomed, tamed"
|-
| '''præmbu''' || n || architect ||
|-
| '''præn''' || v || build; design || ''pirain'' "plan"
|-
| '''prænmate''' || n || architecture, building ||
|-
| '''pubiət''' || v || threaten, menace || ''pupibat''
|-
| '''Puwa''' || top || a Naidda-speaking city in the far south || {{Ndd|Pu'a}}
|-
| '''puwə''' || n || nose || ''pungwa''
|-
| '''rari''' || adj || addicted || {{Ndd|raiddi}}
|-
| '''Rasedán''' || top || the western mountains || {{Ad|Rathedān}}
|-
| '''raul''' || v || fill || ''ragol''
|-
| '''ræbe''' || pp || along; during, in, within || ''rambe''
|-
| '''ræde''' || n || sky || ''rande''
|-
| '''rædel''' || n || pot, jar || ''rander ''+ dim.
|-
| '''ræpe''' || adj || fertile || ''rampa'' "abundant"
|-
| '''ræpen''' || pp || instead of, in place of || ''rampen''
|-
| '''rætu''' || v || hear || ''ranto''
|-
| '''rečiəs''' || n || bleeding (of a wound); menstruation || ''rekibas'' "flood"
|-
| '''reimur''' || n || earthquake || ''remor''
|-
| '''relga''' || adj || hot || ''relsi'' "be hot" + adj.
|-
| '''rewebe''' || adj || unable, useless || ''râwebm'' "incompetent"
|-
| '''rewŋ''' || adj || flat, smooth || ''raung'' "plains"
|-
| '''rewŋəl''' || n || platform; deck (of a ship) || ''raung'' + dim.
|-
| '''rewŋlo''' || n || plain, flatlands ||
|-
| '''rifəs''' || adj || ugly || {{Far|rifs}} "scary"
|-
| '''rišo''' || v || con, defraud || {{Ndd|risjo}}
|-
| '''ro''' || num || ten || ''ro''
|-
| '''robe''' || n || feather || ''robm''
|-
| '''roda''' || v || have, own (things) || {{Far|rotan}}' "own, possess"
|-
| '''rodu''' || n || possessions, one's things || {{Far|rotud}}
|-
| '''rogə''' || v || perform, act || ''rowa'' "play (an instrument)"
|-
| '''roulə ''' || v || care for, be devoted to || ''raula'' "love"
|-
| '''roumə ' ' || pron || that (relativizer) || ''roma''
|-
| '''route''' || v || flee || (habitative of ''orte'' "run")
|-
| '''rozaru''' || n || voter (in a republic) || {{Ad|rozarō}}
|-
| '''rubadu''' || v || annoy, irritate || ''rupasto'' "be agressive"
|-
| '''rud''' || n || man (male) || ''rud''
|-
| '''ruduga''' || adj || unpredictable || (adjectivization of ''rututu'' "be unpredictable")
|-
| '''ruənah''' || n || priest (of the pagans) || ''runnak''
|-
| '''ruga''' || adj || gullible || (adjectivization of ''rugua'' "be gullible")
|-
| '''rulasa''' || n || whore, prostitute || {{Ndd|rula}} "be promiscuous" + -''sa'' "woman"
|-
| '''rumia''' || v || trust, have confidence in || (habitative of ''miga'' "trust")
|-
| '''rušan''' || v || blame; cast aspersions, sling mud || {{Far|rušnen}} "paint"
|-
| '''rušoga''' || adj || fantastic, imaginative || (adjectivization of ''rudioba'' "daydream")
|-
| '''ruəga''' || adj || intelligent || (adjectivization of ''rungwâi'' "be intelligent")
|-
| '''sačin''' || adj || rich, wealthy || {{Far|sats}} + -''in''
|-
| '''sašə''' || v || sneeze || ''tsatsa''
|-
| '''satar''' || n || democratic assembly || {{Ad|zāthar}}
|-
| '''satugə''' || n || false knowledge, illusion || {{Muts|ttsatû'a}}
|-
| '''sæči''' || adj || soft || ''tsâuki''
|-
| '''sæŋ''' || v || wash || ''tsaing''
|-
| '''sæp''' || v || give || ''tsampi''
|-
| '''sæt''' || n || gold || {{Far|sat}}
|-
| '''sætil''' || n || money || "little gold"
|-
| '''sætugə''' || n || virtue, morality || {{Muts|ktsantû'a}}
|-
| '''sečas''' || n || good luck, good fortune || {{Far|českudač}} "encounter with pixies"
|-
| '''sečasin''' || adj || lucky, fortunate ||
|-
| '''seiš''' || n || louse || ''tsêtsi''
|-
| '''seiza''' || n || dawn || ''tsaisai'' "arise"
|-
| '''sek''' || n || name || {{Far|sekh}}
|-
| '''seka''' || v || name, call || {{Far|sekhan}}
|-
| '''selo''' || n || spear || ''tselô''
|-
| '''seor''' || v || pour || ''tsebor''
|-
| '''seošan''' || n || seventh day of the week and day of rest || {{Far|seršan}}
|-
| '''serčaok''' || n || emperor (title of the Fáralo ruler) || {{Far|serčark}} "great king"
|-
| '''serin''' || adj || imperial || (back-formed from ''serčaok'')
|-
| '''sernat''' || n || minister (of state) || {{Far|sernagat}} "great lord"
|-
| '''Sertek''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Poráš || {{Far|sertekh}} "mighty sword"
|-
| '''seze''' || adj || steep || ''tsese''
|-
| '''seziči''' || v || be born || ''tsesir'' + refl.
|-
| '''sezul''' || n || infant || "be born" + dim.
|-
| '''si-''' || pron || that (clitic) || ''tsi''
|-
| '''sidin''' || adj || sad, unhappy || ''tsisten'' "be depressed"
|-
| '''siəč''' || adj || separate, apart || ''tsingki''
|-
| '''siən''' || v || drink || ''tsin'' "like"
|-
| '''Siənčæn''' || n || the greatest of the Edák emperors || ''Tsinakan'''''
|-
| '''sigil''' || v || urinate, piss || ''sig ''+ dim.
|-
| '''silo''' || n || tooth, fang || ''tsilâu''
|-
| '''sirul''' || pron || there || ''tsilul'' "there (far)"
|-
| '''sip''' || adv || thus || ''tsip''
|-
| '''siralo''' || n || brothel || {{Ndd|sìddalo}} "inn with a brothel"
|-
| '''sis''' || n || dog || ''tsis''
|-
| '''sissa''' || n || bitch || "female dog"
|-
| '''siš''' || aux || null (aux) || "then"
|-
| '''sišo''' || pron || then || ''tsitsau''
|-
| '''so''' || aux || must, have to (aux) || ''tso- ''obligative
|-
| '''sobræn''' || v || succeed || ''tsopirain''
|-
| '''sos''' || adj || mature, adult || {{Far|sors}}
|-
| '''sossa''' || n || nubile girl, one who has just come of age ||
|-
| '''soy''' || v || cause || ''tsobi'' "control"
|-
| '''soudul''' || n || powder, dust || ''tsondo ''+ dim.
|-
| '''sounči''' || v || kneel || "knee" + refl.
|-
| '''souŋ''' || n || knee || ''tsong''
|-
| '''suji''' || v || press, pressure || ''tsurgî''
|-
| '''sur''' || adv || tomorrow || ''tsuri''
|-
| '''susu''' || v || whistle || (imitative)
|-
| '''suš''' || adj || near, nearby || ''tsuts''
|-
| '''sušin''' || n || neighbor ||
|-
| '''šælo''' || n || hearth, fireplace; home || {{Far|šan}} "fire" + "place"
|-
| '''šesuy''' || v || crown or select a ruler || {{Far|šesoin}} "to make holy"
|-
| '''Šišin''' || top || the northern mountains (NT ''Daing Ibli'') || {{Far|Čintsin}} "northerly"
|-
| '''šuən''' || v || stab, slash || {{Far|prunin}}
|-
| '''šuys''' || adj || merciful, compassionate || {{Far|šois}} "sweet, gentle", from ''šoi'' "woman"
|-
| '''ta''' || aux || just did (aux) || ''ta ''dynamic particle
|-
| '''tača''' || n || older sister || {{Far|tača}}
|-
| '''Tal''' || top || the western provinces of Huyfárah || ''Tali''
|-
| '''talo''' || n || the people of Tal; the Tlaliolz ||
|-
| '''tædi''' || n || shelter || ''taindi'' "wing"
|-
| '''tædil''' || n || oar || ''taindi'' "wing" + dim.
|-
| '''tæm''' || n || south || ''tam''
|-
| '''taš''' || adj || lawful, legal || {{Far|tats}}
|-
| '''tatuy''' || v || allow, permit || {{Far|tatoin}}
|-
| '''tazbæm''' || v || imply || ''tasbam''
|-
| '''teibe''' || adv || together || ''taibm''
|-
| '''teiŋu''' || n || pull || ''tengo''
|-
| '''teiŋgas''' || n || punt, flatboat || "pull-boat"
|-
| '''teitu''' || adj || wide || ''tento''
|-
| '''teiš''' || v || bend, fold || ''tautsi''
|-
| '''teka''' || n || army || {{Far|tekha}}
|-
| '''tesses''' || n || soldier || {{Far|tekšes}} "swordsman"
|-
| '''tid''' || n || flea || ''titi''
|-
| '''tiəŋišə''' || n || flash, spark || ''tingia''
|-
| '''tikóu''' || n || stone, rock; anchor|| ''tingkāu''
|-
| '''tir''' || n || door || ''tiri''
|-
| '''tišæna''' || v || take as a concubine or consort || ''tianai'' "marry"
|-
| '''toba''' || n || horn || ''topai''
|-
| '''todu''' || n || idiot, doofus || (from ''totoli'' "be clumsy")
|-
| '''tol''' || v || shine || ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''tol''' || n || light || ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''tolin''' || adj || bright ||
|-
| '''tou''' || n || lake || ''tau''
|-
| '''toun''' || n || hand || ''ton''
|-
| '''tudu''' || v || amaze || ''tutu''
|-
| '''tuəd''' || v || oversee, control || {{Far|tundan}}
|-
| '''tulas''' || n || cinnamon || {{Ad|thulus}}
|-
| '''tuma''' || n || pirate || {{Thok|tuma}} "outlaw"
|-
| '''twæno''' || v || avoid, prevent || ''tuanau''
|-
| '''ubák''' || n || palace || ''ospàk'' "throne"
|-
| '''Ubáz''' || n || the Mother Goddess of the Edák || ''ombāsi''
|-
| '''ubu''' || adv || soon || ''ubwu''
|-
| '''učébur''' || v || rush foolishly into something || ''ukembur'' "behave recklessly"
|-
| '''uəgu''' || adj || lame, crippled || ''unggu''
|-
| '''uəm''' || aux || cause (aux) || ''umbom-''
|-
| '''uəmə''' || v || joke || ''unma'' "play"
|-
| '''uəš''' || v || blow, breathe || ''untsi''
|-
| '''uəta''' || n || humor, wit || ''untai "joke"''
|-
| '''ugaš''' || v || be a storm || ''uwaits'' "be cloudy"
|-
| '''ugə''' || pp || from; after || ''uwa''
|-
| '''ugəga''' || adv || late, later || "afterish"
|-
| '''uksáb''' || v || be eager or zealous || ''uksab'' "look forward to"
|-
| '''ukšúy''' || v || covet, long for the forbidden || ''uktsobi''
|-
| '''ulə''' || v || rise, raise, lift || ''ula''
|-
| '''ulgə''' || v || taste || ''ulwa''
|-
| '''ulgu''' || n || rope || ''ulwo''
|-
| '''umórdu''' || pp || in front of, before (space) || ''ob moldau'' "at front"
|-
| '''umóro''' || v || be picky || {{Ndd|u"moddo}}
|-
| '''undribu''' || n || comedian || {{Ndd|unddivo}}
|-
| '''uplə''' || v || explain, describe || ''upla''
|-
| '''Ussor''' || top || capital of Huyfárah || ''Uksaur''
|-
| '''ušóbe''' || v || be horny || {{Ndd|usjàve}}
|-
| '''utúči''' || v || kill oneself || ''utnots ''+ refl. -''či''
|-
| '''uw''' || adj || cruel, savage || ''udu''
|-
| '''uwlo''' || n || barbarian ||
|-
| '''uwméi''' || adj || yellow || ''ulmāi''
|-
| '''wa-''' || det || this (clitic) || ''wai''
|-
| '''wabə''' || v || hit || ''wapa''
|-
| '''wagaga''' || adj || peaceful ||
|-
| '''wagah''' || n || peace || ''wawaik'' "calm"
|-
| '''waš''' || v || dig || ''wats''
|-
| '''waše''' || pron || this one, this person|| ''waige''
|-
| '''wat''' || n || age || ''wat''
|-
| '''wægól''' || pp || below, under || ''ob nggolang'' "at foot"
|-
| '''wæpum''' || adj || hollow || ''wampum''
|-
| '''wære''' || v || love || ''ugbâre'' optative of "have"
|-
| '''wætáŋ''' || pp || beyond, past || ''ob ntang'' "at end"
|-
| '''wætə''' || pp || about, concerning || ''wau'' "for" + ''nte'' "with"
|-
| '''we''' || aux || will (future aux) || ''we- ''future prefix
|-
| '''wede''' || n || vegetable || ''wedn''
|-
| '''weilo''' || n || garden || ''wenlau''
|-
| '''weišo''' || adv || now || ''waitsau''
|-
| '''wiəm''' || v || live || ''wim''
|-
| '''wiəmu''' || pp || above, over || ''ob imu'' "at head"
|-
| '''wiəŋ''' || adj || wet || ''wing''
|-
| '''wilo''' || n || house || "living place"
|-
| '''wimés''' || adj || adjacent, adjoining || ''wimès'' "neighbor"
|-
| '''wimə''' || n || mud || ''wisma''
|-
| '''wiməl''' || adj || dirty || ''wisma'' + dim.
|-
| '''wiza''' || v || yell, shout || ''wisai''
|-
| '''wodel''' || v || wear, carry || ''wirdel''
|-
| '''wos''' || num || three || ''wos''
|-
| '''wošlo''' || n || dump, hick town || {{Ndd|wàsjlo}} "hole in the ground"
|-
| '''wozgatač''' || n || trireme || "three-galley"
|-
| '''woul''' || pron || here || ''wailul''
|-
| '''woupu''' || v || remember || ''wompo''
|-
| '''wugu''' || v || condemn, find guilty || ''wuku'' "blame"
|-
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Fáralo/Lexicon

2025-02-01T19:52:16Z

Cedh: sortable wiki version of the lexicon

{{noticebox|'''''This is an unofficial wiki version of the lexicon.'''''

The official Fáralo lexicon (which is not sortable but may have a few additional words) can be found at the end of the [http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm Fáralo grammar].}}

==Fáralo Lexicon==

(aux) indicates auxiliary verbs; see the Morphology section for morphological irregularities. (pl) indicates nouns that are used in the plural only.

Most roots can serve as nouns or verbs, depending on how they're inflected. If you're looking up an English verb, try the noun form, and vice versa. See ''Derivation'' for details.

Etymology:
* Far. = [[Faraghin]]
* Gez. = [[Gezoro]]
* Mûts. = [[Mûtsipsa']]
* Thok. = [[Thokyunèhotà]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* unmarked = [[Ndak Ta]]

''1022 words (+10)''

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
! Fáralo word
! PoS
! meaning
! etymology
|-
| '''a''' || pron || he/she (3s nom) || ''a''
|-
| '''abe''' || adj || solid, stable || ''abwe''
|-
| '''aboa''' || v || bloom, flourish || ''abbwa''
|-
| '''abu''' || pron || them (2p acc) || ''as ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''abunde''' || n || thunder || ''abwodnodn''
|-
| '''adulsə''' || v || tell, relate || ''atulsa''
|-
| '''adulsu''' || n || story, history ||
|-
| '''adwə''' || adj || dark || ''adwa''
|-
| '''adwəsæt''' || v || bribe || "dark money"
|-
| '''aə''' || n || swamp || ''abâi''
|-
| '''agal''' || adj || active || ''aubai'' + dim.
|-
| '''agiu''' || v || hope || ''awio''
|-
| '''agu''' || adj || happy || ''aubo'' "easy"
|-
| '''Agumosou''' || top || the chief city of the Dagæm islands || "happy port"
|-
| '''ak''' || pron || they (3p nom) || ''ak''
|-
| '''akremu''' || n || wax || ''akremo''
|-
| '''al''' || aux || want, desire (aux) || ''ali'' "fire, be warm, burn"
|-
| '''alégadu''' || n || constitution (a foreign concept) || {{Ad|ālégadu}} "the Laws"
|-
| '''alenin''' || adj || civil (war) || ''alen'' "split" + adj. -''in''
|-
| '''algo''' || pp || despite, against || ''al'' "without" + ''wau'' "for"
|-
| '''alóu''' || n || flower || ''ailàu''
|-
| '''alpo''' || v || manufacture || ''alpau'' "make"
|-
| '''alpobu''' || n || manufacturer, craftsman ||
|-
| '''ammu''' || v || steal || ''aulmo''
|-
| '''ammubu''' || n || thief ||
|-
| '''anǽn''' || adj || dry || ''asnàn''
|-
| '''aoba''' || n || mason || ''arbwa'' "craftsman"
|-
| '''aogə''' || n || uncertainty, confusion || ''arwa'' "fog"
|-
| '''apo''' || n || fruit || ''apwi''
|-
| '''apridu''' || n || horror, terror || ''apridn'' "be horrified"
|-
| '''arélibu''' || n || opponent, dissident || {{Ad|ārêlibu}} "opposers" (reinterpreted as singular)
|-
| '''as''' || qu || many, much || ''ais''
|-
| '''Asalé''' || top || the best-known city of Rathedān in the far west || {{Ad|Athalē}}
|-
| '''asin''' || adj || heavy || "much-ish"
|-
| '''ašu''' || adj || chief, supreme || ''aio''
|-
| '''ašubu''' || n || chieftain, leader ||
|-
| '''ate''' || v || keep || ''aitn''
|-
| '''atelo''' || n || storehouse ||
|-
| '''atelol''' || n || closet, storage area ||
|-
| '''atu''' || n || possession || "something kept"
|-
| '''avávo''' || adj || poor, miserable || {{Ndd|avāvo}} "poor city-dweller"
|-
| '''azə''' || n || woman || ''asa''
|-
| '''æba ''' || adj || sober || ''ambwa'' "moderately"
|-
| '''æbu''' || pron || him/her (2s acc) || ''â ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''æč''' || pron || my (1s poss) || ''âki''
|-
| '''æčih''' || pron || our (1p poss) || ''âkik''
|-
| '''ækə''' || n || air || âka
|-
| '''æda''' || aux || need (aux) || ''âidai''
|-
| '''æda''' || n || corpse || ''ainda'' "ashes"
|-
| '''æde''' || aux || stay, remain, stand; keep at, continue doing; be (aux) || ''ande''
|-
| '''ædelu''' || n || city || "stay-place"
|-
| '''ægah''' || pron || their (3p poss) || ''âkak''
|-
| '''ægə''' || pron || his/her (3s poss) || ''âka''
|-
| '''æglewku''' || pron || thy (2s poss) || ''âklaingko''
|-
| '''ægóu''' || adj || awry, wrong, off || ''ainggàu''
|-
| '''ægóubu''' || n || eccentric, crank || ''ainggàubu''
|-
| '''æjegə''' || pron || whose || ''âk gewa''
|-
| '''æm''' || pron || to him/her/them (3s/3p dat); of, for || ''am''
|-
| '''æməl''' || n || fly (insect) || ''ammi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''æna''' || adj || hungry || ''anai'' "empty"
|-
| '''ænal''' || adv || downward || ''aina'' + dim.
|-
| '''ænal''' || n || hold (of a ship) || ''aina'' "downward" + dim.
|-
| '''æŋéilo''' || n || military || ''angài ''+ ''-lo''
|-
| '''ænil''' || n || a hair (as a mass, use plural) || ''aini ''+ dim.
|-
| '''æŋu''' || pron || your (2p poss) || ''âgdok''
|-
| '''æsečə''' || n || kind, type, sort || ''ansetra'' "prototype"
|-
| '''æti''' || n || river || ''aunti''
|-
| '''æte''' || adj || feeble, weak || ''ainte''
|-
| '''ætu''' || adj || old || ''anto''
|-
| '''baba''' || v || babble; chat || (imitative)
|-
| '''bad''' || adj || sweet, sugary || ''basti'' "gentle"
|-
| '''bage''' || adj || rough || ''bagng''
|-
| '''Balanin''' || n || the first ruling dynasty of imperial Huyfárah || {{Far|balanin}} "ironlike"
|-
| '''bæb''' || v || miss (not hit) || ''bambi'' "fail"
|-
| '''bæbu''' || n || root; anchor || ''bâpu''
|-
| '''bæbur''' || adj || strong || ''bambor''
|-
| '''bæl''' || v || speak with an accent || ''bâil'' "burp"
|-
| '''bæna''' || v || beg, supplicate || ''banai'' "worship"
|-
| '''bænéilo''' || n || pagan temple || ''banailau''
|-
| '''bære''' || v || own (land) || ''bâre'' "have, possess"
|-
| '''bæru''' || n || real estate, land holdings ||
|-
| '''badew''' || n || father || {{Far|badeu}}
|-
| '''baobadew''' || n || uncle: father's older brother || {{Far|barbadeu}} "master of father"
|-
| '''baodat''' || n || judge || {{Far|bartat}} "master of law"
|-
| '''baogas''' || n || captain (of a ship) || {{Far|bargars}}
|-
| '''baoluy''' || n || fifth day of the week || {{Far|barloi}}
|-
| '''baomast''' || n || steward, majordomo || {{Far|barmašt}} "master of the palace"
|-
| '''baonuy''' || v || advance, progress, march || {{Far|branoin}} "go forward"
|-
| '''baosifa''' || n || admiral, naval commander || {{Far|barsifa}} "master of seas"
|-
| '''baoteka''' || n || commander || {{Far|bartekha}} "master of swords"
|-
| '''Barnágo''' || top || a city on the upper Oltu || {{Far|barnagho}} "master of bears"
|-
| '''baruy''' || v || appoint, grant || {{Far|baroin}} "make a master"
|-
| '''bas''' || adj || calm, even-tempered || {{Far|bas}}
|-
| '''baše''' || n || stick, branch; spine; keel || ''batsn''
|-
| '''bašel''' || n || twig || ''batsn ''+ dim.
|-
| '''beibu''' || pp || among, between || ''mbembu''
|-
| '''beibul''' || n || genitals || "between" + dim.
|-
| '''beibulsa''' || n || vagina || "female genitals"
|-
| '''beiča''' || n || leg || ''baitrai''
|-
| '''beidu''' || adj || tight || ''bendut''
|-
| '''beb''' || v || punish || ''bespi''
|-
| '''benuy''' || v || annul || {{Far|benoin}} "make nothing"
|-
| '''bepo''' || adj || dumb, retarded || ''bekwâu'' "insufficient"
|-
| '''bewš''' || n || first day of the week || {{Far|breuš}}, a goddess
|-
| '''bewšin''' || adj || unlucky, unfortunate || {{Far|breušin}}
|-
| '''biəbu''' || v || scratch; massage || ''bimbo'' "rub"
|-
| '''boa''' || cj || or || ''boda'' "xor"
|-
| '''boá''' || aux || can || ''bwa''- permissive prefix
|-
| '''boáš''' || v || sweat || ''bwats''
|-
| '''boéča''' || n || daughter || "female son"
|-
| '''boéd''' || n || son || ''bwed''
|-
| '''boéi''' || n || star || ''bwai''
|-
| '''boéiægə''' || n || declination (of a star); latitude || "(height) of a star"
|-
| '''boéimate''' || n || astronomy, naviation || "star-knowledge"
|-
| '''boéigur''' || n || respect || ''bwenggor'' "honor"
|-
| '''boéisti''' || n || orgy, debauchery || ''bwaikti'' "feast"
|-
| '''Boíəba''' || top || Oigôp'oibauxeu. a city in Lašumu; the river it's on || ''Bwimbai''
|-
| '''bóig''' || n || bay, inlet || ''bwogig''
|-
| '''bomə''' || n || wheat || ''borma''
|-
| '''borə''' || v || nurse || ''bora''
|-
| '''bou''' || adv || again || ''bau''
|-
| '''bougə''' || n || back (side); stern || ''bongga''
|-
| '''boula''' || n || earth, soil || ''baulai''
|-
| '''bous''' || n || ox || ''baus''
|-
| '''boutu''' || v || pierce, penetrate || ''bontu''
|-
| '''bu''' || num || four || ''bu''
|-
| '''bubiš''' || adj || warm || ''bubwits''
|-
| '''buəbu''' || n || spy || ''budnabu''
|-
| '''buədə''' || v || listen || ''budna''
|-
| '''buəŋil''' || v || wound, hurt || ''bungie ''+ dim.
|-
| '''buŋišə''' || v || reward || ''bungia''
|-
| '''but''' || pp || next to, near || ''bwut'' "rightward"
|-
| '''čaok''' || n || king || {{Far|čark}}
|-
| '''čaoksa''' || n || queen || "king" + fem.
|-
| '''čælo''' || n || school || ''kaimlau''
|-
| '''čæme''' || v || study, learn || ''kaime''
|-
| '''čæn''' || n || fire || {{Far|šan}}
|-
| '''čæn''' || v || burn || {{Far|šan}} "fire"
|-
| '''čæniz''' || v || admonish, shame || ''kaumisi'' "reprimand"
|-
| '''čæŋlo''' || n || lavatory || {{Ndd|cainglo}}
|-
| '''čæšum''' || adj || powerful, great || ''kâtsum''
|-
| '''če''' || num || one || ''ke''
|-
| '''čega''' || adj || only, sole ||
|-
| '''čeidu''' || n || jester || ''kendu'' "skeptic"
|-
| '''čeilə''' || n || teacher || ''kenla''
|-
| '''čeino''' || v || ask || ''kenau''
|-
| '''čeiŋ''' || v || walk || ''keng''
|-
| '''ček''' || v || throw || ''kek''
|-
| '''čekəl''' || v || vomit || ''kek ''+ dim.
|-
| '''čelč''' || n || danger || ''kelki''
|-
| '''čeobu''' || n || student, scholar || ''kaimbu''
|-
| '''češus''' || adj || unreliable, risky, unhealty || ''ketsus'' "unsafe"
|-
| '''čičih''' || n || lightning || ''kikik''
|-
| '''čiəba''' || v || tie || ''kîbai''
|-
| '''čiəpal''' || v || whine, rant || ''kimpal'' "complain"
|-
| '''čiən''' || v || marry || {{Far|triban}}
|-
| '''čiənu''' || n || husband || {{Far|tribud}}
|-
| '''čiətu''' || adj || generous, kind || ''kinto''
|-
| '''čil''' || n || barley || ''kil''
|-
| '''čilo''' || n || basket, bushel || ''kilau'' "barley-place"
|-
| '''Čisse''' || top || a city on the eastern coast || (from the local indigens)
|-
| '''čosk''' || adj || threatening, hostile || {{Far|čoks}}
|-
| '''čutu''' || v || spit || (imitative)
|-
| '''daba''' || adj || white || ''dauwai''
|-
| '''dačaok''' || n || princess || {{Far|deučark}}
|-
| '''dada''' || cj || but || ''daldâ''
|-
| '''dagane''' || n || camp || {{Far|daghne}}
|-
| '''Dagæm''' || top || the islands east of Kasadgad || ''Dawaim''
|-
| '''dagubu''' || n || host, proprietor ||
|-
| '''daguy''' || v || host || {{Far|daghoin}} "to make stay"
|-
| '''dalsu''' || n || honey || ''dalsur''
|-
| '''daodan''' || v || dance || {{Far|daradan}}
|-
| '''daom''' || v || warn || ''darem''
|-
| '''das''' || v || fight || ''das''
|-
| '''dašiəm''' || n || hemp; canvas, sail || {{Far|dašim}}
|-
| '''dau''' || adj || male, masculine || ''dado''
|-
| '''dayadok''' || n || (person) from Rathedān, the western mountains || {{Ad|Dāiadak}}
|-
| '''daz''' || n || goddess (of polytheistic religions) || ''dasi''
|-
| '''dæŋ''' || n || mountain || ''daing''
|-
| '''deidin''' || adj || numinous, awesome, frightening || ''dautin'' "holy"
|-
| '''deikəlo''' || n || holy place (in the wild), haunted area || ''dêka'' "spiritual" + "place"
|-
| '''deimit''' || v || support (dependants, crops), receive (guests); yield || ''dalmit'' "host"
|-
| '''deine''' || n || smarts, cunning || ''dene'' "reason"
|-
| '''deiŋ''' || n || finger || ''dengi''
|-
| '''deip''' || n || young (of an animal) || ''dempi'' "child"
|-
| '''demaš''' || n || feast || {{Far|demač}} "celebratory dinner", lit. "gift"
|-
| '''depa''' || v || shave || ''depmai''
|-
| '''dewmuh''' || v || hunt || ''desmog''
|-
| '''diágə''' || n || title of Edák rulers || ''diàka''
|-
| '''dida''' || adj || possible || ''ditai''
|-
| '''diəbæŋ''' || v || lay aside, store, preserve || ''dimbang''
|-
| '''diəbo''' || n || fat, grease, oil || ''dimbau''
|-
| '''digun''' || n || thing, object || ''dikon''
|-
| '''dióa''' || v || imagine || ''dioba''
|-
| '''dizo''' || adj || typical, ordinary || ''disau'' "usual"
|-
| '''do''' || pron || you (2p nom) || ''do ''2s
|-
| '''dogu''' || v || groan, moan || ''dowo'' "grumble"
|-
| '''dorač''' || n || breakfast, lunch || {{Far|drorač}} "awakening meal"
|-
| '''dou''' || num || five || ''dau''
|-
| '''doul''' || adj || weary, tired || ''dodo ''+ dim.
|-
| '''doum''' || pron || to you (2p dat) || ''dom ''2s
|-
| '''doumah''' || n || glass (substance) || {{Far|domagh}}
|-
| '''douŋ''' || pron || you (2p acc) || ''dong ''2s
|-
| '''duə''' || v || praise || ''dungwi''
|-
| '''duəbu''' || v || smell || ''dumbo''
|-
| '''dukəs''' || n || master, teacher || {{Muts|dux}}
|-
| '''duzæm''' || v || regret || ''dusam''
|-
| '''ebǽru''' || n || bark (of tree), husk (of fruits) || ''mbâro''
|-
| '''ebédə''' || v || order, arrange || ''mbesta''
|-
| '''ebewr''' || adj || short || ''mbâur''
|-
| '''ebí''' || v || say, speak || ''mbi''
|-
| '''ebíč''' || adj || necessary || ''mbiski''
|-
| '''ebíəbe''' || v || sing || ''mbîbwe''
|-
| '''ebíəbu''' || n || singer ||
|-
| '''ebíu''' || adj || guilty || ''mbibo''
|-
| '''eboáge''' || v || push, impel || ''mbwawe''
|-
| '''ebóbe''' || adv || enough || ''mbopm''
|-
| '''ebóbu''' || n || musician ||
|-
| '''ebód''' || n || color || ''mbod''
|-
| '''ebóp''' || n || music || ''mbop''
|-
| '''ebórol''' || v || be wary, distrust || ''mboraul'' "be careful"
|-
| '''ebóuta''' || n || seed || ''mbontai''
|-
| '''eboúrə''' || adj || strange, weird || ''mbwura'' "unusual"
|-
| '''ebréibo''' || n || ruins (esp. Edák ones) || {{Ndd|èvrevo}}
|-
| '''ebúəwe''' || v || carry, hold || ''mbunwe''
|-
| '''ebúmu''' || n || belly || ''mbusmu''
|-
| '''ebúrə''' || v || decide || ''mbura''
|-
| '''ečét''' || v || fade, wilt || ''ngket''
|-
| '''ečidálo''' || n || kitchen || ''eskidnalau''
|-
| '''ečíde''' || v || cook || ''eskidn''
|-
| '''edáboə''' || adj || corrupt, rotten || ''ndabwa'' "dirty"
|-
| '''edák''' || n || An ethnonym; the name of the people of Kazəgad || ''Ndak''
|-
| '''edálide''' || n || energy, vigor || ''ndalidn''
|-
| '''edástə''' || n || the Edák language, parent of Fáralo || ''Ndak Ta''
|-
| '''edázə''' || v || change || ''estasa''
|-
| '''edé''' || v || rub; play (an instrument) || ''nde'' "touch"
|-
| '''edébu''' || n || musician ||
|-
| '''edéi''' || n || tree; mast || ''ndai''
|-
| '''edélo''' || n || theater, stage || "play-place"
|-
| '''edéinæ''' || v || live || ''ndenam'' "breathe"
|-
| '''edéio''' || adj || safe, secure || ''ndêwu''
|-
| '''edewn''' || adj || pure || ''ndaun''
|-
| '''edewnin''' || adj || holy || ''"purer"''
|-
| '''edíəmu''' || v || spare someone's life; set free || ''ndimu'' "mercy"
|-
| '''edúgə''' || pron || why || ''nduwa''
|-
| '''edu-''' || det || some (indefinite article clitic) || ''ndo''
|-
| '''egág''' || v || put || ''nggawi''
|-
| '''ege''' || qu || all, every || ''ewe''
|-
| '''egéi''' || adv || upward || ''nggai''
|-
| '''egemalə''' || pron || everywhere || "every" + "where"
|-
| '''egew''' || pron || everyone, everything || ''ege'' "every" +'' -bu''
|-
| '''egól''' || n || foot || ''nggol''
|-
| '''egræn''' || v || satisfy || ''egran'' "scratch"
|-
| '''egúgo''' || v || deceive || ''ngguko''
|-
| '''egúgo''' || n || fool || ''ngguko'' "deceive"
|-
| '''eib''' || v || freeze || ''aipi''
|-
| '''eibəl''' || adj || green || ''auspi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''eibur''' || v || swim || ''embur''
|-
| '''eidu''' || v || fall; fail || ''endu''
|-
| '''eigə''' || adj || good || ''aiwa''
|-
| '''eigə''' || n || name of the great river of Kazəgad and Lašumu || ''aiwa''
|-
| '''eikə''' || n || (land) animal ||
|-
| '''eikəmate''' || n || animal husbandry ||
|-
| '''eiku''' || v || kill || ''engku''
|-
| '''eim''' || v || turn || ''em''
|-
| '''eimo''' || adj || loose || ''emau''
|-
| '''einišə''' || v || fly || ''alnia''
|-
| '''einu''' || adj || bitter; vicious, resentful || ''eno''
|-
| '''eione''' || adj || obscure, hard to understand || ''aurne'' "muddy"
|-
| '''eioti''' || n || day, daytime || ''airti''
|-
| '''eiwəl''' || n || west || ''emwel''
|-
| '''eiz''' || v || paint, color || ''aisi''
|-
| '''eiziw''' || n || painter, artist || ''aisibu''
|-
| '''ekéi''' || n || egg || ''ngkai''
|-
| '''ekúi''' || n || blessing, benefit || {{Muts|hexu'i}}
|-
| '''elje''' || adj || clean || ''elge''
|-
| '''ekádə''' || v || continue, persist || ''ngkasta''
|-
| '''elpe''' || v || melt || ''ailpabm''
|-
| '''eluoga''' || adj || abundant, common || ''elul'' "everywhere" + "way"
|-
| '''enǽdə''' || v || feel (an emotion) ||
|-
| '''Enčélade''' || top || Ngahêxôldod, a city in Lašumu || ''Ngkeladadn''
|-
| '''enóuno''' || v || mess up, get in trouble || {{Ndd|èrnàrno}} "do to one's own detriment"
|-
| '''eobu''' || v || sleep || ''erbo'' "rest"
|-
| '''eobulo''' || n || bed || ''erbolau'' "rest-place"
|-
| '''eočeiŋ''' || v || limp, stumble || "fail to walk"
|-
| '''eodás''' || v || be a coward || "fail to fight"
|-
| '''eomate''' || v || guess || "fail to know"
|-
| '''eonáonu''' || v || harm, injure || ''ernarno'' "do to one's detriment"
|-
| '''eosíən''' || v || choke || "fail to drink"
|-
| '''epaf''' || adj || light (not heavy) || ''epwaip''
|-
| '''epág''' || adj || far || ''mpag''
|-
| '''epágal''' || v || exaggerate, claim || ''mpaskali'' "assert", influenced by "far"
|-
| '''epágægə''' || n || distance; longitude || "distance of"
|-
| '''epáte''' || v || investigate, research || ''upmatn''
|-
| '''epǽm''' || v || cry || ''mpaim''
|-
| '''epǽpoge''' || v || curse || ''ngkwaimpaugng'' "vomit"
|-
| '''epé''' || v || sit; meet (councils) || ''mpe''
|-
| '''epélo''' || n || chair || "sit-place"
|-
| '''epéilu''' || v || rain || ''mpêlo''
|-
| '''epél''' || v || rest || ''mpe ''+ dim.
|-
| '''epéiša''' || n || fish, seafood || ''mpaiswa''
|-
| '''epépe''' || n || breast || ''mpepm''
|-
| '''epído''' || adj || private || ''mpitau''
|-
| '''epoǽn''' || n || ball || ''eplain''
|-
| '''epóu''' || cj || because || ''mpau''
|-
| '''epš''' || v || destroy || ''ebri''
|-
| '''epšilo''' || n || ruins || ''ebrilau''
|-
| '''epúonim''' || n || pagan, polytheist, infidel || ''mpurnim'' "heathen"
|-
| '''erǽbu''' || n || drunkard ||
|-
| '''erǽde''' || v || be drunk or stoned || ''erande'' "fail to stand"
|-
| '''ereibur''' || v || drown || "fail to swim"
|-
| '''eríba''' || v || be clumsy || ''erimbwa''
|-
| '''erólo''' || adj || impotent || {{Ndd|èrola}}
|-
| '''eróušu''' || v || defraud, con || ''eraitsu''
|-
| '''erúdu''' || v || strive for, attempt || ''eroto'' "work for"
|-
| '''esé''' || v || bleed; ooze || ''ntse'' "blood"
|-
| '''eséotim''' || v || discuss, debate || ''ntsertim''
|-
| '''eš''' || num || six || ''ets''
|-
| '''ešǽd''' || qu || much || ''ntsand'' "greatly"
|-
| '''eše''' || n || method, operation, process || ''etsn'' "manner"
|-
| '''ešen''' || v || act, behave || ''etsen''
|-
| '''ešo''' || adv || always || ''etsau''
|-
| '''etá''' || aux || stop (aux) || ''nta''
|-
| '''etáše''' || pp || surrounding, all around; throughout || ''ntatsn''
|-
| '''eté''' || pp || with, by, using (instrumental) || ''nte''
|-
| '''etéiwa''' || n || tiller; tail || ''ntêwâ''
|-
| '''etéišə''' || adj || wrong, incorrect || ''ntausia'' "false"
|-
| '''etéše''' || v || sail; govern, run || ''ntetsn'' "float"
|-
| '''etéšu''' || n || sailboat ||
|-
| '''etewg''' || n || forest || ''ntâug''
|-
| '''etíədu''' || n || metal || ''ntindo''
|-
| '''etíšə''' || adj || right, correct || ''ntia''
|-
| '''etíšal''' || adj || same || ''ntial''
|-
| '''etóumate''' || adj || complex, complicated || ''ntomatn''
|-
| '''etúbə''' || adj || docile, submissive || ''ntupa'' "peaceful"
|-
| '''etúgə''' || n || action, deeds; the main religion of Huyfárah || {{Muts|ntû'a}} "religion"
|-
| '''ewa''' || n || snake || ''aimwa''
|-
| '''ewbu''' || n || urchin, petty criminal || ''aimbu'' "peasant"
|-
| '''ewmu''' || v || reject, hate || ''aumu'' "spit"
|-
| '''ewpa''' || n || statue || ''âukwai''
|-
| '''ezul''' || v || take || ''esul''
|-
| '''fáralo''' || n || (person) from Huyfárah; the Fáralo language || "Faraghin" + -''lo''
|-
| '''ferój''' || n || Feråjin (people to the east of the Faraghin) || {{Far|feroi}}
|-
| '''fistaš''' || adj || unlawful, illegal || {{Far|fistats}}
|-
| '''fizætud''' || n || rookie, newbie, wet behind the ears || {{Far|fisrantud}} "inexperienced"
|-
| '''foga''' || v || make, create || {{Far|foghan}}
|-
| '''fogalo''' || n || workshop ||
|-
| '''gaba''' || v || share || ''gabbwa''
|-
| '''gafač''' || n || crime || {{Far|ghafač}} "theft"
|-
| '''gafaču''' || n || criminal ||
|-
| '''gah''' || v || mock, disdain || ''gagak'' "smile"
|-
| '''gaos''' || n || boat || {{Far|gars}}
|-
| '''gašu''' || n || rabbit || ''gaido''
|-
| '''gatač''' || n || galley || {{Far|ghantač}} "dragon"
|-
| '''gate''' || n || wood || ''gatn''
|-
| '''gatel''' || n || plank, board ||
|-
| '''gæje''' || pron || those things, those people || (pluralizer + "that one")
|-
| '''geč''' || adj || mighty, powerful || {{Far|gheč}}
|-
| '''geipša''' || n || sheep || ''gaibra''
|-
| '''geirit''' || pp || until, up to || ''nggairit''
|-
| '''geiru''' || n || atheist, cynic || {{Ndd|gèddo}} "skeptic"
|-
| '''geoč''' || n || fourth day of the week || {{Far|gereč}}, the moon goddess
|-
| '''gis''' || n || dagger || {{Far|ghisk}} "knife"
|-
| '''gissa''' || v || cut || {{Far|ghiskan}}
|-
| '''goá''' || v || follow || ''gua''
|-
| '''goda''' || v || descend, derive || {{Far|gudan}}
|-
| '''gonin''' || n || elder; elder brother || {{Far|gonin}}
|-
| '''gou''' || n || road || ''gau''
|-
| '''goubu''' || n || traveler ||
|-
| '''goudah''' || v || dream || ''gondag''
|-
| '''goul''' || n || path, way || ''gau'' + dim.
|-
| '''gouga''' || v || break || ''gonggai''
|-
| '''goum''' || adj || high || ''gom''
|-
| '''goumoudu''' || n || cross-staff (for measuring angles) || "way-measure"
|-
| '''gourun''' || n || desert || ''gauron'' "semiarid land"
|-
| '''gout''' || adj || dull (not sharp) || ''gaut''
|-
| '''gozu''' || adj || difficult || ''goso''
|-
| '''guab''' || v || mark, draw || ''gubab''
|-
| '''guabu''' || n || drawing ||
|-
| '''gube''' || v || survive, escape || ''gubm'' "survival"
|-
| '''guətu''' || cj || so, therefore || ''gunto''
|-
| '''guru''' || n || guts, intestines || ''guro''
|-
| '''ha''' || n || meat || ''sa''
|-
| '''hab''' || v || eat || ''sab'' "drink", confused with "meat"
|-
| '''hačiš''' || n || garlic || {{Gez|sakits}}
|-
| '''hadír''' || pp || outside, out of; outdoors || ''sa tiri'' "from out of door"
|-
| '''hadírlo''' || adj || open, overt, superficial || "outside-ish"
|-
| '''hadlu''' || adj || spicy || ''sadlo'' "rich-tasting"
|-
| '''Hagíbəl''' || n || ancient or poetic name for Huyfárah || ''Sau Ibli'' "north coast"
|-
| '''haglu''' || adj || gross, nasty || ''aklu'' "ugly" with some contamination from h- words
|-
| '''halapu''' || v || throw away, discard || ''salatpu''
|-
| '''halenadu''' || n || republic (form of government found among Dāiadak) || {{Ad|hālenadu}}
|-
| '''hape''' || v || force, coerce || ''sapmi''
|-
| '''haran''' || n || Faraghin (person or language) || ''saragin'', from {{Far|Faraghin}}
|-
| '''harsa''' || n || tube, pipe || ''sarsâ''
|-
| '''hæpabe''' || aux || begin, start (aux) || ''sâpabm''"lift"
|-
| '''hætud''' || n || veteran || {{Far|rantud}} "experienced"
|-
| '''heben''' || v || mutter, murmur, mumble || ''sepen''
|-
| '''hei''' || adj || blue || ''sai''
|-
| '''heil''' || adj || foreign || ''sai'' + dim.
|-
| '''heimə''' || v || wait || ''sema''
|-
| '''heipud''' || adj || crooked, twisted; deformed || {{Far|sempud}} "twisted"
|-
| '''heite''' || adj || neat, proper || ''sête'' "tidy"
|-
| '''helkun''' || n || enemy || ''selkon'' "hostile"
|-
| '''hewe''' || n || water || ''saungwe''
|-
| '''hewegou''' || n || dock || "water-road"
|-
| '''heweteka''' || n || navy, fleet || "water-army"
|-
| '''hewpu''' || adj || alone, solitary || ''saimpo''
|-
| '''hiebu''' || n || frog || ''sidespu'' "jumper"
|-
| '''híen''' || v || prove, demonstrate || ''sien''
|-
| '''hiəbur''' || v || boil || ''simbor''
|-
| '''hiəm''' || n || cloud || ''sim''
|-
| '''hiəteŋ''' || adj || different || ''sîteng''
|-
| '''hiəwa''' || adj || rotten || ''simwai''
|-
| '''hičidə''' || n || misuse of office || ''sikîda'' "corrupt"
|-
| '''hies''' || v || jump || ''sides''
|-
| '''higade''' || n || hurricane || ''sikadn''
|-
| '''hisəl''' || v || bequeath || {{Far|khisel}}
|-
| '''hislu''' || n || child, heir || {{Far|khislud}}
|-
| '''Histuənə''' || top || an eastern nation, homeland of Etúgə || {{Muts|siixtaguna}}
|-
| '''hitugə''' || n || physical necessity; the mundane world || {{Muts|sihtû'a}}
|-
| '''holə''' || pron || when || ''sola''
|-
| '''hou''' || n || coast || ''sau''
|-
| '''hounilin''' || adj || numinous, scary in a supernatural way || ''sonulak'' "imaginary" with confusion from ''hounilo''
|-
| '''hounilo''' || n || graveyard, cemetary || ''sonîlaou''
|-
| '''houzuŋ''' || n || left (side); port || ''saisung''
|-
| '''huəmu''' || adj || wrong || ''sumo''
|-
| '''huənšar''' || v || help, aid || ''sungiar''
|-
| '''hude''' || num || eight || ''sudn''
|-
| '''hupís''' || v || defeat, conquer || ''sompīs''
|-
| '''Hutaba''' || n || the founder of Etúgə || {{Muts|Sútapaj}}
|-
| '''Huyfárah''' || n || the nation of the Fáralo || {{Far|Soifaragh}} "Faraghin coast"
|-
| '''huz''' || n || mouse || ''susi''
|-
| '''huzǽtugə''' || n || immorality, vice, perversion, evil || {{Muts|hûsamtû'a}}
|-
| '''i''' || pron || I (1s nom) || ''i''
|-
| '''ibe''' || v || touch, use || ''ispe'' "feel (experience)", merged with *''iba'' from ''imbwa'' "use"
|-
| '''ibəl''' || n || north || ''ibli''
|-
| '''ibu''' || n || tool || ''imbwabu''
|-
| '''iče''' || adj || equal || ''iske''
|-
| '''ičǽməl''' || n || study; knowledge || ''iskaimel''
|-
| '''iden''' || v || lose; fail to find or buy || ''isten''
|-
| '''idər''' || aux || seem, appear (aux) || ''idr''- approximative
|-
| '''idúəŋ''' || n || sea, ocean || ''indùng''
|-
| '''idwæ''' || n || arm || ''itwam''
|-
| '''iəb''' || n || month, moon; one hundred || ''imbi''
|-
| '''iəbu''' || pron || me (1s acc) || ''î ''+ agentive -''bu''
|-
| '''iəlænə''' || n || catastrophe, disaster || ''imlana'' "flood"
|-
| '''iəma''' || n || symbol, sign || ''imai''
|-
| '''iəmu''' || n || head; top || ''imu
|-
| '''iəm''' || pron || to me (1s dat) || ''im''
|-
| '''iənə''' || v || see, look || ''ina''
|-
| '''iəptə''' || adj || cheerful, jovial || ''imbenta''
|-
| '''iətə''' || v || hang, suspend || ''inta''
|-
| '''ifisænə''' || n || the spiritual world; salvation; heaven || {{Muts|ifiisana}}
|-
| '''igə''' || pron || which one || ''iwa''
|-
| '''igrih''' || v || absorb, dissolve || ''igrik''
|-
| '''ijir''' || v || whisper || ''idgir''
|-
| '''ilč''' || adj || black || ''ilki''
|-
| '''imə''' || v || sew || ''isma''
|-
| '''io''' || n || noble, lord || ''idâu''
|-
| '''iodol''' || n || sun || "noble" + ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''ior''' || adj || sour, acidic || ''idur''
|-
| '''ioza''' || n || noblewoman, lady || "noble-woman"
|-
| '''iozal''' || n || girl of noble blood; figurehead or bow of a ship ||
|-
| '''ipah''' || v || sense, perceive || ''ingkwak''
|-
| '''ipə''' || adj || straight || ''ikwa''
|-
| '''ipi''' || n || liver || ''ingkwi''
|-
| '''iru''' || v || open || ''iro''
|-
| '''is''' || aux || should (aux) || ''is''- hortative
|-
| '''isə''' || pp || to, towards; before (time) || ''isla''
|-
| '''isəga''' || adj || early; preceding || "before-ish"
|-
| '''išo''' || n || night || ''iswau''
|-
| '''išonoun''' || n || journey, voyage || "night-go"
|-
| '''iwmu''' || adj || beautiful || ''ilmo''
|-
| '''iwmusa''' || n || beautiful girl ||
|-
| '''izin''' || adj || sudden || ''isi ''+ -''in''
|-
| '''jægə''' || adj || indignant, wrathful || ''gâga'' "angry"
|-
| '''jæje''' || pron || that one, that person || ''gâge'' "that yonder"
|-
| '''jæn''' || n || knife || ''gan''
|-
| '''jaŋu''' || v || move || ''gangio''
|-
| '''jegə''' || pron || who, what || ''gewa''
|-
| '''jeipə''' || n || insult || ''gempa''
|-
| '''ješ''' || adv || likely, probably || ''gets''
|-
| '''jiəku''' || adj || hard (not soft) || ''gingko''
|-
| '''jiənih''' || n || iron || ''ginig''
|-
| '''jibe''' || adj || bad || ''gibm''
|-
| '''jiə''' || adj || tall || ''gingwi''
|-
| '''jiwnə''' || adj || slow || ''gilna''
|-
| '''jori''' || v || wake up || {{Far|drorin}}
|-
| '''jos''' || adj || awake, conscious || {{Far|drors}}
|-
| '''juma''' || v || complain, protest || {{Far|druman}} "denounce (officially)"
|-
| '''kada''' || v || amuse, please || {{Far|katan}}
|-
| '''kadal''' || v || like, appreciate || ''kada ''+ dim.
|-
| '''kæda''' || n || ashes (pl) || ''ainda''
|-
| '''kaklo''' || n || border, boundary || ''kaklau'' "borderland"
|-
| '''kaltó''' || n || wind (pl) || ''altò''
|-
| '''kaogádin''' || n || uncle: father's younger brother || {{Far|kargadin}}
|-
| '''kaogə''' || n || fog, mist (pl) || ''arwa''
|-
| '''kaotača''' || n || aunt || {{Far|kartača}}
|-
| '''kape''' || adv || last year || ''kapm''
|-
| '''kaš''' || adj || funny, amusing || {{Far|kats}}
|-
| '''Kazəgad''' || top || Kasca, the ancient Edák nation, now ruled by Huyfárah || ''Kasadgad''
|-
| '''kazil''' || v || look at, watch || ''kasil''
|-
| '''kebač''' || n || dinner, meal || {{Far|kebač}}
|-
| '''Kečǽnə''' || n || the world; the planet Huyfárah is on (pl.) || (pl. of ''ngkana'')
|-
| '''kečem''' || n || honor || {{Far|ketrem}}
|-
| '''keil''' || v || dress; wear || ''kail''
|-
| '''keilu''' || n || tunic, rough skirt, peasant dress || "something worn"
|-
| '''keip''' || n || grass, herb (pl) || ''empi''
|-
| '''keiplo''' || n || pasture ||
|-
| '''keipmate''' || n || herblore ||
|-
| '''keize''' || n || snow (pl) || ''aise''
|-
| '''keoč''' || adj || angry || {{Far|kerts}}
|-
| '''kepéilu''' || n || rain (pl) || ''mpêlo''
|-
| '''kesé''' || n || blood (pl) || ''ntse''
|-
| '''kəwú''' || n || (Etúgeist) priest || {{Muts|kûhuuhu}}
|-
| '''kiki''' || n || a spice from the eastern islands || {{Thok|khiki}}
|-
| '''kipa''' || n || rice alcohol (pl) || {{Thok|kipa}}
|-
| '''kodə''' || v || cover || ''kota''
|-
| '''kolə''' || adj || absurd, crazy || ''kola'' "funny"
|-
| '''kouwə''' || n || tongue; rudder || ''komwa''
|-
| '''kpuəma''' || n || smoke, steam (pl) || ''pumâ''
|-
| '''kraš''' || adj || bold, brave || {{Far|khrans}}
|-
| '''kræwa''' || n || porridge (cheap meal of grain) || ''arâwa'' "dinner"
|-
| '''kreota''' || v || seize, capture || {{Far|krertan}}
|-
| '''ksoudu''' || n || sand (pl) || ''tsondo'' "dust"
|-
| '''ku''' || n || spirit, mind || {{Muts|kuu}}
|-
| '''kučil''' || v || rush, hurry || ''kuk ''+ dim.
|-
| '''kuəbə''' || v || waste || ''kumba''
|-
| '''kuəpéigə''' || v || assume, suppose || ''kumpaiwa'' "believe"
|-
| '''kuən''' || adj || sturdy, strong || ''kun'' "stiff"
|-
| '''kuəma''' || v || redo || ''kumâi'' "repair"
|-
| '''kuət''' || n || devil, demon || {{Far|khunt}}
|-
| '''kufas''' || n || (Etúgeist) temple || {{Muts|kûfase}}
|-
| '''kugal''' || adj || tame, domesticated (of small animals) || ''kukail''
|-
| '''kuin''' || adj || holy, sacred || {{Muts|kuu}} "spirit" + {{Far|-in}}
|-
| '''kuka''' || v || hiccough || (imitative)
|-
| '''kumepél''' || n || grave, burial place || ''ku æm epél'' "rest of the spirit"
|-
| '''kusæp''' || v || worship || "give the spirit"
|-
| '''kusræm''' || n || olive || {{Gez|kusram}}
|-
| '''kušu''' || v || cough || ''kutso''
|-
| '''kuz''' || n || records, archives || (pl. of ''susi'' "record")
|-
| '''kuzlo''' || n || library; archive ||
|-
| '''kwaše''' || pron || these things, these people || (pluralizer + "this one")
|-
| '''labaf''' || v || ignore || ''lapabap''
|-
| '''lad''' || adj || healthy || ''lasti''
|-
| '''lade''' || qu || not much || ''ladn''
|-
| '''ladmate''' || n || medicine ||
|-
| '''lalpo''' || v || heal, cure || "make healthy"
|-
| '''lalpobu''' || n || doctor, physician ||
|-
| '''lanæh''' || adj || rich, fragrant || ''lanag''
|-
| '''laoma''' || adj || long || ''larmai''
|-
| '''laršaošə''' || n || hour || ''lartsartsa''
|-
| '''laš''' || n || land, country || ''lats''
|-
| '''lašin''' || adj || national ||
|-
| '''Lašumu''' || top || Axôltseubeu, the nation upriver from Kazəgad || ''Latsomo''
|-
| '''laz''' || v || close, shut || ''lasi''
|-
| '''læpu''' || n || bone || ''langkwo''
|-
| '''læpusa''' || n || penis || "bone-meat"
|-
| '''læta''' || adj || fast || ''lantai''
|-
| '''leč''' || n || sword || {{Far|lets}} "longsword"
|-
| '''lečew''' || n || eighth day of the week || {{Far|lečeu}}
|-
| '''lega''' || n || word; language || ''lewai''
|-
| '''legal''' || v || write || ''lewai ''+ dim.
|-
| '''legéiša''' || n || poetry || ''lewaitsâi''
|-
| '''lei''' || n || bird || ''lai''
|-
| '''leid''' || n || year || ''laid''
|-
| '''leideiŋ''' || n || wing || "bird-finger"
|-
| '''leidin''' || adj || annual ||
|-
| '''leil''' || v || flow, pour; row || ''lail''
|-
| '''leilu''' || n || rowboat ||
|-
| '''leir''' || adj || young || ''lairi''
|-
| '''leišo''' || adj || cold || ''lêtsau''
|-
| '''lestə''' || v || collect, gather || ''lekta''
|-
| '''lewə''' || n || delta || ''lâwa''
|-
| '''lewku''' || pron || thou (2s-T nom) || ''laingko''
|-
| '''lewkuŋ''' || pron || thee (2s-T acc) || ''laingkong''
|-
| '''lewkum''' || pron || to thee (2s-T dat) || ''laingkom''
|-
| '''lews''' || adj || free, independent || {{Far|leus}}
|-
| '''lewsuy''' || v || free, liberate || {{Far|leusoin}}
|-
| '''liəmu''' || v || smile || ''limu'' "laugh quietly"
|-
| '''lišu''' || v || form, shape || ''ligio''
|-
| '''lizegu''' || v || shake || ''lisedgo''
|-
| '''loušə''' || v || answer, reply || ''lonsia''
|-
| '''loute''' || adj || right, correct || ''lonte''
|-
| '''loumo''' || v || visit || ''lolmau''
|-
| '''lu-''' || det || the; abstract nominalizer (clitic) || ''lu''
|-
| '''luba''' || v || lie || {{Far|lupan}}
|-
| '''luətəm''' || pron || to us (1p dat) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''i''
|-
| '''luki''' || pron || we (1p nom) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''i''
|-
| '''luzis''' || pron || us (1p acc) || "the", used as a pluralizer, + ''is''
|-
| '''mabe''' || n || mouth || ''mabm''
|-
| '''mač''' || n || table || ''maki''
|-
| '''mačud''' || n || slave || {{Far|magačud}} "captive (from a raid)"
|-
| '''made''' || n || force, violence || ''madn'' "violent"
|-
| '''magač''' || v || loot, pillage || {{Far|magač}}
|-
| '''mai''' || pron || nobody, nothing || ''mage''
|-
| '''maiga''' || adj || empty || "nothingly"
|-
| '''malæwe''' || adj || successful || ''malâwe''
|-
| '''malə''' || pron || where || ''mala''
|-
| '''malge''' || v || suck || ''malwe''
|-
| '''mardu''' || n || human || ''maldo''
|-
| '''marš''' || n || hammer || ''ngwartsi'' "tool"
|-
| '''mas''' || qu || a few || ''mi ais'' "not many"
|-
| '''mastač''' || n || government || {{Far|maštač}} "house" + nom.
|-
| '''mastin''' || adj || royal, governmental; public || {{Far|maštin}}
|-
| '''mašo''' || adv || never || ''matsau''
|-
| '''mate''' || v || know || ''matn''
|-
| '''matel''' || v || think, suspect || ''matn ''+ dim.
|-
| '''mateboéi''' || n || astrolabe || "know-star"
|-
| '''matibəl''' || n || magnet; compass || "know-north"
|-
| '''matugə''' || n || the impossible (to normal men); fantasy, spirituality || {{Muts|gmatû'a}}
|-
| '''mau''' || adj || blunt, dull || ''mabbu'' "blunt thing"
|-
| '''mæ''' || v || believe || ''ngwâi'' "think"
|-
| '''mæde''' || n || heart || ''maunde''
|-
| '''mæde''' || v || feel (an emotion) || ''maunde'' "heart"
|-
| '''mædidə''' || n || intelligence || ''maunde ta'' "mind"
|-
| '''mædu''' || adv || purposeless, pointless || ''mandu'' "for no reason"
|-
| '''mæg''' || adv || today || ''mâg''
|-
| '''mæm''' || num || seven || ''mam''
|-
| '''Mæmedéi''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Oltu || "seven trees"
|-
| '''mæsa''' || n || cow || ''mâisâ''
|-
| '''mebe''' || n || peasant, farmer || ''mebwe'' "father"
|-
| '''mebelo''' || n || farm || "farmer-place"
|-
| '''mei''' || v || trade || ''mê'' "journey"
|-
| '''meibu''' || n || trader, merchant ||
|-
| '''meikut''' || n || bastard, sumbitch || {{Far|menkhunt}} "son of a devil"
|-
| '''meil''' || v || read || ''mêli''
|-
| '''meis''' || v || lack, be insufficient || ''mebis''
|-
| '''melede''' || v || include || ''meledn''
|-
| '''menčaok''' || n || prince || {{Far|menčark}}
|-
| '''mengaos''' || n || first mate || {{Far|mengars}}
|-
| '''menio''' || n || young lord; boy of noble blood ||
|-
| '''Mentek''' || n || first king of the Balanin dynasty || {{Far|mentekh}} "son of a sword"
|-
| '''meode''' || v || squirt, spurt, splatter || ''ngwerde''
|-
| '''meokát''' || n || younger brother, apprentice, cadet || ''merkát''
|-
| '''mewk''' || v || rebel || ''mâuk'' "protest"
|-
| '''mewkil''' || v || oppose, resist || "rebel" + dim
|-
| '''meze''' || v || meet (people), encounter || ''mese''
|-
| '''mezel''' || v || greet || "meet" + dim.
|-
| '''məlew''' || v || figure out, realize || {{NAis|mîleu}} "come to understand"
|-
| '''mi''' || qu || no, none || ''mi''
|-
| '''midišǽna''' || v || fornicate || ''ngwitianal'' "get pregnant"
|-
| '''Miədu''' || top || the southernmost city in Huyfárah proper || ''Mos Mindu''
|-
| '''miəwə''' || adj || heroic || ''mingwa'' "powerful"
|-
| '''miga''' || v || thank || ''midgai''
|-
| '''mik''' || n || bread || ''mik''
|-
| '''mimalə''' || pron || nowhere || "no"+ "where"
|-
| '''miopə''' || adj || deaf || "no ear"
|-
| '''miordo''' || adj || blind || "no eye"
|-
| '''mipimə''' || n || dough, paste || ''mikwisma''
|-
| '''mipól''' || adj || nasty, indecent || ''ngwipaingkwul'' "terrible"
|-
| '''miš''' || adj || modern, novel || ''mits'' "late"
|-
| '''mišǽf''' || v || owe || ''ngwitsampi''
|-
| '''mišagu''' || n || holiday, day off || ''miasko'' "celebrate"
|-
| '''miúgur''' || v || try, attempt || ''miukur''
|-
| '''moge''' || adv || backward || ''ngwogng''
|-
| '''mola''' || adj || full || ''ngwolâi''
|-
| '''molar''' || v || prefer || ''morar''
|-
| '''molən''' || adj || alert, vigilant || ''molan'' "awake"
|-
| '''mordu''' || n || front; chest (of a person) || ''moldau''
|-
| '''more''' || n || magic, mysticism, the occult || ''more'' "dim"
|-
| '''mosin''' || adj || civilized, urban, cultured || ''mos'' "city" + -''in''
|-
| '''mosou''' || n || port, harbor || "city (of) coast"
|-
| '''mospi''' || adj || uncultured, provincial || {{NAis|moispî}} "showing poor judgment"
|-
| '''mou''' || n || skin || ''ngwau''
|-
| '''moudu''' || v || measure || ''mondu'' "count, measure"
|-
| '''moumušezə''' || n || council, senate || {{Far|mašmuršesa}} "house of warriors"
|-
| '''mouru''' || adj || narrow || ''mauro''
|-
| '''mowe''' || n || oral sex || {{Ndd|màwè}} "fellate"
|-
| '''Muəbaz''' || top || a city in Kazəgad, modern Momuva"e || ''Mos Mumbasi''
|-
| '''muəbazin''' || adj || lawless, anarchic || (from conditions in Muəbaz)
|-
| '''muba''' || n || worm || ''mombwai''
|-
| '''mube''' || adj || foolish, rash || ''muspê'' "foolish"
|-
| '''mula''' || n || ice || ''mulâ''
|-
| '''mus''' || v || grow || ''mus''
|-
| '''muslo''' || n || origin || ''muslau''
|-
| '''musmate''' || n || agriculture ||
|-
| '''mušidutə''' || n || belief, philosophy, ideology || {{Muts|mûtsitû'a}}
|-
| '''muymis''' || adj || stupid || ''musmis'' "stupid"
|-
| '''mwáogube''' || adj || ponderous, grave || ''mwarwobm'' "heavy"
|-
| '''na''' || pp || in (locations, substances, regions), inside; on || ''nai''
|-
| '''nabe''' || adj || red || ''napê''
|-
| '''nača''' || n || lady, baroness || ''nat + -sa''
|-
| '''nadír''' || pp || in (containers), inside of, indoors || ''nai tiri'' "in door"
|-
| '''nadírlo''' || adj || secret, hidden || "inside-ish"
|-
| '''naei''' || n || work, labor || ''nagebi''
|-
| '''naga''' || adj || inner, interior || "in-ish"
|-
| '''nagane''' || n || capital; seat (of a noble) || {{Far|nagane}} "lord-place"
|-
| '''nagə''' || n || god (of polytheistic religions) || ''naka''
|-
| '''nagu''' || n || bear (animal) || {{Far|nagho}}
|-
| '''naluŋuh''' || v || organize, arrange || ''nalunguk''
|-
| '''naoga''' || adj || regular, predictable || ''nabâu + -ga''
|-
| '''naonu''' || v || divide, separate || ''narno'' "cut"
|-
| '''naoŋga''' || v || split || ''naonu'' + "way"
|-
| '''napóča''' || v || play (e.g. games), have fun || {{Far|napalčan}} "mess around from boredom"
|-
| '''narór''' || n || horse || ''nalaròr''
|-
| '''naskuy''' || v || exile, cast out || {{Far|naksoin}} "put outside"
|-
| '''našiŋa''' || adv || futile, in vain || ''naisngai'' "pointlessly"
|-
| '''nat''' || n || lord, baron || {{Far|nagat}}
|-
| '''nata''' || n || the nobility, aristocracy || {{Far|nagata}} "lords"
|-
| '''nayu''' || n || noodles (an eastern dish) || {{Thok|nayu}}
|-
| '''nazə''' || n || east || ''nasa''
|-
| '''næbə''' || pron || someone, something || ''nambe''
|-
| '''næbæm''' || adj || small || ''nambam''
|-
| '''næblo''' || pron || sometime || ''nambau + -lo''
|-
| '''nælul''' || pron || somewhere || ''namlul''
|-
| '''næm''' || n || illness, disease || ''nam'' "sick"
|-
| '''næme''' || qu || some, any || ''namê''
|-
| '''næmuh''' || adj || orange || ''namowi'' "brown"
|-
| '''næpe''' || v || swell (up) || ''nambepm''
|-
| '''neča''' || n || wife || ''netrai''
|-
| '''nege''' || n || the most; maximum; azimuth || ''newe''
|-
| '''neib''' || v || aim || ''nembi'' "intend"
|-
| '''neiŋə''' || n || leaf || ''nenga''
|-
| '''neljæn''' || v || twist || ''nelgan''
|-
| '''neobu''' || n || sick person, patient ||
|-
| '''neos''' || adj || sick, ill || {{Far|ners}} "weak"
|-
| '''niən''' || cj || if/then conjunction || ''nin''
|-
| '''nil''' || num || nine || ''nil''
|-
| '''nioga''' || n || war || {{Far|nirgha}}
|-
| '''niogalo''' || n || battlefield ||
|-
| '''noš''' || v || die || ''nots''
|-
| '''noulo''' || n || street || ''nonlau'' "go-place"
|-
| '''noun''' || aux || go (aux) || ''non''
|-
| '''nuaš''' || v || cheat || ''nugats'' "trade"
|-
| '''nubázi''' || n || realization, enlightenment || {{Muts|nuduuhasihi}}
|-
| '''nuəma''' || v || boast || ''numagi''
|-
| '''nuge''' || adj || easy || ''nuwe''
|-
| '''nupáča''' || n || slime, snot || ''nukàkâ''
|-
| '''ŋa-''' || || (prefix forming a participial adjective: ''ŋanoun'' "going") || ''ngwa'' "few"
|-
| '''ŋadə''' || v || make love, have sex || ''ngata'' "sleep"
|-
| '''ŋal''' || adv || very || ''ngal''
|-
| '''ŋalər''' || adv || too, too much; excessive || ''ngal + ''comparative -''ur''
|-
| '''ŋalleil''' || n || flood || "too much water"
|-
| '''ŋastís''' || n || villain, rogue || ''ngaktīs'' "slave"
|-
| '''ŋapšə''' || adj || thick || ''ngabra''
|-
| '''ŋæ''' || n || gaffer; title for an elder peasant || ''ngâ'' "adult"
|-
| '''ŋæne''' || n || neck || ''ngane''
|-
| '''ŋæŋu''' || v || laugh || ''ngango'' "laugh loudly"
|-
| '''ŋeibə''' || n || toe || ''ngemba''
|-
| '''ŋeide''' || v || wipe || ''ngende''
|-
| '''ŋi''' || num || two || ''ngi''
|-
| '''ŋiəbu''' || adj || sharp; acute, clever || ''ngimbu''
|-
| '''ŋiəbul''' || n || needle || "sharp" + dim.
|-
| '''ŋigatač''' || n || bireme || "two-galley"
|-
| '''ŋouru''' || adj || ancient; also an ethnonym || ''ngauro''
|-
| '''Ŋourlo''' || top || a city in Kazəgad || ''Ngaurlau''
|-
| '''ŋuəne''' || adj || prudent, cautious, conservative || ''ngune'' "moderate"
|-
| '''ŋura''' || n || cloves || (uncertain origin)
|-
| '''ŋura''' || adj || brown || "clove-colored"
|-
| '''oa''' || n || salt || ''odai''
|-
| '''oæm''' || n || right (side), starboard || ''odam''
|-
| '''obo''' || pp || for, for the purpose of || ''ob "''at" + ''wau'' "for"
|-
| '''odu''' || v || come || ''oto''
|-
| '''odu''' || aux || come, (aux) be at the moment || ''oto''
|-
| '''odulo''' || n || destination || ''otolau''
|-
| '''ogabe''' || v || suffer, be hurt || ''odgabm''
|-
| '''ogu''' || v || mourn, grieve || ''owu''
|-
| '''olǽtə''' || v || be exhausted, be wiped; be feeble with age || ''olanta'' "do too much"
|-
| '''olinə''' || v || not know, not perceive || ''olina'' "be blind to"
|-
| '''olo''' || n || place, location || ''olau''
|-
| '''oltu''' || adj || new || ''olto''
|-
| '''oltu''' || top || the name of the main river of Huyfárah || ''olto'' "new"
|-
| '''Oltumosou''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Poráš || "new port"
|-
| '''oludo''' || v || deserve, have a right to || ''oloto'' "deserve a place"
|-
| '''oludu''' || n || deserts, things rightfully one's own ||
|-
| '''olyéna''' || v || commit a faux pas || {{Ndd|oljènàn}}
|-
| '''oŋ''' || v || squeeze || ''orngi''
|-
| '''opə''' || n || ear || ''okwa''
|-
| '''opin''' || adj || auditory; audible ||
|-
| '''opwo''' || n || a type of meal popular in Lašumu || {{NAis|opweu}}
|-
| '''ordo''' || n || eye || ''oldau''
|-
| '''ordin''' || adj || visual; visible ||
|-
| '''orgal''' || v || ignite, explode || ''ôriwal''
|-
| '''oslók''' || v || forget || ''oslòk'' (reborrowed)
|-
| '''ošyal''' || v || propose, suggest || ''obial'' "offer"
|-
| '''ote''' || v || run, hurry || ''orte''
|-
| '''otóun''' || adj || thin || ''auntōn''
|-
| '''oubə''' || qu || almost all || ''omba'' "many"
|-
| '''oudisa''' || n || witch ||
|-
| '''oudiz''' || n || magician || ''ondisi'' "expert"
|-
| '''ougə''' || pp || behind, in back of || ''ob bongga'' "at the back"
|-
| '''oumol''' || n || younger sister || ''omai ''+ dim.
|-
| '''oumu''' || n || mother || ''omo''
|-
| '''-oun''' || cj || and || ''on''
|-
| '''ouŋa''' || adj || vulgar, base || ''alngai'' "common"
|-
| '''ouŋu''' || pp || without, except for || ''al'' "without" + ''ngu'' "as"
|-
| '''oupə''' || adj || boring || ''ompa'' "flat"
|-
| '''oupu''' || adj || deep || ''ompu''
|-
| '''oušu''' || v || promise || ''aitsu''
|-
| '''ouwa''' || cj || and || ''ongwâ''
|-
| '''ouzə''' || n || suicide || ''ausa'' "sacrifice"
|-
| '''ouzu''' || adv || yesterday || ''auso''
|-
| '''oymə''' || adj || recent || ''osma''
|-
| '''oyŋǽŋga''' || adj || serious, solemn || ''olngango'' "be serious"
|-
| '''pabo''' || v || analyze, categorize || ''papau'' "name" (reborrowed)
|-
| '''pačuna''' || v || count, reckon || {{Far|pačunan}}, from ''pat-sun'' "one-two"
|-
| '''padu''' || v || attack || ''pasto''
|-
| '''padupe''' || v || smash, break || ''kwatopm''
|-
| '''Palge''' || top || a free city in Kazəgad, modern Pawé || ''Palwe''
|-
| '''pap''' || n || defense || ''pap'' "shield"
|-
| '''pardə''' || n || valley || ''palda''
|-
| '''paš''' || n || socket, niche || ''kwats'' "chair"
|-
| '''pat''' || adj || stinky, smelly || ''kwat''
|-
| '''pæm''' || adj || round || ''kwaim''
|-
| '''pæn''' || v || bite, chew || ''kwain''
|-
| '''pea''' || adj || ready || ''kweda''
|-
| '''pei''' || adj || big || ''pai''
|-
| '''peiblo''' || n || beach || ''pailbelau''
|-
| '''peide''' || adj || loud || ''kwaidn''
|-
| '''peilaš''' || n || mainland (as opposed to the sea) || "big land"
|-
| '''peilbu''' || n || hourglass || ''pailbe "''sand" + -''bu''
|-
| '''peimæb''' || n || mystery || ''palmambi'' "secret"
|-
| '''Peimast''' || top || a city on the upper Poráš || "big house"
|-
| '''pein''' || pp || with, accompanied by, having || ''kwen''
|-
| '''peitə''' || aux || fucking do (aux) || ''penta'' "fuck up"
|-
| '''peitu''' || adv || apart || ''kwentu''
|-
| '''pepə''' || adj || last, final || ''pekwa''
|-
| '''peras''' || n || knight, first rank of noble || ''peras'' "brave"
|-
| '''peše''' || v || drop, let go; abandon || ''kwetsn''
|-
| '''pezə''' || v || shit || ''pesa''
|-
| '''pezəlo''' || n || outhouse, toilet ||
|-
| '''pi''' || n || fingernail || ''kwi''
|-
| '''piədæmis''' || v || understand || ''kwindamis''
|-
| '''piəm''' || adj || low || ''pim''
|-
| '''piəm''' || v || abase; (refl) submit, lower oneself, sacrifice || ''pim'' "low"
|-
| '''pigəl''' || adv || first || ''piwel'' "early"
|-
| '''pila''' || v || send || ''pilai''
|-
| '''pila''' || aux || have done, send for (aux) || ''pilai'' "send"
|-
| '''pipe''' || adj || practical, earthy || ''pipm'' "useful"
|-
| '''pir''' || n || goat || ''kwir''
|-
| '''pišil''' || adj || pale, gray || ''pitsi ''+ dim.
|-
| '''popu''' || v || fear || ''paingkwu''
|-
| '''porat''' || adj || trustworthy, sound || {{Far|porat}} "clean, pure"
|-
| '''Poráš''' || top || the river east of the Oltu ||
|-
| '''pouku''' || v || refuse, deny || ''pokpo''
|-
| '''poun''' || n || island || ''pon''
|-
| '''pouni''' || n || plant, vegetation || ''ponî''
|-
| '''pragu''' || adj || tamed, broken (of horses) || {{Far|pragud}} "accustomed, tamed"
|-
| '''præmbu''' || n || architect ||
|-
| '''præn''' || v || build; design || ''pirain'' "plan"
|-
| '''prænmate''' || n || architecture, building ||
|-
| '''pubiət''' || v || threaten, menace || ''pupibat''
|-
| '''Puwa''' || top || a Naidda-speaking city in the far south || {{Ndd|Pu'a}}
|-
| '''puwə''' || n || nose || ''pungwa''
|-
| '''rari''' || adj || addicted || {{Ndd|raiddi}}
|-
| '''Rasedán''' || top || the western mountains || {{Ad|Rathedān}}
|-
| '''raul''' || v || fill || ''ragol''
|-
| '''ræbe''' || pp || along; during, in, within || ''rambe''
|-
| '''ræde''' || n || sky || ''rande''
|-
| '''rædel''' || n || pot, jar || ''rander ''+ dim.
|-
| '''ræpe''' || adj || fertile || ''rampa'' "abundant"
|-
| '''ræpen''' || pp || instead of, in place of || ''rampen''
|-
| '''rætu''' || v || hear || ''ranto''
|-
| '''rečiəs''' || n || bleeding (of a wound); menstruation || ''rekibas'' "flood"
|-
| '''reimur''' || n || earthquake || ''remor''
|-
| '''relga''' || adj || hot || ''relsi'' "be hot" + adj.
|-
| '''rewebe''' || adj || unable, useless || ''râwebm'' "incompetent"
|-
| '''rewŋ''' || adj || flat, smooth || ''raung'' "plains"
|-
| '''rewŋəl''' || n || platform; deck (of a ship) || ''raung'' + dim.
|-
| '''rewŋlo''' || n || plain, flatlands ||
|-
| '''rifəs''' || adj || ugly || {{Far|rifs}} "scary"
|-
| '''rišo''' || v || con, defraud || {{Ndd|risjo}}
|-
| '''ro''' || num || ten || ''ro''
|-
| '''robe''' || n || feather || ''robm''
|-
| '''roda''' || v || have, own (things) || {{Far|rotan}}' "own, possess"
|-
| '''rodu''' || n || possessions, one's things || {{Far|rotud}}
|-
| '''rogə''' || v || perform, act || ''rowa'' "play (an instrument)"
|-
| '''roulə ''' || v || care for, be devoted to || ''raula'' "love"
|-
| '''roumə ' ' || pron || that (relativizer) || ''roma''
|-
| '''route''' || v || flee || (habitative of ''orte'' "run")
|-
| '''rozaru''' || n || voter (in a republic) || {{Ad|rozarō}}
|-
| '''rubadu''' || v || annoy, irritate || ''rupasto'' "be agressive"
|-
| '''rud''' || n || man (male) || ''rud''
|-
| '''ruduga''' || adj || unpredictable || (adjectivization of ''rututu'' "be unpredictable")
|-
| '''ruənah''' || n || priest (of the pagans) || ''runnak''
|-
| '''ruga''' || adj || gullible || (adjectivization of ''rugua'' "be gullible")
|-
| '''rulasa''' || n || whore, prostitute || {{Ndd|rula}} "be promiscuous" + -''sa'' "woman"
|-
| '''rumia''' || v || trust, have confidence in || (habitative of ''miga'' "trust")
|-
| '''rušan''' || v || blame; cast aspersions, sling mud || {{Far|rušnen}} "paint"
|-
| '''rušoga''' || adj || fantastic, imaginative || (adjectivization of ''rudioba'' "daydream")
|-
| '''ruəga''' || adj || intelligent || (adjectivization of ''rungwâi'' "be intelligent")
|-
| '''sačin''' || adj || rich, wealthy || {{Far|sats}} + -''in''
|-
| '''sašə''' || v || sneeze || ''tsatsa''
|-
| '''satar''' || n || democratic assembly || {{Ad|zāthar}}
|-
| '''satugə''' || n || false knowledge, illusion || {{Muts|ttsatû'a}}
|-
| '''sæči''' || adj || soft || ''tsâuki''
|-
| '''sæŋ''' || v || wash || ''tsaing''
|-
| '''sæp''' || v || give || ''tsampi''
|-
| '''sæt''' || n || gold || {{Far|sat}}
|-
| '''sætil''' || n || money || "little gold"
|-
| '''sætugə''' || n || virtue, morality || {{Muts|ktsantû'a}}
|-
| '''sečas''' || n || good luck, good fortune || {{Far|českudač}} "encounter with pixies"
|-
| '''sečasin''' || adj || lucky, fortunate ||
|-
| '''seiš''' || n || louse || ''tsêtsi''
|-
| '''seiza''' || n || dawn || ''tsaisai'' "arise"
|-
| '''sek''' || n || name || {{Far|sekh}}
|-
| '''seka''' || v || name, call || {{Far|sekhan}}
|-
| '''selo''' || n || spear || ''tselô''
|-
| '''seor''' || v || pour || ''tsebor''
|-
| '''seošan''' || n || seventh day of the week and day of rest || {{Far|seršan}}
|-
| '''serčaok''' || n || emperor (title of the Fáralo ruler) || {{Far|serčark}} "great king"
|-
| '''serin''' || adj || imperial || (back-formed from ''serčaok'')
|-
| '''sernat''' || n || minister (of state) || {{Far|sernagat}} "great lord"
|-
| '''Sertek''' || top || a city on the mouth of the Poráš || {{Far|sertekh}} "mighty sword"
|-
| '''seze''' || adj || steep || ''tsese''
|-
| '''seziči''' || v || be born || ''tsesir'' + refl.
|-
| '''sezul''' || n || infant || "be born" + dim.
|-
| '''si-''' || pron || that (clitic) || ''tsi''
|-
| '''sidin''' || adj || sad, unhappy || ''tsisten'' "be depressed"
|-
| '''siəč''' || adj || separate, apart || ''tsingki''
|-
| '''siən''' || v || drink || ''tsin'' "like"
|-
| '''Siənčæn''' || n || the greatest of the Edák emperors || ''Tsinakan'''''
|-
| '''sigil''' || v || urinate, piss || ''sig ''+ dim.
|-
| '''silo''' || n || tooth, fang || ''tsilâu''
|-
| '''sirul''' || pron || there || ''tsilul'' "there (far)"
|-
| '''sip''' || adv || thus || ''tsip''
|-
| '''siralo''' || n || brothel || {{Ndd|sìddalo}} "inn with a brothel"
|-
| '''sis''' || n || dog || ''tsis''
|-
| '''sissa''' || n || bitch || "female dog"
|-
| '''siš''' || aux || null (aux) || "then"
|-
| '''sišo''' || pron || then || ''tsitsau''
|-
| '''so''' || aux || must, have to (aux) || ''tso- ''obligative
|-
| '''sobræn''' || v || succeed || ''tsopirain''
|-
| '''sos''' || adj || mature, adult || {{Far|sors}}
|-
| '''sossa''' || n || nubile girl, one who has just come of age ||
|-
| '''soy''' || v || cause || ''tsobi'' "control"
|-
| '''soudul''' || n || powder, dust || ''tsondo ''+ dim.
|-
| '''sounči''' || v || kneel || "knee" + refl.
|-
| '''souŋ''' || n || knee || ''tsong''
|-
| '''suji''' || v || press, pressure || ''tsurgî''
|-
| '''sur''' || adv || tomorrow || ''tsuri''
|-
| '''susu''' || v || whistle || (imitative)
|-
| '''suš''' || adj || near, nearby || ''tsuts''
|-
| '''sušin''' || n || neighbor ||
|-
| '''šælo''' || n || hearth, fireplace; home || {{Far|šan}} "fire" + "place"
|-
| '''šesuy''' || v || crown or select a ruler || {{Far|šesoin}} "to make holy"
|-
| '''Šišin''' || top || the northern mountains (NT ''Daing Ibli'') || {{Far|Čintsin}} "northerly"
|-
| '''šuən''' || v || stab, slash || {{Far|prunin}}
|-
| '''šuys''' || adj || merciful, compassionate || {{Far|šois}} "sweet, gentle", from ''šoi'' "woman"
|-
| '''ta''' || aux || just did (aux) || ''ta ''dynamic particle
|-
| '''tača''' || n || older sister || {{Far|tača}}
|-
| '''Tal''' || top || the western provinces of Huyfárah || ''Tali''
|-
| '''talo''' || n || the people of Tal; the Tlaliolz ||
|-
| '''tædi''' || n || shelter || ''taindi'' "wing"
|-
| '''tædil''' || n || oar || ''taindi'' "wing" + dim.
|-
| '''tæm''' || n || south || ''tam''
|-
| '''taš''' || adj || lawful, legal || {{Far|tats}}
|-
| '''tatuy''' || v || allow, permit || {{Far|tatoin}}
|-
| '''tazbæm''' || v || imply || ''tasbam''
|-
| '''teibe''' || adv || together || ''taibm''
|-
| '''teiŋu''' || n || pull || ''tengo''
|-
| '''teiŋgas''' || n || punt, flatboat || "pull-boat"
|-
| '''teitu''' || adj || wide || ''tento''
|-
| '''teiš''' || v || bend, fold || ''tautsi''
|-
| '''teka''' || n || army || {{Far|tekha}}
|-
| '''tesses''' || n || soldier || {{Far|tekšes}} "swordsman"
|-
| '''tid''' || n || flea || ''titi''
|-
| '''tiəŋišə''' || n || flash, spark || ''tingia''
|-
| '''tikóu''' || n || stone, rock; anchor|| ''tingkāu''
|-
| '''tir''' || n || door || ''tiri''
|-
| '''tišæna''' || v || take as a concubine or consort || ''tianai'' "marry"
|-
| '''toba''' || n || horn || ''topai''
|-
| '''todu''' || n || idiot, doofus || (from ''totoli'' "be clumsy")
|-
| '''tol''' || v || shine || ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''tol''' || n || light || ''tol'' "sun"
|-
| '''tolin''' || adj || bright ||
|-
| '''tou''' || n || lake || ''tau''
|-
| '''toun''' || n || hand || ''ton''
|-
| '''tudu''' || v || amaze || ''tutu''
|-
| '''tuəd''' || v || oversee, control || {{Far|tundan}}
|-
| '''tulas''' || n || cinnamon || {{Ad|thulus}}
|-
| '''tuma''' || n || pirate || {{Thok|tuma}} "outlaw"
|-
| '''twæno''' || v || avoid, prevent || ''tuanau''
|-
| '''ubák''' || n || palace || ''ospàk'' "throne"
|-
| '''Ubáz''' || n || the Mother Goddess of the Edák || ''ombāsi''
|-
| '''ubu''' || adv || soon || ''ubwu''
|-
| '''učébur''' || v || rush foolishly into something || ''ukembur'' "behave recklessly"
|-
| '''uəgu''' || adj || lame, crippled || ''unggu''
|-
| '''uəm''' || aux || cause (aux) || ''umbom-''
|-
| '''uəmə''' || v || joke || ''unma'' "play"
|-
| '''uəš''' || v || blow, breathe || ''untsi''
|-
| '''uəta''' || n || humor, wit || ''untai "joke"''
|-
| '''ugaš''' || v || be a storm || ''uwaits'' "be cloudy"
|-
| '''ugə''' || pp || from; after || ''uwa''
|-
| '''ugəga''' || adv || late, later || "afterish"
|-
| '''uksáb''' || v || be eager or zealous || ''uksab'' "look forward to"
|-
| '''ukšúy''' || v || covet, long for the forbidden || ''uktsobi''
|-
| '''ulə''' || v || rise, raise, lift || ''ula''
|-
| '''ulgə''' || v || taste || ''ulwa''
|-
| '''ulgu''' || n || rope || ''ulwo''
|-
| '''umórdu''' || pp || in front of, before (space) || ''ob moldau'' "at front"
|-
| '''umóro''' || v || be picky || {{Ndd|u"moddo}}
|-
| '''undribu''' || n || comedian || {{Ndd|unddivo}}
|-
| '''uplə''' || v || explain, describe || ''upla''
|-
| '''Ussor''' || top || capital of Huyfárah || ''Uksaur''
|-
| '''ušóbe''' || v || be horny || {{Ndd|usjàve}}
|-
| '''utúči''' || v || kill oneself || ''utnots ''+ refl. -''či''
|-
| '''uw''' || adj || cruel, savage || ''udu''
|-
| '''uwlo''' || n || barbarian ||
|-
| '''uwméi''' || adj || yellow || ''ulmāi''
|-
| '''wa-''' || det || this (clitic) || ''wai''
|-
| '''wabə''' || v || hit || ''wapa''
|-
| '''wagaga''' || adj || peaceful ||
|-
| '''wagah''' || n || peace || ''wawaik'' "calm"
|-
| '''waš''' || v || dig || ''wats''
|-
| '''waše''' || pron || this one, this person|| ''waige''
|-
| '''wat''' || n || age || ''wat''
|-
| '''wægól''' || pp || below, under || ''ob nggolang'' "at foot"
|-
| '''wæpum''' || adj || hollow || ''wampum''
|-
| '''wære''' || v || love || ''ugbâre'' optative of "have"
|-
| '''wætáŋ''' || pp || beyond, past || ''ob ntang'' "at end"
|-
| '''wætə''' || pp || about, concerning || ''wau'' "for" + ''nte'' "with"
|-
| '''we''' || aux || will (future aux) || ''we- ''future prefix
|-
| '''wede''' || n || vegetable || ''wedn''
|-
| '''weilo''' || n || garden || ''wenlau''
|-
| '''weišo''' || adv || now || ''waitsau''
|-
| '''wiəm''' || v || live || ''wim''
|-
| '''wiəmu''' || pp || above, over || ''ob imu'' "at head"
|-
| '''wiəŋ''' || adj || wet || ''wing''
|-
| '''wilo''' || n || house || "living place"
|-
| '''wimés''' || adj || adjacent, adjoining || ''wimès'' "neighbor"
|-
| '''wimə''' || n || mud || ''wisma''
|-
| '''wiməl''' || adj || dirty || ''wisma'' + dim.
|-
| '''wiza''' || v || yell, shout || ''wisai''
|-
| '''wodel''' || v || wear, carry || ''wirdel''
|-
| '''wos''' || num || three || ''wos''
|-
| '''wošlo''' || n || dump, hick town || {{Ndd|wàsjlo}} "hole in the ground"
|-
| '''wozgatač''' || n || trireme || "three-galley"
|-
| '''woul''' || pron || here || ''wailul''
|-
| '''woupu''' || v || remember || ''wompo''
|-
| '''wugu''' || v || condemn, find guilty || ''wuku'' "blame"
|-
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Fáralo

2025-02-01T19:48:28Z

Cedh:

{{DEFAULTSORT:Faralo}}
{{Language
| language = Fáralo
| phonetic = [ˈfa.ra.lɔ]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 7.5 million
| script = [[Fáralo alphabet]]
| family = Edastean  Eastern Edastean   Fáralo
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Zompist|Zompist]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Fáralo''' was the language of [[Huyfárah]], the most powerful nation of [[Peilaš]] in the time period around 0 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is an [[Edastean]] language descended from the northern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], showing heavy influence from languages of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]], specifically [[Faraghin]]. Sister languages of Fáralo include [[Adāta]], [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]], [[Ndok Aisô]], and [[Komejech]].

It was the first language of Akana to be written in an [[Fáralo alphabet|alphabet]].

== Genealogy ==

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

Among the daughter languages of Fáralo are [[Woltu Falla]], [[Namɨdu]], [[Cəssın]], and [[Puoni]].

== Sample ==
* ''Siš Siənčæn ebí, kraš lu-diágə æm lu-laš Kazəgad ouwa lu-meokát æm lu-iodol luŋ-iəboun, sip: Isə lu-epén i na epélo æm æč badew, ædešei ege lu-klaš heil iəm čosk.''
* [ siʃ ˈsi.ən.ʧæn ɛˈbi | kraʃ lu.diˈa.ɡə æm luˈlaʃ ˈka.zə.ɡad ˈo.wa lu.meɔ̯ˈkat æm luˈiɔ̯.dɔl luˈŋi.ə.bon | sip ‖ ˈi.sə lu.ɛˈpɛn i na ɛˈpɛlɔ æm æʧ ˈba.dew | ˈæ.dɛ.ʃe ˈɛ.ɡɛ luˈklaʃ hel ˈi.əm ʧɔsk ]
* NULL.AUX Siənčæn speak, brave the-Edák.ruler to.it the-land Kazəgad and the-younger.brother to.them the-sun the-moon-and, thus: before the-sit-PST I in chair to.him my father, stay-PST.PL all the.PL-land foreign to.me hostile
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm Fáralo grammar] (dating to 130 YP)
* [[/Lexicon|Fáralo lexicon]]
* [[Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Fáralo]]
* [[Huyfárah]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Huyfárah]]
{{Stub}}

Puoni

2025-02-01T19:45:58Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Puoni
| phonetic = [ˈpwɔ.nɪ]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Kuaguatia
| speakers = c. 1 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo   Puoni
| word-or = unknown
| mor-type = unknown
| morphalign = unknown
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Puoni''' is a language of the [[Fáralo]] branch of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken in the region of [[Kuaguatia]] (to the south of [[Kasca]]) around 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. The language is spoken by the Puoni people, originally a splinter group of [[Etúgə]], whose branch in Huyfárah is represented by the [[Epɨm]]. The Puoni were driven out of [[Huyfárah]] during the reign of the [[Etou dynasty]], and the story of their [[Huyfárah#The exodus of the Puoni|exodus]] has been a major source for the national identity of Kuaguatia.

''A grammar of Puoni is not yet available.''

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Fáralo]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** '''Puoni''' (c. 1100 YP)

== See also ==
* [[Puoni/Lexicon|An unofficial lexicon of Puoni]]
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/puoni-thematic.html A preliminary thematic dictionary]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]
{{stub}}

Adāta

2025-02-01T19:44:52Z

Cedh: remove dead links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adata}}
{{Language
| language = Adāta
| phonetic = [ˈa.daː.ta]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Rathedān
| speakers = c. 3.5 million
| script = adapted Tjakori script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Adāta
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = isolating w/ some fusion
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Classical Adāta''' was spoken in the [[Dāiadak]] city states of the [[Rathedān]] highlands in the time period around 0 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. With the expansion of the [[Empire of Athalē]] from 200 YP onward, the language spread across most of the middle and upper [[Aiwa|Eigə valley]]. In 414 YP, '''Imperial Adāta''' was declared official language of the empire by [[Khepōnon I]], thereby further strengthening its position outside the Dāiadak heartlands and largely replacing local tongues such as [[Ndok Aisô]] and [[Ktacwa]].

== Genealogy ==
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-edastean-100.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the distribution of Adāta and its sister languages around 100 YP.]]
Adāta is descended from the southwestern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], forming part of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]], which in turn belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. Sister languages of Adāta include [[Fáralo]], [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]], and [[Ndok Aisô]] (listed in decreasing order of historical significance but increasing closeness to Adāta).

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

=== Descendants ===
[[Image:Languages-1st-generation-daiadak-1200.png|thumb|right|500px|A map showing the languages descended from Adāta, dating to c. 1200 YP.]]
Adāta is the ancestor of the [[Dāiadak]] branch of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]]. Direct descendants of Adāta were:

* [[Æðadĕ]] ([[Lasomo]])
* [[Aθáta]] ([[Rathedān]], [[Milīr|Milīr valley]])
* [[Ayāsthi|Adhāsth]] ([[Kingdom of Thāras|Thāraspē]])
* [[Mavakhalan]] ([[Khalanu]])
* [[Kuyʔūn]] ([[Eiwəl Gourun]])
* [[Kozado]] ([[Khalanu]])
* [[Koyek]] (northwestern Rathedān)
* [[Pencek]] (Ici forest)

== Sample ==
* ''Sinakan, dizaka xezor, dizaka ax las ax Kāxad, mēkat ax Zama on ax Thālo, ro abise sip: Īlanu i ro ape ob ōpākātia ax meze ai, eze dizakalas rūlas ro īr hēkon īla in.''
* [ ˈsi.na.kan | ˈdi.za.ka ˈxe.zor | ˈdi.za.ka ax las ax ˈkaː.xad | ˈmeː.kat ax ˈza.ma ɔn ax ˈtʰaː.lo | ro ˈa.bi.se sip ‖ ˈiː.la.nu i ro ˈa.pe ɔb oːˈpaː.kaː.tja ax ˈme.ze aj | ˈe.ze ˈdi.za.ka.las ˈruː.las ro iːr ˈheː.kɔn ˈiː.la in ]
* Sinakan, king great, king of land of Kāxad, brother of Sun and of Moon, AFF say-HAB.SG this.way: before 1SG AFF sit-HAB.SG near throne of father 1SG-POSS, all king.land foreign AFF be-FTL.HAB.SG hostile to 1SG.OBL
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [[/Grammar|Adāta grammar]] (dating to 130 YP) {{context|(backup version of the [http://akana.conlang.org/user/dewrad/adata/adata.htm original description])}}
* [[/Lexicon|Adāta lexicon]] {{context|(based on [http://akana.conlang.org/user/dewrad/adata/lexicon.htm the original lexicon file])}}
* [http://zhenlin.nfshost.com/akana/ayasthi/adata-lexicon.csv A lexicon of Imperial Adāta c. 400 YP] (.csv format)
* [http://zhenlin.nfshost.com/akana/ayasthi/faralo-loanwords.csv Fáralo loanwords] relating to imperialism, governance and philosophy (.csv format)
* [[/Sound changes|Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Adāta]]
* [[Empire of Athalē]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

Delta Naidda

2025-02-01T19:43:02Z

Cedh: /* Dialectology */ add link to original description of Southern Naidda = Naidda v0.1

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naidda}}
{{Language
| language = Naidda (Delta dialect)
| phonetic = [ˈnai.ɾə]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Kasca
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Fáralo script
| family = Edastean  Eastern   Naidda
| word-or = V1; nonconfigurational
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = direct
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

= Sketch of Delta Naidda =

Herein begins a sketch of the Delta dialect of Naidda, the language of the land of [[Kasca]]. The dialect is spoken in the delta of the Ya river, and though it is not the prestige dialect, it has far more speakers than any other. This sketch also represents a major revision of the original version of the Naidda language, which was intended to be the Southern dialect but also needed a great deal of repair.

Thus you may see ΔNaidda or ΔN from time to time as a punning abbreviation of "Delta Naidda" - ΔX representing, in math and physics, "change in X".

[[Culture of Kasca]]

[http://www.almeopedia.com/Kasadgad Description of early Kasca]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda%20sound%20changes.txt Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Delta Naidda]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/Naidda_dictionary2.html A dictionary of Delta Naidda]

== Standardization Note ==

Unlike Fáralo or Adāta, no variety of the Naidda language has been codified into a written standard in over a millennium. Furthermore, Kasca is a region where dialects are continually contaminating each other; the speech of any one person will reflect wordforms that originated in multiple dialects, and in many cases more than one form of a given word will be in common use even within the same town. Complicating this picture further is that sound changes have originated in different parts of Kasca and spread to some but often not all of the rest, so that the speech varieties of any two given towns will have had sound changes that applied only in one, or else in both but in different orders, resulting in even more lexical variation.

The bottom line is that the Delta Naidda dictionary should not be taken as a standardized word list for any particular location. Instead it tries to reflect most-common forms for the Delta dialect overall, and it shouldn't be neglected that variant forms will also exist for numerous words.

Among the biggest points of variation is vowel losses. Word-initial vowels were very frequently dropped in Delta Naidda words of three or more original syllables, and trisyllabic words often dropped medial vowels as well, or instead. But numerous wordforms have been imported from or influenced by other dialects that retained these vowels. Various consonant clusters also show a range of outcomes, but a full description of even just the major variations would be a massive task, and is beyond the scope of this grammatical sketch.

To summarize: it is ''not'' safe to assume that the following grammar and the entire dictionary are adequate descriptions of any single person's speech. Your Mileage May Vary.

= Genealogy =
Naidda is descended from the eastern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], forming part of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]], which in turn belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. Sister languages of Naidda include [[Fáralo]], [[Adāta]], [[Ndok Aisô]], [[Buruya Nzaysa]], and [[Komejech]]. Of these, it is most closely related to Fáralo and Komejech, with which it comprises the Eastern subbranch of Edastean, and especially to Buruya Nzaysa, which is even classified as a dialect of Naidda by some scholars. Naidda has one known descendant, [[Wippwo]].

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

== Dialectology ==

[[Image:Naidda dialects.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialect map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

There are five principal dialects of the Naidda language.

* Delta. This the is dialect covered in this sketch, and is spoken in the [[Aiwa|Ya river]] delta. This variety may be considered the "core" version of Naidda, though it has less prestige; its range is central in Kasca and it is spoken by more people than any other variety.
* Southern. Spoken in [[Kasca#P.C3.A5we|Påwe]] and environs. This is the second-largest and most prestigious variety of Naidda, but is almost completely mutually intelligible with Delta speech. {{context|[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda.html A deprecated sketch of Southern Naidda]}}
* Momuva'e. A sub-variety of the Delta dialect, spoken in the city of [[Momuva'e]] and its immediate vicinity. Main article [[Mësting Momuva'e]].
* Coastal. This variety of Naidda is fairly divergent, as it has had stronger interference from [[Fáralo]] than other dialects. Spoken in the coastal towns of Kasca.
* Buruyan. The variety of Naidda spoken in Buruya is the most divergent, and is not really mutually intelligible with other dialects - so it may well be considered a separate language, were it not traditional to classify it as part of Naidda. Main article [[Buruya Nzaysa]].

= Phonology =

== Phonemes ==

The 22 consonants of Delta Naidda are as follows:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Postalveolar
| Palatal
| Velar
| Glottal
|-
| Voiceless Plosive
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| ''' ' ''' /ʔ/
|-
| Voiced Plosive
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| Voiceless Affricate    
|
|
| '''c''' /ʧ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Affricate
|
|
| '''j''' /ʤ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiceless Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Fricative
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /ʒ/
|
|
|
|-
| Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
| Tap
|
| '''dd''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Trill
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Approximant
| '''w''' /w/
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|}

Delta Naidda has eight vowels:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ï''' /ɪ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| Mid High    
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o ''' /o/
|-
| Mid Low
| '''ë''' /ɛ/
|
|
|-
| Low
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''å''' /ɒ/
|}

== Rules and Distributions ==

=== Consonants ===
* Naidda words never end in obstruents (plosives, fricatives, or affricates), only in vowels or sonorant consonants.
* Voiceless plosives and affricates ('''p t c k''') occur only in initial position, or after '''s''' or '''sh'''.
* Voiced plosives and affricates ('''b d j g''') occur only in initial position and between vowels. They contrast with their voiceless counterparts only initially.
* The velar nasal occurs only at the ends of words, in which position it contrasts with all three other nasals. The other three ('''m n ñ''') occur with no such restriction.
* '''r''' and '''dd''' contrast only intervocalically, where they are a trill and a flap, both dental or alveolar. In all other environments, there is only a tapped '''r''' (a slightly different phone from the flap). This often weakens to an approximant in codas.
* '''ly''' is realized as [ʎ], a palatal lateral approximant. This sound is analyzed in this sketch as underlyingly being a cluster of '''l''' with '''y'''.
* '''z''' is normally postalveolar [ʒ] in most regions of the Delta, but for some speakers may occur in free variation with dental [z]. In a few areas only the dental pronunciation occurs.
* Medially within words, all fricatives and sonorants ('''s sh v z m n ñ l r w y''') can form consonant clusters with each other, in any order. None of them but '''s''' and '''sh''' can cluster with plosives and plosives cannot cluster with each other. Clusters of more than two consecutive consonants do not occur.
* All clusters beginning with a fricative, that are legal medially, can occur in initial position as well. A few other clusters can also occur initially, such as '''mw''', '''tw''', or '''py'''.
* The glottal stop clusters only with nasals, and only before them. These clusters can occur both medially and finally. In final position the nasal of such a cluster is syllabic. The glottal stop also occurs between vowels, but never initially or finally.
* '''f''' does not occur in this dialect of Naidda, though it does in others (but only in loanwords even there, mostly from Faralo '''f''' and '''h'''). Delta Naidda has generally imported such loanwords with '''p''' in initial position and '''v''' medially. Thus Huyfarah is called Fuifara in the Southern dialect and, borrowed from that, '''Pwivara''' in the Delta dialect.

=== Vowels ===
* All back vowels are rounded ('''u o å''') and all non-back vowels are unrounded ('''i ï e ë a''').
* There are no phonemic diphthongs, but adjacent vowels freely diphthongize in normal speech unless separated by a glottal stop. Except where noted below, the first of the two vowels tends to be the nucleus of such a diphthong, with the other forming an offglide. In careful speech the adjacent vowels may be separated into two full syllables.
* The vowels can be classed into two groups, "strong" and "weak". The strong vowels are '''i e u o''', which share the characteristic that they do not tend to be reduced in unstressed syllables. The weak vowels are '''a å ï''', which share the characteristic that in fully unstressed syllables they become schwa, thus neutralizing the distinction between them. In addition, in any vowel sequence consisting of a strong and a weak vowel, the weak vowel becomes the diphthong nucleus and the strong vowel becomes an offglide or onglide.
* '''ë''' behaves sometimes as a strong vowel and sometimes as a weak vowel. Its behavior in unstressed syllables and in diphthongs varies by rate of speech and from speaker to speaker.
* The realization of '''ï''' and '''å''' vary from town to town. The former is normally either [ɪ] or [ɨ], or occasionally [ə], and the latter can be [ɒ] or [ɔ] and in a few places has merged with '''a'''. Other vowels vary less than these do.
* '''u''' normally cannot be found at the ends of words; it becomes '''o''' instead. However, in a very few cases a '''u''' persists in this position, like '''du''' "four" and '''myu''' "stupid". These exceptions are rare and the ones that do occur are generally monosyllabic. However, the onomatopoeic '''uwu''' "owl" has it too.

=== Stress ===

The algorithm for assigning lexical stress in Naidda is as follows:

# Start by assigning the accent to the first syllable of the root (or the first root, in a compound word).
# For certain derivational prefixes, the accent is attracted to the first syllable of the prefix instead.
# If there are more than two syllables to the right of the accent, move it to the first syllable of the '''next morpheme to the right'' if there is one, even if its first vowel is epenthetic.
# Repeat step 3 until the accent is no earlier than antepenultimate position.
# Alternating syllables to the left and right of the accent gain secondary stress.

Some examples, with the period . indicating morpheme boundaries:

'''néshodën''' 
'''morvo.gáño''' 
'''Mómuva'e''' 
'''të.bédo''' 
'''po'mon.á'a''' 
'''të.gáyå.'a''' 
'''ma.jani.dá.'a'''

== Morphophonological Processes ==

The morphophonology of Naidda is relatively straightforward. The major processes are as follows:

'''Epenthesis''' - various types of consonant clusters are not legal in Naidda. If an illegal cluster would be formed morphologically, an epenthetic '''a''' is inserted at the morpheme boundary to hold apart the cluster.

'''Medial voicing''' - voiceless stops (including the affricate '''c''') are contrasted with voiced ones only in initial position. When a prefix is added to a word beginning with a voiceless stop, it becomes voiced - or, more specifically, the contrast is neutralized, and voiced and voiceless pronunciations occur in free variation when this happens. But in any case such stops are always ''written'' voiced. The exception is that after determiner proclitics voiceless stops continue to be written voiceless, as there is a stronger preference among speakers for the voiceless pronunciation here - though the two are still in free variation. Voiceless fricatives remain contrasted in medial position and are unaffected by this rule.

'''Vowel elision''' - there are two possible results of adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a stem ending with a vowel. If the vowel of the stem is unstressed, it is simply overridden by the suffix vowel. If it is stressed however, the two will instead co-exist, diphthongized, if they are sufficiently different from each other (e.g. '''e''' and '''ë''' do not readily co-exist this way, which is a particular problem when verbs ending in either vowel occur in the first person). If they are not, elision may happen anyway - although a new resolution to the problem has recently arisen in the delta: separating the two vowels with an epenthetic glottal stop.

'''Eng palatalization''' - when a word ending in '''ng''' takes a suffix, the velar nasal changes to a palatal nasal '''ñ'''.

'''S-devoicing''' - when '''s''' comes before a voiced stop or fricative due to morphological processes, the stop or fricative devoices in the following manner:
* '''sb, sd, sg''' -> '''sp, st, sk'''
* '''sv''' -> '''sp'''
* '''sj, sz''' -> '''sc'''

= Noun Phrases =

== Structure ==

The structure of a Naidda noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:

Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)

Naidda nouns are '''invariable in form'''.

== Determiners ==

Before the noun there are two positions which can be filled by determiners. In every NP at least one of these two slots ''must'' be filled.

A first position determiner may be a proclitic which serves as an article or deictic, or it may be a possessive pronoun. These two sets do not co-occur. Quantifiers, which may be either numbers or non-numeral quantifiers, occur in the second determiner position.

'''NOTE:''' see the "pronominal prepositions" section for a fuller explanation of the possessive pronouns and how not only possessive ones can be determiners.

=== Articles and Deictics ===
{|
|
| Clitic
| Meaning
|-
|
| l-
| the
|
|-
|
| u- or w-
| a, some
|-
|
| d-
| as for
|-
|
| g-
| this
|-
|
| c-
| that
|}

These clitics, if present, attach to the beginning of the next word and are written hyphenated.

'''l-a'a''' 
''the woman''

'''Clitic Morphophonology'''

The indefinite article consists of u- before consonants and w- before vowels. The other proclitics are pronounced before vowels as if they were part of the word. Before consonants, an epenthetic schwa intervenes, unless a legal initial cluster is formed.

=== Possessive Pronouns ===

There are only three possessive pronouns, one for each person.

{|
|
| Person
| Pronoun
|-
|
| 1
| a'e
|
|-
|
| 2
| airo
|-
|
| 3
| a
|}

=== Non-Numeric Quantifiers ===
{|
|
| Quantifier
| Meaning
|-
|
| wa
| a few, a minority of
|
|-
|
| nam
| some, however many
|-
|
| ova
| many, lots of
|-
|
| i'i
| most
|
|-
|
| me
| no, none of
|-
|
| or
| all, each
|}

=== Numbers ===
{|
| Number
| Native
| Fáralo
|-
| 1
| kë
| ce
|-
| 2
| ni
| --
|-
| 3
| wo
| --
|-
| 4
| bo
| bu
|-
| 5
| du
| --
|-
| 6
| ïshï
| --
|-
| 7
| mëm
| --
|-
| 8
| son
| ude
|-
| 9
| nïl
| --
|-
| 10
| ro
| --
|}

For the numbers 1, 4, and 8, both the native and the borrowed Fáralo numbers are in common use.

Multiples of ten are formed by suffixing -ro. Ordinals are formed by prefixing ï-, or in the case of six, y-.

=== Examples ===

'''l-di''' 
''the tree''

'''ova di''' 
''many trees''

'''l-ova di''' 
''the many trees''

'''airo di''' 
''your tree''

'''a'e ïshï di''' 
''my six trees''

'''l-ïboro di''' 
''the fortieth tree''

== Modifiers ==

Three main types of modifiers are discussed here: nominal modifiers, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. These follow the head noun in that order:

''Modifiers - Prepositional Phrases - Relative Clauses''

=== Nominal Modifiers ===

Naidda does not have a distinct class of '''adjectives''', ''per se''. Instead, nouns are modified by other nouns. There remains a marginal syntactic distinction; a number of nouns are used much more often in an attributive role than as the head of an NP. These are generally translated in the lexicon with English adjectives. Nevertheless, any noun can be the head of a noun phrase, and any noun can be used to modify another.

It is never difficult to tell which of the nouns in a noun phrase is the head: it is ''always'' first. Additionally, nouns never take determiners when used attributively, while NP heads always do.

'''l-di spe''' 
''the green tree''

'''l-spe di''' 
''the tree's green'' (or ''the greenness of the tree'' or ''the shade of green on the tree'')

'''l-wo di spe''' 
''the three green trees''

=== Heavy Modifiers ===

'''Prepositional Phrases'''

PPs come in two types: full phrases, and "pronominal prepositions" (or, if you prefer, "prepositional pronouns"). Both are explained in the Prepositions section.

Both types occur in the same position in a noun phrase when used in the "normal" way (see the prepositions section): after the noun and after any nominal modifiers, but before any relative clauses.

'''Relative Clauses'''

Formation of relative clauses is covered below. Relative clauses, if any, always occur at the tail end of a noun phrase.

== Personal Pronouns ==

The personal pronouns of Naidda distinguish person, number, and within third person, animate/inanimate in the plural and masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular.

'''Free (stressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| e
| ove
|-
| 2
| liño
| wiño
|-
| 3m
| loro
| wamar
|-
| 3f
| la'a
| wamar
|-
| 3n
| lojon
| wajon
|}

=== Usage ===

These pronouns are not required in transitive clauses, with verbal participant reference marking being sufficient. Thus, Naidda is a '''pro-drop''' language. Free pronouns, which always bear lexical word stress like any other full content word, are used for three main purposes: contrast focus, non-sentential speech acts (such as insults and one-word answers to questions), and to supply more information in an otherwise ambiguous clause. More information on these later.

In intransitive clauses personal pronouns are required, even if a full noun or a pro-form is also used. In this case, a reduced and unstressed form of the pronoun cliticizes to the end of the verb.

'''Enclitic (unstressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''Ñadawon.''' 
''They slept.''

= The Verb Complex =

== Auxiliaries ==

Naidda marks the time of a clause (tense and aspect) with a set of auxiliary verbs. Each AUX indicates one or more specific combinations of tense and aspect, except for '''ïna''' which makes a sentence imperative.

To use an auxiliary:
# Add the AUX to the beginning of the clause (before the verb, but after any left-dislocated information).
# Move the main verb to later in the clause, usually the end, if it isn't there already.
# Mark the AUX, but not the main verb, for participant reference.

'''Stån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s open 
''He is opening it.''

The auxiliary verbs are:

{|
|
| AUX
| time
| gloss
|-
|
| '''0'''
| preterite
| ---
|-
|
| '''ste'''
| nonfuture imperfect
| NF-IMPF
|-
|
| '''we'''
| future imperfect
| F-IMPF
|-
|
| '''steda'''
| nonfuture inceptive
| NF-INCP
|-
|
| '''weda'''
| future inceptive
| F-INCP
|-
|
| '''stevë'''
| nonfuture perfect
| NF-PRF
|-
|
| '''wevë'''
| future perfect
| F-PRF
|-
|
| '''cona'''
| aorist
| AOR
|-
|
| '''ïna'''
| imperative
| IMP
|}

=== Usage ===

'''Imperfects''' are used for actions that are or will be incomplete (depending on whether the future or nonfuture AUX is used), or for states that are or will be ongoing.

'''Inceptives''' indicate the beginning of an action, or onset of a state.

'''Perfects''' are very comparable to "I have done it" or "I will have done it" in English.

When there is no auxiliary at all, a '''preterite''' (past-perfective, or "narrative past") time is usually assumed. However, this is highly context-dependent: when several clauses in a row have exactly the same time, i.e. they would use the same AUX, often only the first one is marked and the subsequent clauses stand without auxiliaries, inheriting their time indication from the prior clause. This inheritance can continue indefinitely until the time of a clause needs to be different than that of the previous one.

The '''aorist''' is used mostly for states, rather than actions, and indicates that the state is generally true, or is true over an indefinitely long timespan. For example, "the sky is blue" would be translated with the aorist.

'''Imperatives''' are commands or instructions to do something.

''When no main verb appears in the clause, the auxiliaries become copulas.''

== Morphology ==

=== Participant Reference: Transitive ===

Naidda uses a complex system of suffixes to mark the person and number of both the agent and patient of the verb, if it is transitive. While these suffixes are patterned in ways that derive from the pronouns the suffixes originally came from, in this discussion we treat them as unanalyzable.

There are two exceptions to this, however. Reflexive suffixes occur for certain person-number combinations that either can or must indicate somebody performing the action on themselves. Reflexives are formed by suffixing '''-in-''' between the root and the rest of the transitive suffix. '''Italicized forms in the table are reflexive.'''

The other exception is that except for reflexives, suffixes denoting singular patients consist of the suffix for a plural patient, plus final '''-n'''.

The following table demonstrates these suffixes in use in the verb '''piño''', "to fear". The person and number of agent arguments are in rows, while the person and number of patient arguments are in columns. Thus, if "he" fears "all of you", the entry for 3sg-2pl is used: '''piñaddo'''.

{|
|
| me
| us
| thee
| ye
| him
| them
|-
| I/we
| piñoyin/''piñin''
| piñoyi/''piñini''
| piñeddon
| piñeddo
| piñoyån
| piñoyå
|-
| thou
| piñoron
| piñoro
| ''piñinolon''
| piñorol
| piñorån
| piñorå
|-
| you
| piñorwin
| piñorwi
| piñorilon
| ''piñinil''
| piñorwan
| piñorwa
|-
| he
| piñin
| piñi
| piñaddon
| piñaddo
| piñån/''piñinån''
| piñå
|-
| they
| piñain
| piñai
| piñaiddon
| piñaiddo
| piñiwan
| piñiwa/''piñinwa''
|}

*These suffixes are applied to the first verb in the sentence - whether it's the main verb or an auxiliary.
*There is no differentiation between 1sg and 1pl agents in these suffixes. Thus for 1-1sg and for 1-1pl, there is both a reflexive and a non-reflexive possibility.
*In the third person, specifically 3sg-3sg and 3pl-3pl, there are reflexive and non-reflexive forms. The REFL-3sg-3sg form means "he did it to himself" and the plain 3sg-3sg form means "he did it to (someone else)".

=== Participant Reference: Intransitive ===

As previously discussed, in intransitive clauses the verb - or the aux - is suffixed with an enclitic pronoun. For reference, here is the table again:

'''Enclitic Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''USAGE'''

Exactly who the enclitic pronoun refers to - an agent? a patient? - is a matter of some flexibility. A wide variety of apparently contradictory uses have been observed in Naidda, which, bewilderingly, appear to cause the speakers few difficulties. The grammatical analyst can at best state some general trends in what is observed, but with the caveat that any particular instance may disobey them.

* Verbs which nearly always take agents, like "to run": the enclitic pronoun refers to this agent.
* Verbs which nearly always take patients, like "to sleep": the enclitic pronoun refers to this patient.
* Verbs which can go either way, like "to hit": the pronoun ''usually'' refers to the agent (and the full nominal argument as well, if there is any; the pronoun and the nominal argument are '''always''' co-referential.) It can also refer to the patient, however. Where the referent falls on the animacy hierarchy is highly relevent: entities high on the hierarchy are highly likely to be agents, while entities low on the hierarchy are at least somewhat likely to be patients instead.

Simply put: if one reading doesn't make sense, try the other. If both make sense, assume the pronoun refers to an agent.

=== The Irrealis ===

In Naidda, a verb is made irrealis with a prefix that has multiple forms.

*Before vowels: e'-
*Before sibilants ('''s''' and '''sh'''): e-
*Before any other consonant: s-

'''E'odolor.''' 
IRR-come-he 
''He would come.''

'''Usage '''

Unlike participant suffixes, the irrealis prefix always appears on the main verb, even if an auxiliary is present. The irrealis marks that a statement is '''counterfactual'''. That is, while a realis clause makes a claim that the statement expressed in the clause is true, an irrealis clause makes no such claim at all.

The irrealis may or may not co-occur with a modal adverb. When it stands without such an adverb, an "if"-clause preceding or following the irrealis clause makes it conditional. When the irrealis appears with a modal adverb, the adverb specifies the modality of the clause.

=== Negation ===

A clause is negated by the prefix '''ma-''' (before consonants) or '''m-''' (before vowels). As with other prefixes, intial voiceless stops and affricates become voiced.

'''Usage'''

'''Negative concord''' is exhibited between main verbs and auxiliaries: if both are present, the negative prefix generally appears either on both, or on neither.

'''Mwevëlor modo.''' 
NEG-AUX(F-PRF)-he NEG-come 
''He will not come.''

The negative prefix and the irrealis prefix are mutually exclusive on the main verb, but if an auxiliary is present, it may still be negated while the main verb is irrealis. This occasionally necessitates re-wording so that an auxiliary may be used for carrying the negation.

'''Mastevëlor e'odo.''' 
NEG-AUX(NF-PRF)-he IRR-come 
''He would not come.''

=== Verbal Nouns ===

Naidda verbal nouns come in two flavors: active and passive.

{|
|
| suffix
| example
| gloss
|-
| active
| '''-'a'''
| '''ku'me'a''' "hitting"
| AVN
|-
| passive
| '''-sa'''
| '''ku'mesa''' "getting hit"
| PVN
|}

'''Gïmvin l-ku'mesa''' 
hurt-3s>1s DEF-hit-PVN 
''Getting hit hurt me.''

These suffixes create normal nouns from verb stems, and tend to fill roles that in other languages are filled by gerunds, infinitives, and participles. When used as the head of an NP they require '''determiners''' like any other noun. Note also that this is the only remaining trace of morphological passivity in Naidda. However, there is a periphrastic passive construction which uses the passive verbal noun.

You can also negate verbal nouns. When one is the head of a noun phrase, it takes the negative quantifier '''me''', but when used attributively, it instead takes verbal negation.

'''airo me cïna'a''' 
your NEG love-AVN 
''your heartlessness''

'''airo nïzri majïna'a''' 
your wife NEG-love-AVN 
''your unloving wife''

= Prepositional Phrases =

== Normal PPs ==

Conventional, full prepositional phrases in Naidda are straightforward and do not work significantly differently from those in English and many other languages. In short, a prepositional phrase consists of a P followed by an NP. Any noun phrase can be the object of a preposition, and the preposition is always in the third person. The one notable difference is that first and second person pronouns cannot appear after third person prepositions.

Prepositional phrases modifying nouns are placed late in the NP, normally after all one-word modifiers but before any relative clauses. Those modifying verbs can occur anywhere in the clause after the inflected verb or AUX.

Full clauses can also be the objects of prepositions; in this case, the clause is formed as a nominalized clause.

'''wo w-inzo''' 
for.3 INDEF-farmer 
''for a farmer''

== Pronominal Prepositions ==

Or, "prepositional pronouns", take your pick. Naidda prepositions are inflectable for person - first, second, or third - and these inflected prepositions are entire PPs unto themselves. The personal inflection specifies the object of the preposition. Or, if you look at it from another angle, these words are personal pronouns marked for a large number of grammatical cases.

=== Normal Usage ===

As an example, where in English we would say "to me", in Naidda we can say ''to.1'' and this is usually sufficient. However, whenever more information is desireable (such as the number of the referent), the preposition can take a personal pronoun as an object. This description is adequate for the first and second persons.

'''åddi''' 
to.1 
''to me'' or ''to us''

'''åddi ove''' 
to.1 us 
''to us''

In the third person, a preposition either has a full NP as its object (as described in the previous section), or it stands alone as an anaphor. That is, without an explicit object, it refers back to a noun phrase that has already been mentioned recently in the discourse. Similarly to the first and second persons, when in the third person more information about the preposition's referent is desireable, it can take a full pronoun as an object.

'''ådda''' 
to.3 
''to it/him/her/them''

'''ådda lojon''' 
to.3 him 
''to him''

=== Appositional Usage ===

First and second person prepositions can also take NP objects. In this case, the NP is ''apposed'' to the pronoun's referent.

'''we w-inzo''' 
for.1 INDEF-farmer 
''for me, a farmer'' (or ''for me as a farmer'')

=== Determiner Usage ===

The "possessive pronouns", previously discussed in the Noun Phrases section, are in fact the inflected possessive prepositions. As already covered, these can be used as determiners:

'''a'e båma''' 
of.1 wheat 
''my wheat''

Naidda distinguishes the determiner use of possessives from a non-determiner use:

'''g-båma a'e''' 
this-wheat of.1 
''this wheat of mine''

The latter construction is the normal, default use of a PP in Naidda, with the possessive prepositions doubling as possessive pronouns. That is how I have presented these things thus far, for the sake of simplicity.

However, it's not the whole truth. Actually, ''any'' inflected preposition can be a determiner the way the a possessive one can:

'''wodo myåsko''' 
for.2 party 
''the party for you'' (literally ''the-for-you party'')

This is a common device in Naidda, and is why the line between "preposition" and "pronoun" is blurry at best.

'''Cautionary Note'''

At first glance it may be difficult to tell determiner usages from appositional ones: how do you know if '''wodo myåsko''' means ''the party for you'' or ''for you as a party''?

Keep in mind that the determiner usage results in an NP while the appositional usage results in a PP. As such, as with any NP, prepositions used as determiners cannot co-occur with a determiner clitic - and that every NP ''must'' have at least one determiner. Therefore '''wodo myåsko''' cannot be appositional because there is no other determiner than '''wodo''' (not to mention that its meaning is bizarre). If you wanted to say this anyway, however, just bring in a proclitic: it makes completely clear that '''l-myåsko''' is the NP and that it is therefore the object of '''wodo'''.

== List of Prepositions ==
{|
| 1st
| 2nd
| 3rd/default
| ''meaning''
|-
| a'e
| airo
| '''a'''
| ''possessive''
|-
| we
| wodo
| '''wo'''
| ''"for", "concerning", ''at (directed towards)''
|-
| ume
| omvo
| '''om'''
| ''genitive (non-possessive association)''
|-
| ñwe
| ñudo
| '''ño'''
| ''essive, appositive; "as"''
|-
| kwëne
| kwïnzo
| '''kwïn'''
| ''comitative; "with"''
|-
| ale
| åro
| '''ål'''
| ''"without", "besides", "except for"''
|-
| pu'e
| poiro
| '''po'''
| ''"per", "for each"''
|-
| si
| sado
| '''sa'''
| ''ablative, "from"; instrumental, "with"''
|-
| ne
| nido
| '''ni'''
| ''"in", "into", "inside"''
|-
| åddi
| åddado
| '''ådda'''
| ''"to", "towards"''
|-
| wi
| wado
| '''wa'''
| ''"after", "since"''
|-
| ove
| ovro
| '''o'''
| ''"at (locative)", "near", "nearby to"''
|-
| sli
| slado
| '''sla'''
| ''"before", "by" (as in "by tomorrow")''
|-
| ñizedi
| ñizedo
| '''ñizi'''
| ''"until", "as far as", "as much as"''
|-
| råve
| råvëdo
| '''råvë'''
| ''"along", "via", "during"''
|-
| ledi
| ledado
| '''leda'''
| ''"between", "among", "throughout", "surrounding"''
|}

= Pronouns and Participant Reference =

== Role Disambiguation ==

As previously shown, the transitive participant markers for Naidda verbs are in some cases defective. They also do not supply as much information as personal pronouns do. In some cases, this can make it difficult to tell who is doing what to who. This is exacerbated by the tendency of speakers to avoid using full noun phrases to the extent they can get away with.

=== Animacy Hierarchy ===

The majority of such cases are clearly resolveable by context, primarily by means of an agency hierarchy (or "animacy hierarchy"). The hierarchy is a set of assumptions built into Naidda grammar about which of any two entities is most likely to be the agent, or source of the action. In general, the higher of any two entities on the following list is assumed to be the agent:

# 1st person
# 2nd person
# other people
# sentence topics (when marked with '''d-''')
# animals
# everything else

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-man 
''The man kicked the horse''

'''Coñïvån l-ro l-nalor.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-man DEF-horse 
''The man kicked the horse''

As one might guess, due to the transitive participant suffixes, cases in which the animacy hierarchy becomes important do not arise with extremely high frequency. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistently observed to resolve many clauses that might otherwise be ambiguous, when such situations do come up.

=== Use of Pronouns ===

In some cases even the animacy hierarchy will fail and a clause will remain ambiguous. This can happen for two reasons:

* both the subject and the direct object are at the same level on the hierarchy (both are people, or both are animals, etc.);
* the subject is meant to be the one that's ''lower'' on the hierarchy.

In either case, speakers will often simply tolerate the ambiguity, because the surrounding context is generally sufficient anyway. But if there is any doubt, a personal pronoun can be added to clarify. The pronoun is placed directly after the subject noun phrase, and refers to it; or if there is no NP, the pronoun will stand alone. This usage is syntactically identical to that of contrast focus.

'''Coñïvån l-nalor lojon l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse it DEF-man 
''The horse kicked the man.''

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-zivra lojon.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-sheep it 
''The sheep kicked the horse.''

In addition, a pronoun may simply be used to supply more information about its referent, even if grammatical roles are already clear:

'''Dëñëlyån ove.''' 
like-1>3s we 
''We like it.'' (without the pronoun, the sentence could also mean "I like it.")

== Gender and Animacy ==

The animacy system for Naidda personal pronouns is very straightforward. The 3-feminine and 3-masculine pronouns are used for human beings (and gods), as is the 3-animate in the plural, while the 3-neuter pronouns are used for everything else. However, in a number of narratives and folk tales, other entities - animals, even rocks - can be personified, in which case the animate pronouns are used.

Gender of pronouns is semantically rather than grammatically based: it varies by biological sex of the referent, as in English, and has nothing to do with any grammatical property of the antecedent noun.

The historical basis for all of the above is that the masculine and feminine personal pronouns derive from "the man" and "the woman" as a relatively recent development in Naidda (within the last five centuries). Indeed, the full form of the feminine pronoun '''la'a''' remains perfectly homophonous with "the woman", '''l-a'a''', and the masculine pronoun has diverged only slightly.

== Contrast Focus ==

Contrast focus, also called ''disjunction'', is one of the main uses of personal pronouns. It draws attention to the fact that the sentence subject itself, and not some other person or thing, is the source of the action.

In this usage, a pronoun is simply supplied as an overtly expressed clause subject, either on its own when no such subject is otherwise needed, or else in addition to a full noun phrase, especially a personal name. In the latter case, the pronoun always directly follows the noun.

'''Goñiyån.''' 
break-1>3s 
''I/we broke it.''

'''Goñiyån e''' 
break-1>3s I 
''I broke it myself.''

'''Goñinån Murisi loro.''' 
break-3s>3s NAME he 
''Murisi broke it himself.''

== Pro-forms ==

{|
|
| ''query''
| ''this''
| ''that''
| ''some''
| ''no''
| ''every''
|-
| '''thing'''
| gëa
| gåyë
| ceyë
| nayë
| mayë
| ëyë
|-
| '''person'''
| yaro
| gåro
| cero
| naro
| maro
| ëro
|-
| '''place'''
| malo
| gålo
| celo
| namlo
| malo
| ëlo
|-
| '''time'''
| sol
| gådol
| cesol
| nadol
| masol
| ëdol
|-
| '''way'''
| eba
| gï'n
| cï'n
| namï'n
|
|
|-
| '''reason'''
| nwa
|
| cïddo
|
|
|
|}

= Clause Types =

== Independent Clauses ==

=== Structure ===

The basic template for main clauses in Naidda is V1 - the verb comes first, and is followed by one or more other sentence elements, including nouns denoting agents or patients, and modifying information such as adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, or adverbs.

The order of these post-verb elements does not depend on the grammatical roles of subject or direct object, but instead on the principle "New Information Comes First" or ''NICF''.

NICF applies to all post-verbal constituents, not just noun phrases. For instance if the main new information in a clause is adverbial, it will precede any subjects or direct objects that are present.

Naidda can also be described as a "pronominal argument" language. The key notion of pro-arg is that the verb, including mandatory participant marking, is the core clause all by itself - everything else is oblique, including subject and object nominals.

'''Erån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the shell with a knife.''

If an auxiliary is present in the clause, it takes the V1 position at the beginning, and the main verb is moved to later in the clause - typically but not necessarily the end.

'''Stån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife open 
''He is opening the shell with a knife.''

=== Topicalization ===

While a noun marked as a sentence topic may be left in place after a verb, most often it will be dislocated to the beginning of the clause - before the verb. Nouns dislocated to left of the verb (or aux) are always marked as topics.

'''Erån d-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s TOP-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the'' shell, ''however, with a knife.''

'''D-wogïño erån kwïn u-gån.''' 
TOP-shell open-3s>3s with.3 INDEF-knife 
''As for the shell, he opened it with a knife.''

A noun can be extracted from just about any location and topicalized. Note that this works hand-in-hand with '''pronominal prepositions''' - when a preposition's object is moved to the front of the sentence, the P becomes a stranded anaphor.

'''D-gån erån l-wogïño kwïn.''' 
TOP-knife open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 
''As for a/the knife, he opened the shell with it.''

== Nominalized Clauses ==

In Naidda, most subclauses are handled by nominalization - subclauses fit into larger syntactic structures just as nouns would. Nominalized clauses are used for all of the following:

* complement clauses: clauses which serve as an argument (agent or patient) of the main verb
* objects of prepositions: prepositions, especially those with temporal meanings, can take nominalized clauses as objects just as they would regular nouns
* adverbial clauses: clauses which add more information to the main clause (this requires extra morphology)
* various other situations where in other languages you might find a subclause, infinitive clause, or something else along those lines

Nominalized clauses, except for adverbialized ones, are normal noun phrases and require '''determiners'''.

=== Formation ===

There are two types of nominalized clause formation: direct, and full.

'''Direct nominalized clauses''' are simple: word order is exactly like any other clause, and the verb is formed into a verbal noun. Note that verbal nouns cannot take participant marking, so pronouns - if any are needed - take their independent forms. Direct nominalized clauses are possible only when there is no AUX, and are problematic for transitive clauses. Nominalized transitive clauses tend to be of the full form, instead. Despite these limitations, direct nominalized clauses are usually preferred to the full form when possible.

'''wa l-ta'a loro''' 
after.3 DEF-die-AVN he 
''after he died''

'''Full nominalized clauses''' are more complex than direct ones, but offer more flexibility. The nominalizer '''ri''' (glossed as SUB) takes the verb-initial position and inflects like an AUX (including participant marking and negation), and the main verb is displaced to the end of the sentence just like it would be with any other AUX. If there is already another AUX, the nominalizer is prefixed to it.

'''wa l-rilor ta''' 
after.3 DEF-SUB-he die 
''after he died''

'''råvë l-ristån arå la'a skïn''' 
during.3 DEF-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-3s.3s evening.meal she cook 
''while she was making dinner''

There is little semantic difference between the two types, but full nominalized clauses tend to be associated with more formal and technical registers of speech, and occur less frequently in day-to-day chatter.

=== Adverbial Clauses ===

Adverbial clauses are also nominalized clauses, further modified by adding the adverbial prefix '''të-''' to the nominalizer; thus: '''tëri'''. This prefix is mutually exclusive with the negative prefix, so negative concord is broken, but the main verb remains negatable if it's not irrealis.

'''Tëriste kwïn omvo li, naive cån boda.''' 
ADV-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-I with.3 your year work-I greatly even.more 
''When I was your age, I worked even harder.'' (literally: ''(when) I was with your years, I worked even more greatly'')

Direct nominalized clauses can also take the adverbial prefix, which simply attaches to the verb:

'''Kåstalon l-tolo tëlila'a l-ånze.''' 
continue-it DEF-time ADV-flow-AVN DEF-river 
''Time passes as the river flows.''

Since adverbs and verbal arguments are on the same syntactic level in Naidda it should be no surprise that the line between a complement clause and an adverbial clause is blurry. Morphologically they are distinct, but whether a subclause in a given sentence takes the adverbial prefix will vary from speaker to speaker and day to day. Subclauses describing the '''time''', '''place''', or '''manner''' of the main sentence will usually take the adverbial prefix.

== Relative Clauses ==

Naidda relative clauses are embedded clauses modifying a nominal word that participates in the clause. They are formed with the relativizer '''rom'''. This works much like the clause nominalizer '''ri''', in that the relativizer takes the verbal participant marking and negative concord and the verb is moved to the end, as it would be with an auxiliary - and if there is another AUX already, the relativizer is simply prefixed to it.

Relative clauses follow the relativized noun, generally after most other modifying information.

'''l-ro romlor ta''' 
DEF-man REL-he die 
''the man who died''

'''l-ro maromastelor mada''' 
DEF-man NEG-REL-AUX(NF-IMP)-he NEG-die 
''the man who isn't dying''

The relativized noun does not appear within the relative clause, except for verbal participant reference, which takes care of role disambiguation just like it would in any other clause:

'''l-ro romyån ena''' 
DEF-man REL-1>3s see 
''the man who I saw''

'''l-ro romin ena''' 
DEF-man REL-3s>1s see 
''the man who saw me''

== Predicatives ==

Predicatives are those sentences using a copula, those which in English use the copular verb "to be". The Naidda copula is not a single verb, however; instead, it is the entire set of auxiliaries. A predicative clause in Naidda follows the same pattern: an auxiliary, the subject NP, then the predicated material. The latter can be another noun phrase, an attributive noun, a prepositional phrase, or in clefts even a relative clause.

important traits shared by predicative clauses:
* They lack full verbs (this is most immediately obvious difference from full clauses).
* They universally follow the order AUX - subject - predicate.
* A comma-pause normally can be found between the subject and predicate. This is important; without the pause, the syntactic boundary between subject and predicate would often be hard to discern. When there the subject is expressed only by an AUX suffix, rather than an NP, the comma-pause becomes even more important.
* Even if the time of the clause would normally not involve any AUX in a full clause, one is always required in a predicative clause.
* Although the copulas are identical to the auxiliaries in form and function, for clarity they are glossed as COP instead of AUX.

=== Predicate Nominals ===

A predicate nominal is a clause in which an NP is the predicated material. It must be a full proper Naidda noun phrase, requiring a determiner, to distinguish it from a predicate attributive. The usual uses of predicate nominals are for '''equation''', to equate one noun to another ("that man is my father") and '''proper inclusion''', to identify membership of the subject in a group or class ("that man is a Fáralo").

'''Conalor, u-lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he INDEF-friend 
''He is a friend.''

=== Predicate Attributives ===

Predicate attributives are clauses where the predicated material is a property or trait being ascribed to the subject, and which consists of a noun used attributively (i.e. outside of a noun phrase, with no determiner). This is often a verbal noun.

'''Conalor, lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he friend 
''He is friendly.''

Note that the difference between the predicate nominal and predicate attributive versions of this example is made simply by the presence or absence of a determiner.

=== Predicate Locatives and Possessives ===

A predicative locative is simply a clause where the predicated material is a prepositional phrase.

'''Stela Koili, o l-wïmlo.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-she NAME at.3 DEF-home 
''Koili is at home.''

Possessive clauses in Naidda come in two flavors: full clauses, in which a verb like '''båre''', "own", is used, and predicate locatives in which the prepositional phrase uses '''kwïn''', "with". The former type is semantically marked, and occurs roughly as often as we would use "own" or "possess" in English (and isn't a predicative clause at all); the latter type is more frequent and less marked, and roughly equivalent to when we'd use "have" in English.

'''Ste u-marsha båre.''' 
AUX(NF-IMP)-I INDEF-hammer own 
''I own a hammer.''

'''Ste, kwïn u-marsha.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-I with.3 INDEF-hammer 
''I have a hammer.''

=== Clefts ===

A cleft is a predicative clause with two special characteristics:
# the predicated material is a relative clause in which the subject NP is the relativized noun; and
# the subject is dislocated to the left of the copula and marked as a topic.

'''D-Murisi stelor, romin ena.''' 
TOP-NAME COP(NF-IMP)-he REL-3s>1s see 
''Murisi is who saw me.''

=== Zero predication ===

In formal or careful speech, an auxiliary stands as a copula for all predicative clauses, and speaking this way is never wrong. Nevertheless, an informal but very common construction exists that can be analyzed as using the zero-AUX as a copula. On the surface, these expressions take the form of straightforward noun phrases shorn of any clausal structure. However, the meaning is predicative in nature, implying a zero copula that would fit in perfectly with the use of the zero-AUX - especially because the implied tense-aspect (preterite, narrative past, or time inherited from prior clause) is the same.

'''l-wïmlo woli''' 
DEF-house full 
''the full house''

'''L-wïmlo woli.''' 
[0-COP] DEF-house full 
''The house was full.''

There is a very strong preference to avoid any complex material in a zero-copula clause; in general, they appear identical in form to simple noun phrases, and rarely involve subclauses, coordination, or other such complexities. The construction also tends to be limited to informa registers where less attention is paid to how one speaks, and may come across as "folksy", blunt, or clipped, though it does appear in some poetry as well.

= Other Syntax =

== Adverbs ==

=== Formation ===

Naidda adverbs come in two types: roots that are adverbs by default, and nominal stems adverbialized by means of the prefix '''të-'''.

'''cån''' 
''greatly''

'''tëde'o''' 
ADV-normal 
''normally''

Verb roots can also be made into adverbs, but the prefix can only be used with nouns, so the verb must first be formed into a verbal noun.

'''tëjïna'a''' 
ADV-love-AVN 
''tenderly''

=== NP usage ===

An adverb is used whenever a nominal modifier itself needs to be modified.

A nominal word occurring ''by itself'' after a head noun modifies it, unless it is marked as an adverb, in which case it modifies the nearest nominal word to the left (which itself is a modifier of the head noun).

'''l-tolïddo nabï''' 
DEF-sunset red 
''the red sunset''

'''l-tolïddo nabï cån''' 
DEF-sunset red greatly 
''the very red sunset''

Adverbs in this environment can also modify each other. In all such cases, an adverb modifies the word immediately to its left.

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a cån''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN greatly 
''a very tenderly spoken word''

This modification of the word immediately to the left applies to all simple adverb strings, in both the NP and clausal usages. When multiple adverbs together modify the head (the nominal word or the clause) instead, they must be '''listed''' - separated from each other by the conjuction '''n''', "and", or at minimum by a comma-pause:

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a, tëjå'e''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN ADV-soft 
''a softly and tenderly spoken word''

=== Clausal usage ===

Naidda adverbs - except for those appearing in noun phrases - are generally best considered to operate on the level of the whole clause, rather than "modifying" the verb. The main reason for this is that on the whole they do not show any preference for being placed after - or even necessarily anywhere near - the verb, though there are some limited exceptions.

Instead, Naidda adverbs - and adverbial clauses and prepositional phrases - behave as constituents on the same level as the clause's subject and direct object: all of these elements tend to be listed after the verb (or AUX) in an order primarily determined by NICF. In turn it is this behavior that leads some analysts to describe full-NP subjects and objects of the verb as oblique.

'''Ñade bo.''' 
sleep-I again 
''I slept again.''

Like with noun phrases, adverbs can be moved to the front of a clause. This may be used for emphasis that the adverb is a key point of the clause. Or, it can simply be done for stylistic purposes, imparting in some cases a sense of continuity or bridging from previous content.

'''Tëde'o, majonayå a kåve mavïñor.''' 
ADV-normal NEG-AUX(AOR)-1>3p their law NEG-respect 
''Normally, we do not respect their laws.''

=== Modal Adverbs ===

Modal adverbs in Naidda are used to impart modality, or ''grammatical mood'', to a clause. There are various modal adverbs, the most common of which are listed below. It is a small, closed class, and differs from more run-of-the-mill adverbs in that their placement in a clause is restricted to the position '''directly after the verb or AUX''' and that their functions are generally limited to imparting a specific modality.

Modal adverbs can be divided into two classes: those which govern the irrealis verb form, and those which do not. The former require the verb be made irrealis, and express a range of irrealis meanings; they are a majority of modal adverbs. There are only two modal adverbs that do not govern the irrealis, and they do not require the verb to be realis either; both options are possible. They are generally considered to be modal adverbs because their meanings and placement are as restricted as the irrealis ones.

'''Irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| va
| permissive
| '''E'ë'olrån va.''' - ''"You may take it."''
|-
|
| oso
| admonitive
| '''E'ë'olrån oso.''' - ''"You should take it."''
|-
|
| co'o
| obligative
| '''E'ë'olrån co'o.''' - ''"You must take it."''
|-
|
| oivre
| desiderative
| '''E'ë'olrån oivre.''' - ''"You would like to take it."''
|-
|
| oinae
| hortative, optative
| '''E'ë'olrån oinae.''' - ''"If only you would take it."''
|}

'''Non-irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| ïrnon
| futilitive
| '''Ë'olrån ïrnon.''' - ''"You are trying to take it."''
|-
|
| moiso
| antivolitional
| '''Ë'olrån moiso.''' - ''"You are forced to take it."''
|}

== Questions ==

=== Polar Questions ===

Like its sister language Fáralo, Naidda forms polar questions (those requesting a yes or no answer) in several ways.

Most often, questions are formed with tag words. The most common tags are '''lonzë''', "correct", and '''ca''', "yes", which seek confirmation that a sentence is true. '''Lonzë''' is the more formal of the two.

'''Talor, ca?''' 
die-he yes 
''He died, right?''

This pattern can be used with a negated sentence as well, to seek confirmation that the affirmative version of the sentence is ''not'' true. (compare English "He didn't die, right?") Alternatively, negative tags, most often '''sumo''', "wrong", can be used in conjunction with the irrealis, to much the same effect:

'''Stalor, sumo?''' 
IRR-die-he wrong 
''He didn't die, did he?"

In general Naidda speakers follow the confirmation-seeking approach to questions, but there are times when a neutral question that does not suggest its own answer is more desirable. In these questions, one offers the listener a choice by using two tags, one affirmative and the other negative:

'''Talor, lonzë, sumo?''' 
die-he correct wrong 
''Did he die?''

Finally, there is a highly formal question form, borrowed from Fáralo. In this type of question, one uses the irrealis and fronts the verb to before the AUX. (It cannot be used without an AUX.)

'''Sta wevëlor?" 
IRR-die AUX(F-PRF)-he 
''Will he die?"

=== Disjunctive Questions ===

A disjunctive question is one that requests the listener choose between two or more offered options, generally with the assumption that only one of them can be correct; compare English ''Do you you prefer large or small?''. In Naidda such questions are formed in a manner highly parallel to yes-no questions with two tags, in that both options are listed at the very end of the sentence and set off by comma-pauses just as tags would be:

'''Wevëliñ mura, gådol, cesol?''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-you decide now then 
''Will you decide now or later?''

The tagged options are quite often entire nominalized clauses. Similarly, when a disjunctive question is asking for which of two ''verbs'' is correct, they are formed into verbal nouns, leaving the clause without a main verb and thus converting it into a predicative clause:

'''Wevëliñ, kïña'a, orë'a?''' 
COP(F-PRF)-you walk-AVN run-AVN 
''Will you be walking or running?''

* Note that English "he is walking" does not otherwise have any grammaticalized analog in Naidda syntax, save that predicating one verbal noun to another (c.f. ''to live is to die'') is permissible. The syntactic resemblance in disjunctive questions is coincidental.
* Questions with more than two options also occur. The extra options are simply appended to the list of tags. In rare cases half a dozen or more options may be listed in such a question.

=== Content questions ===

Content questions are those which request the listener fill in the blank. Interrogative words are fronted; the clause is otherwise normal.

'''Gëa torwan?''' 
what eat-2s>3s 
''what did you eat?''

'''Yaro wabayån?''' 
who hit-3s>1s 
''who hit me?''

== Periphrasis ==

The Delta dialect of Naidda makes use of a number of periphrastic constructions for various grammatical purposes. Different types and uses of paraphrasis is one of the major points of variation between dialects; many of these do not exist outside the Delta area.

=== Passive ===

Fundamental Naidda does not have any manner of passive voice. Intransitive clauses appear with a single argument that can be the agent or the patient, and context is relied on to make the direction of action clear, via the animacy hierarchy. This remains the "educated" way to speak. However, in recent generations a passivizing construction has come into widespread and frequent use in the delta.

'''Characteristics:'''

* the semantic patient is the grammatical sentence subject
* the syntactic main verb of the sentence is "come"
* the lexical verb is formed into a passive verbal noun
* this verbal noun is made the object of the preposition "to"
* the semantic agent can optionally be specified by making it the object of "from"

'''Odolor ådda l-ïñosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-kill-PVN 
''He was killed.''

'''Odolor ådda l-kåirosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-make.welcome-PVN 
''He was made welcome.''

'''Wove ådda l-ïñosa sa odo.''' 
AUX(F-IMPF)-we to.3 DEF-kill-PVN from.3 come 
''We will be killed by it.''

=== Evidential verbs ===

Certain Naidda verbs can be added after the main verb to impart '''evidentiality''' to the clause - that is, how the speaker knows the information. In some ways this may look like a case of serial verbs, but Naidda has no other serial verb constructions, and in fact this is derived from the elision of grammatical material that would have made clear that it is actually a subclause embedded in a grammaticalized main clause.

'''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear he will ask you''

Let's take a look at how we build this clause.

First, consider the sentence "he asked you" - this would be '''kënaddon''' (ask-3s.2s). Now, consider the strategy English uses to add evidentiality; let's say this information is hearsay. In English we often mark this by making a subclause out of the action and embedding it in "I hear ...". Naidda has followed a similar approach. In historical writings we can find much the same construction:

'''Ste l-riaddon këno måddë.''' (archaic) 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-I DEF-SUB-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear that he asked you''

Next comes the elision. The AUX, its suffix, the article, and the clause nominalizer were always exactly the same between all of these evidential clauses, so over time it became common to simply omit them: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>addon këno måddë.''' This of course left a participant-reference suffix hanging unattached to anything, so it then migrated to the verb: '''Kënaddon måddë.'''

When the subclause already had an AUX, that problem didn't even arise: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>wevaddon këno måddë.''' --> '''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' The net result ended up just like tagging an extra verb word onto the end of a clause; it's as simple as that.

There are only four verbs used in this way for evidential marking:
* '''måddë''' (to hear) - the information is hearsay
* '''ena''' (to see) - the information is gained by direct sensory experience (even if that experience is auditory!) - '''Kënaddon ena.''' ''He asked you (I heard him do it).''
* '''må'n''' (to know) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively high confidence - '''Kënaddon må'n.''' ''He must have asked you.''
* '''nilïn''' (to suppose) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively low confidence; it is a guess - '''Kënaddon nilïn.''' ''I guess he asked you.''

==== with predicatives ====

At first glance, this might seem tricky: a predicative clause looks much like any other except that it ''lacks a main verb''. So what happens when we use a predicative clause with an evidential verb? It might sound like it would be hard to tell from a non-predicative clause. But in fact they always look different, because a predicative sentence is grammatically '''intransitive''' and the evidential verbs, when used as main verbs, are always '''transitive''' - so they use different participant reference suffixes. Plus, there is the usual comma-pause of a predicative clause that also helps mark it. Here is the closest the two constructions get to ambiguity:

* '''Conalor, u-lanång ena.''' ''"I see that he is a friend."''
* '''Conalån u-lanång ena.''' ''"He sees a friend."''

So once again, the advice to students of Naidda is: pay attention to commas! The transitive and intransitive suffixes are just as important, though, and there are often other clues as well - for instance, the aorist AUX '''cona''' is infrequently used with action verbs like "see" because of semantic incompatibility (seeing something tends to be a transitory action rather than an ongoing state).

=== Comparison ===

Naidda comparison is indicated with the adverb '''në''', which means "more" or "most". These two meanings, often called ''comparative'' and ''superlative'' respectively, are distinguished in Naidda not by morphology or the form or choice of the comparative adverb, but instead by whether the head of the noun phrase is indefinite or definite:

'''l-wïmlo pi''' 
DEF-house big 
''the big house''

'''u-wïmlo pi në''' 
INDEF-house big more 
''a bigger house''

'''l-wïmlo pi në''' 
DEF-house big more 
''the biggest house''

When the standard of comparison is already well identified to the discourse participants it is generally omitted from the comparison, as above. When mentioned, however, it takes the form of a prepositional phrase using the locative preposition:

'''u-wïmlo pi në o airo wïmlo''' 
INDEF-house big more LOC.3 your house 
''a bigger house than yours''

'''u-dïmve lize në o cero''' 
INDEF-child young more LOC.3 that.person 
''a younger child than that''

'''Conae, zewe në ovro.''' 
COP(AOR)-1s tall more LOC.2 
''I am taller than you.''

=== Causative Constructions ===

Naidda does not make use of any morphological causative. There are a few lexically causative verbs (e.g. '''ïño''' "to kill"), but the great majority of causation is expressed by either of two available periphrastic constructions, the direct causative and the indirect causative.

The semantic difference between these two constructions lies in the means of causation. The direct construction is prototypically used when the causer is immediately, directly, even physically responsible for the situation caused, and it selects a human causer. By contrast, the indirect construction is used when there is a greater degree of removal of the causer from the situation caused, and inanimate causers are freely allowed.

For example, if Isamïng hits Murisi because she was told to do so by Gado, one would ordinarily describe this with the indirect causative, whereas if Gado physically picks up her hand and hits Murisi with it, the direct causative becomes the obvious choice.

==== Direct Causative ====

The direct causative is a valency-increasing operation, in which the subject is demoted and replaced by the cause of the situation expressed. The treatment of the demoted subject depends on its semantic role; usually it becomes a direct object, but in the case where there already is a direct object and the demoted subject is an agent, it becomes the object of the instrumental preposition instead.

''' Examples '''

* intransitive - '''Ïddolor.''' - ''He fell.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Ïddoyån.''' - ''I made him fall.'' (literally: ''I fell him.'')

* intransitive - '''Avwalon a'e wïnlo.''' - ''My garden thrived.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Avwayån a'e wïnlo.''' - ''I made my garden thrive.'' (literally: ''I thrived my garden.'')

Notable is that the application of the direct causative to intransitive clauses is quite akin to what English does with its "middle verbs"; it's much the same relationship as between English ''"the window broke."'' and ''"I broke the window."'' One major difference is that Naidda's process is productive with most verbs, instead of restricted to a specific class of middle verbs. English examples with non-middle verbs - like ''"I volunteered her for the mission."'' - are marginal and quite idiosyncratic.

The transitive version, meanwhile, is essentially identical to a clause that indicates an instrument. Compare:

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sado.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I hit him with you.'')
whereas:
* '''Ku'mån l-bå'n.''' - ''The stick hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sa l-bå'n.''' - ''I hit him with the stick.''

==== Indirect Causative ====

Indirect causatives have a looser semantic relationship between the causer and the causee than the direct causative does, and a correspondingly looser syntactic relationship between them as well.

The caused situation is expressed as a nominalized clause, which is made the direct object of some verb, for which the causer is its subject. However, there is no single verb that simply means "to cause"; instead, a number of verbs can be used for this, and selection of the verb expresses information about the means and volitionality of causation. The most neutral choice is '''cåve''', "give".

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Cåveyån l-rirån ku'me.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I gave that you hit him.'')

Some other causative verbs are:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg l}}
|-
! verb !! means of causation !! volitional?
|-
| ''naive'' "work" || by working to bring it about || yes
|-
| ''cïrïm'' "discuss" || by persuasion or guile || yes
|-
| ''såvme'' "force" || by command or threat of force || yes
|-
| ''gaño'' "move" || by physical placement of objects involved || yes
|-
| ''lu'ï'' "try" || by testing, or trial and error || yes
|-
| ''åddë'' "stand" || by obstruction || sometimes
|-
| ''dë'' "touch" || by provoking a reaction || sometimes
|-
| ''stïn'' "lose" || by accident, happenstance || no
|-
|}

'''Cashae n dëyån l-po'mona'a l-li.''' 
sneeze-1sg and touch-1sg>3sg DEF-flee-AVN DEF-bird 
''I sneezed and scared the bird away.''

'''Cïrïmrån l-riån a muzeda ïm.''' 
discuss-2sg>3sg DEF-SUB-3s>3s his approach change 
''You persuaded him to reconsider.''

= Derivation =

== Compounding ==

Naidda often uses compounding to form new words. Following are some of the most productive types.

It should be noted that Naidda speakers have a penchant for deleting material around the morpheme boundary in a compound, generally to the left of it. Often this is nothing more than deleting the final vowel of the first root, but sometimes speakers will elide a whole syllable, or more.

=== Descriptive ===

Descriptive compounds are the most frequently occurring in Naidda. They usually consist of a head followed by a modifier (though in a few words of ancient vintage this order is reversed), and result in a noun. Descriptive compounds always name a more specific thing than specified by its parts - just as English ''blackbird'' names a specific bird and cannot be used for just any bird that is black. For this reason, descriptive compounds are listed in the lexicon, whereas instrumental and dvandva compounds tend not to be because their meanings are usually more compositional.

'''u-li'uwë''' 
INDEF-bird-water 
''a duck''

=== Instrumental ===

One type of compound is the instrumental. In this type, a noun compounded to a verb names the instrument used - much like English ''can-opener'' but without needing the final ''-er''.

'''l-kailïnåri'e''' 
DEF-wall-paint 
''the paintbrush''

=== Dvandva ===

A productive type of Naidda compounding is the '''dvandva''' - as an alternative to the conjunction of two nouns with '''n''', "and", they can simply be concatenated into a compound word. In particular, this is done with things that occur together naturally, and the dvandva provides a handy way to refer to them as a combined entity.

'''g-årobïlo''' 
this-wind-rain 
''this wind and rain ''

Sometimes the dvandva will contain a relic of the conjunction, between the two morphemes:

'''airo mëvwënomo''' 
your father-and-mother 
''your parents''

== Derivational Morphology ==

=== -lo and -vo ===

'''-lo''' is a '''nominal locative''', essentially meaning "place of". It is attached most often to verbs, but can sometimes be used with nouns. This suffix is very highly productive. 
'''me''' "speak" -> '''melo''' "stage, pulpit" (or other places where you speak from) 
'''sïm''' "cloud" -> '''sïmlo''' "sky"

'''-vo''' is a deverbal '''agent nominalizer''', much like English ''-er''. The modern productive usage always has the form ''-vo'' and always produces nouns referring to human beings, but numerous fossilized words have old allomorphs of this suffix (like '''-zo''' and '''-po''') and may refer to animals or other nonhuman things. 
'''uro''' "cure" -> '''uruvo''' "doctor" 
'''seddï''' "jump" -> '''seddïspo''' "frog"

Both '''-lo''' and '''-vo''' are so common they pervade the lexicon, and often you will find triplets of a root appearing bare and with both suffixes: 
'''kïmvål''' "denounce, complain" 
'''kïmvålo''' "tavern" (place where you complain) 
'''kïmvålvo''' "old woman" (person who complains a lot)

=== weakeners ===

'''-le''' tends to function as a verbal '''attenuative''' - it weakens the base meaning. Until recently this suffix saw mainly fossilized usage, and meanings of these words have often drifted from simple attenuation - but use of the suffix with a productively attenuative meaning or an ironical reverse meaning has found more popular favor in the last generation or so. 
'''pobo''' "dance" -> '''povle''' "twitch" 
'''numye''' "exaggerate" -> '''numyele''' "tell a whopper"

'''-l''' is a '''diminutive'''. It is mostly restricted to personal names, but occasionally appears on other nouns. Children's names (and nouns) are most often shortened before the -l is added; names of adults are not similarly clipped. 
'''bada''' "sweet" -> '''badal''' "berry" 
'''Maroshi''' (name of person) -> '''Marol''' or '''Maroshil''' "dear/sweet/little Maroshi"

The suffix '''-vwa''' is used productively with many attributive nouns naming one end of a spectrum or dichotomy, and indicates '''somewhat''' or a '''middle-of-spectrum state'''. 
'''vårïse''' "hot, humid" -> '''vårïsevwa''' "mild weather, moderate temperature" 
'''shalan''' "obese" -> '''shalanavwa''' "somewhat plump"

=== borrowed Fáralo morphology ===

'''-o''' serves as a '''patient and instrument nominalizer''', but it is not productive. It is restricted almost entirely to roots borrowed from Fáralo. 
'''sëbo''' "gift" (from Far. ''saepu'', "given thing")

'''ña-''' tends in Naidda to act as another '''participial nominalizer''', but it is also mostly restricted to Fáralo roots, and the exact effect of this prefix varies. 
'''ñagada''' "pleasant" (from Far. ''ngakada'', "pleasing")

=== other morphology ===

'''vo-''' (or '''vom-''' before vowels) is a type of '''causative''' seen on some noun roots, converting them into verbs. Its use is restricted mainly to color words and terms for emotional or physical states that can be experienced by people. 
'''lïsho''' "cold" -> '''volïsho''' "make cold"

'''-da''' has several uses. One of the major ones is to impart an '''inceptive or dynamic''' aspect to verbs (this can be accomplished grammatically with auxiliaries; the suffix offers a lexical alternative). It can also indicate a '''temporary condition'''. When applied to some noun roots, a new verb is derived meaning '''become X'''. This morpheme also appears in some fossilized nouns, with poorly predictable effects. 
'''bårë''' "own" -> '''bårëda''' "acquire" 
'''rålña''' "be insane" -> '''rålñada''' "go crazy" 
'''iddi''' "need" -> '''iddida''' "temporarily need" 
'''gåya''' "angry" -> '''gåyada''' "get mad" 
'''gom''' "life" -> '''gomada''' "culture"

'''ai-''' or '''ay-''' denotes '''membership''' in a thing, group, people, country, etc. 
'''Tolya''' (god of the sun-cult) -> '''Aidolya''' "Tolyism" or "Tolyist" (of-Tolya) 
'''Lashumo''' (toponym) -> '''Ailashumo''' "Lashuman"

'''-ïshmïl''' is a suffix indicating "knowledge of". It is used infrequently, but still productively. Somewhat equivalent to English ''-ology''. 
'''vi''' "star" -> '''vyïshmïl''' "astronomy"

'''-år''' forms deverbal nouns with various effects. It can be used for nonhuman actors in much the same way -vo is used for human actors; most common among these are '''resultatives''' and '''instrumentals'''. 
'''vïspe''' "punish" -> '''vïspår''' "pain" 
'''koda''' "close, cover" -> '''kodår''' "roof" 
'''ïnå''' "sense, perceive" -> '''ïnår''' "sensation, perception"

=== -ya and -yo ===

These twin morphemes are not very straightforward and demand a closer look than the other derivational morphology.

Firstly, whether they are even suffixes at all is debatable; they may simply be the noun roots '''ya''' and '''yo''', used attributively. But if so, they are nearly always found directly after the noun they modify, before any other modifiers. The dictionary lists them as independent words, and my convention is to write them separately most of the time, but as suffixes when part of a naming system.

Second, there are two distinct realms where they appear. One is the "productive" usage: most nouns can take one or both, where '''ya''' indicates goodness, happiness, or some manner of nobility, and '''yo''' indicates importance or salience. These are thus their dictionary definitions.

The other realm is that they are built into several naming systems. Their meanings in these names are often at odds with their dictionary definitions, and sometimes choice of '''-ya''' versus '''-yo''' is important while at other times they are interchangeable. They appear always on names of gods and days of the week, and often on color words. They are also part of the archaic system for forming large numbers (which has been largely replaced by the Fáralo system).

==== Days ====

Names of the days by default take -ya, while -yo indicates certainty of the day in question, or insistance on it:

'''gomya''' "Tuesday" (English day name is chosen arbitrarily, here) 
'''gomyo''' "definitely Tuesday"

This varies in other dialects. In the southern dialect for instance, days of the week always take -yo, and -ya is not used.

==== Gods ====

Gods, meanwhile, take '''-ya''' by default, while '''-yo''' is primarily a vocative which occurs in prayer:

'''Tolya''' "the Sun God" 
'''Tolyo''' "o Sun God"

An exception is that priests devoted to a particular god will often use only '''-yo''' with that god's name.

==== Colors ====

In the delta dialect (but not most others) '''-ya''' and '''-yo''' are interchangeable on color names, and indicate a prototypical or pure instance of the color:

'''sisiya, sisiyo''' "pure blue"

==== Other ====

* Multiples of a hundred used to be formed with -ya and multiples of a thousand with -yo, but this is no longer often encountered except for 100 itself. ('''këya''' "100"; rarely: '''sonya''' "800", '''royo''' "10,000")
* Practitioners of a religion tend to add -yo to the name of their faith but not to others, especially in a context where multiple religions are mentioned. For example, Etúgeists in the delta refer to their religion as '''Tugëyo'''.
* In some areas -yo will be used on the name of a lord as an informal reference to his nobility, while in other areas this is seen as crudely deifying the lord.
* Names of animals are converted into anthropomorphized character names in fables by adding -ya. ('''Nalorya n Imwaya''' "Horse and Snake")

= Sample Text =

see: [[Delta Naidda/Texts]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Kasca]]

Šetâmol

2025-02-01T19:36:28Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shetamol}}
{{Language
| language = Šetâmol
| phonetic = [ʃetaːmól]
| date = c. -500 YP
| place = Wañelin
| speakers = to be determined
| script = to be determined
| family = Western languages  Lake languages   Šetâmol
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = ergative
| author = Curlyjimsam
}}
{{Article}}

'''Šetâmol''' was the name given natively to the language spoken by the '''Wañelinlawag''' people of western [[Peilaš]], in around -500 [[YP]]. The Wañelinlawag were descendants of the speakers of the [[Çetázó|Çetázó language]], and Šetâmol is regarded as a daughter language of Çetázó. Thus it belongs to the Lake subgroup of the [[Western languages|Western language family]].

The name '''Šetâmol''' itself is derived from Ç. ''Çetázó'' 'Çetázó' + ''moɬi'' 'tongue'. '''Wañelinlawag''' is derived from the name of the lake referred to natively as '''Wañelín''' (Ç. ''Γañeɬina'' 'big lake'). By -500 YP, the speakers of Šetâmol had expanded to govern a small empire that encompassed the entirety of the shores of the Wañelín.

==Sample==
*''Lai pid wereîmok syjmápad mufiuk syjlawósasagadak. Ajýn tagazudóm múfiúm sur sukasyjzaragák; lag šizudóm múfiúm latal sukasyjîsazagai; ul nátuzud múfi sukasyjwajizagad. Jawagúm hajómok mezazud múfi sukasyjhajópad.''
*[ la.í píd we.ɾe.iː.mók syj.maˑ.pád mu.fi.úk syj.la.woˑ.sa.sa.ɡaˌdak ‖ a.jýˑn ta.ɡa.zu.dóˑm muˑ.fi.úˑm súɾ su.ka.syj.za.ra.ɡáˑk | láɡ ʃi.zu.dóˑm muˑ.fi.úˑm la.tál su.ka.syj.iː.sa.za.ɡa.í | úl naˑ.tu.zúd muˑ.fí su.ka.syj.wa.ji.za.ɡád ‖ ja.wa.ɡúˑm ha.joˑ.mók me.za.zúd muˑ.fí su.ka.syj.ha.joˑ.pád ]
*horse REL-NC2 hill-LOC PAST-be:located-NC2 sheep-PL:ABS PAST-see-3PS:ERG-NC2:ABS-PL. woman:OBL first-NC2-LOC sheep-LOC wool PROG-PAST-cut-3PS:ERG-NC4:ABS; child second-NC2-LOC sheep-LOC milk PROG-PAST-take-3PS:ERG-NC6:ABS; man third-NC2 sheep PROG-PAST-kill-3PS:ERG-NC2:ABS. 3P-NC1-LOC fire-INS fourth-NC2 sheep PROG-PAST-cook-NC2:ABS
''(taken from [[The horse and the sheep]])''

==External link==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/western/setamol.pdf Grammar of Šetâmol (PDF)]

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Western languages]]

Iŋomœ́

2025-02-01T19:35:52Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ingomoe}}
{{Language
| language = Iŋomœ́
| phonetic = [iŋo'mœ]
| date = c. -2000 YP
| place = Peilaš steppe
| speakers = to be determined
| script = to be determined
| family = Western
| word-or = OVA/SV
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = ergative
| author = [[User:Eodrakken|eodrakken]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Iŋomœ́''' ('our tongue') is a language of the [[Western languages|Western language family]], spoken c. -2000 YP on the [[Peilaš]] steppe. The name the speakers gave to their cultural group was ''Sánhilu:pyl'' (singular ''Sánhilu:b''), meaning 'horse people', though this term could also be applied to any nomadic group, as opposed to the settled peoples of the coast.

==Sample==
*''Sœ:ké to, m{{IPA|œ́}}ŋhɯ: céudogu: sanhí. Tógoz mœŋh{{IPA|ɯ́}} et{{IPA|ɯ́}}l v{{IPA|œ́}}sagog useŋí, siz m{{IPA|œ́}}ŋhɯ lódogu: kœló, ca nú:tɯz m{{IPA|œ́}}ŋhɯ újejagu: lo. Sœga:zó no: m{{IPA|œ́}}nhaz m{{IPA|œ́}}ŋhɯ k{{IPA|œ́}}gu:.''
*[ sœːˈké tɞ | ˈmœ.ŋʰɯː ˌce.u.dɞ.ɡuː sɐˈnʰi ‖ ˈto.ɡɞz mɞˌŋʰɯ əˈtɯl ˌfœ.sɐ.ɡɞɡ ʊ.səˌŋi | ˈsiz ˌmœ.ŋʰə ˈlo.dɞ.ɡuː kɞˌlo | ca ˈnuː.təz ˌmœ.ŋʰə ˈu.ɟə.ɟɐ.ɡuː ˌlo ‖ sɞ.ɡaːˈzo noː | ˈmœ.nʰɐz ˌmœ.ŋʰə ˈkœ.ɡuː ]
*hill-ERG on sheep-ABSp see-E8-3>3C1 horse-ERG. first sheep-ERG 3POS-wool-ABS cut-E8-3>3C7 woman-ERG, second sheep-ABS(ed) milk-E8-3>3C1 child-ERG, and third sheep-ABS(ed) kill-E8-3>3C1 man-ERG. 3pPOS-fire-ERG above fourth sheep-ABS(ed) cook-E8-3C3
''(taken from [[The horse and the sheep]])''

==External link==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/western/ingomoe.html Grammar of Iŋomœ́]

{{Stub}}

[[Category:Western languages]]

Dimana Lokud

2025-02-01T19:35:21Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Dimana Lokud
| phonetic = [ diˈmɑ.nɑ ˈlo.kud ]
| date = c. -2000 YP
| place = Western mountains
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = isolate
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Dimana Lokud''' is a language that was spoken around -2000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] on or near the western slopes of the big mountain range that divides the [[Western steppe]] from the [[Xōron Eiel]]. It is not demonstrably related to any other known language on Akana, and thus considered a linguistic isolate.

== Sample ==
* '''Hai lyotuye wa dimama dimana oso.''' [ ha͡ɪ ljoˈtʰuje wɑ diˈmɑ.mɑ diˈmɑ.nɑ ˈo.so ] PASS please-PASS-1sg by speak-2.PRES language 1pl ''I am pleased that you speak our language.''

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/dimana_v2.html Dimana Lokud grammar]

{{stub}}

Delta Naidda

2025-02-01T19:32:26Z

Cedh: add SC link

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naidda}}
{{Language
| language = Naidda (Delta dialect)
| phonetic = [ˈnai.ɾə]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Kasca
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Fáralo script
| family = Edastean  Eastern   Naidda
| word-or = V1; nonconfigurational
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = direct
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

= Sketch of Delta Naidda =

Herein begins a sketch of the Delta dialect of Naidda, the language of the land of [[Kasca]]. The dialect is spoken in the delta of the Ya river, and though it is not the prestige dialect, it has far more speakers than any other. This sketch also represents a major revision of the original version of the Naidda language, which was intended to be the Southern dialect but also needed a great deal of repair.

Thus you may see ΔNaidda or ΔN from time to time as a punning abbreviation of "Delta Naidda" - ΔX representing, in math and physics, "change in X".

[[Culture of Kasca]]

[http://www.almeopedia.com/Kasadgad Description of early Kasca]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/naidda%20sound%20changes.txt Sound changes from Ndak Ta to Delta Naidda]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/Naidda_dictionary2.html A dictionary of Delta Naidda]

== Standardization Note ==

Unlike Fáralo or Adāta, no variety of the Naidda language has been codified into a written standard in over a millennium. Furthermore, Kasca is a region where dialects are continually contaminating each other; the speech of any one person will reflect wordforms that originated in multiple dialects, and in many cases more than one form of a given word will be in common use even within the same town. Complicating this picture further is that sound changes have originated in different parts of Kasca and spread to some but often not all of the rest, so that the speech varieties of any two given towns will have had sound changes that applied only in one, or else in both but in different orders, resulting in even more lexical variation.

The bottom line is that the Delta Naidda dictionary should not be taken as a standardized word list for any particular location. Instead it tries to reflect most-common forms for the Delta dialect overall, and it shouldn't be neglected that variant forms will also exist for numerous words.

Among the biggest points of variation is vowel losses. Word-initial vowels were very frequently dropped in Delta Naidda words of three or more original syllables, and trisyllabic words often dropped medial vowels as well, or instead. But numerous wordforms have been imported from or influenced by other dialects that retained these vowels. Various consonant clusters also show a range of outcomes, but a full description of even just the major variations would be a massive task, and is beyond the scope of this grammatical sketch.

To summarize: it is ''not'' safe to assume that the following grammar and the entire dictionary are adequate descriptions of any single person's speech. Your Mileage May Vary.

= Genealogy =
Naidda is descended from the eastern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], forming part of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]], which in turn belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. Sister languages of Naidda include [[Fáralo]], [[Adāta]], [[Ndok Aisô]], [[Buruya Nzaysa]], and [[Komejech]]. Of these, it is most closely related to Fáralo and Komejech, with which it comprises the Eastern subbranch of Edastean, and especially to Buruya Nzaysa, which is even classified as a dialect of Naidda by some scholars. Naidda has one known descendant, [[Wippwo]].

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

== Dialectology ==

[[Image:Naidda dialects.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialect map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

There are five principal dialects of the Naidda language.

* Delta. This the is dialect covered in this sketch, and is spoken in the [[Aiwa|Ya river]] delta. This variety may be considered the "core" version of Naidda, though it has less prestige; its range is central in Kasca and it is spoken by more people than any other variety.
* Southern. Spoken in [[Kasca#P.C3.A5we|Påwe]] and environs. This is the second-largest and most prestigious variety of Naidda, but is almost completely mutually intelligible with Delta speech.
* Momuva'e. A sub-variety of the Delta dialect, spoken in the city of [[Momuva'e]] and its immediate vicinity. Main article [[Mësting Momuva'e]].
* Coastal. This variety of Naidda is fairly divergent, as it has had stronger interference from [[Fáralo]] than other dialects. Spoken in the coastal towns of Kasca.
* Buruyan. The variety of Naidda spoken in Buruya is the most divergent, and is not really mutually intelligible with other dialects - so it may well be considered a separate language, were it not traditional to classify it as part of Naidda. Main article [[Buruya Nzaysa]].

= Phonology =

== Phonemes ==

The 22 consonants of Delta Naidda are as follows:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Postalveolar
| Palatal
| Velar
| Glottal
|-
| Voiceless Plosive
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| ''' ' ''' /ʔ/
|-
| Voiced Plosive
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| Voiceless Affricate    
|
|
| '''c''' /ʧ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Affricate
|
|
| '''j''' /ʤ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiceless Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Fricative
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /ʒ/
|
|
|
|-
| Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
| Tap
|
| '''dd''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Trill
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Approximant
| '''w''' /w/
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|}

Delta Naidda has eight vowels:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ï''' /ɪ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| Mid High    
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o ''' /o/
|-
| Mid Low
| '''ë''' /ɛ/
|
|
|-
| Low
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''å''' /ɒ/
|}

== Rules and Distributions ==

=== Consonants ===
* Naidda words never end in obstruents (plosives, fricatives, or affricates), only in vowels or sonorant consonants.
* Voiceless plosives and affricates ('''p t c k''') occur only in initial position, or after '''s''' or '''sh'''.
* Voiced plosives and affricates ('''b d j g''') occur only in initial position and between vowels. They contrast with their voiceless counterparts only initially.
* The velar nasal occurs only at the ends of words, in which position it contrasts with all three other nasals. The other three ('''m n ñ''') occur with no such restriction.
* '''r''' and '''dd''' contrast only intervocalically, where they are a trill and a flap, both dental or alveolar. In all other environments, there is only a tapped '''r''' (a slightly different phone from the flap). This often weakens to an approximant in codas.
* '''ly''' is realized as [ʎ], a palatal lateral approximant. This sound is analyzed in this sketch as underlyingly being a cluster of '''l''' with '''y'''.
* '''z''' is normally postalveolar [ʒ] in most regions of the Delta, but for some speakers may occur in free variation with dental [z]. In a few areas only the dental pronunciation occurs.
* Medially within words, all fricatives and sonorants ('''s sh v z m n ñ l r w y''') can form consonant clusters with each other, in any order. None of them but '''s''' and '''sh''' can cluster with plosives and plosives cannot cluster with each other. Clusters of more than two consecutive consonants do not occur.
* All clusters beginning with a fricative, that are legal medially, can occur in initial position as well. A few other clusters can also occur initially, such as '''mw''', '''tw''', or '''py'''.
* The glottal stop clusters only with nasals, and only before them. These clusters can occur both medially and finally. In final position the nasal of such a cluster is syllabic. The glottal stop also occurs between vowels, but never initially or finally.
* '''f''' does not occur in this dialect of Naidda, though it does in others (but only in loanwords even there, mostly from Faralo '''f''' and '''h'''). Delta Naidda has generally imported such loanwords with '''p''' in initial position and '''v''' medially. Thus Huyfarah is called Fuifara in the Southern dialect and, borrowed from that, '''Pwivara''' in the Delta dialect.

=== Vowels ===
* All back vowels are rounded ('''u o å''') and all non-back vowels are unrounded ('''i ï e ë a''').
* There are no phonemic diphthongs, but adjacent vowels freely diphthongize in normal speech unless separated by a glottal stop. Except where noted below, the first of the two vowels tends to be the nucleus of such a diphthong, with the other forming an offglide. In careful speech the adjacent vowels may be separated into two full syllables.
* The vowels can be classed into two groups, "strong" and "weak". The strong vowels are '''i e u o''', which share the characteristic that they do not tend to be reduced in unstressed syllables. The weak vowels are '''a å ï''', which share the characteristic that in fully unstressed syllables they become schwa, thus neutralizing the distinction between them. In addition, in any vowel sequence consisting of a strong and a weak vowel, the weak vowel becomes the diphthong nucleus and the strong vowel becomes an offglide or onglide.
* '''ë''' behaves sometimes as a strong vowel and sometimes as a weak vowel. Its behavior in unstressed syllables and in diphthongs varies by rate of speech and from speaker to speaker.
* The realization of '''ï''' and '''å''' vary from town to town. The former is normally either [ɪ] or [ɨ], or occasionally [ə], and the latter can be [ɒ] or [ɔ] and in a few places has merged with '''a'''. Other vowels vary less than these do.
* '''u''' normally cannot be found at the ends of words; it becomes '''o''' instead. However, in a very few cases a '''u''' persists in this position, like '''du''' "four" and '''myu''' "stupid". These exceptions are rare and the ones that do occur are generally monosyllabic. However, the onomatopoeic '''uwu''' "owl" has it too.

=== Stress ===

The algorithm for assigning lexical stress in Naidda is as follows:

# Start by assigning the accent to the first syllable of the root (or the first root, in a compound word).
# For certain derivational prefixes, the accent is attracted to the first syllable of the prefix instead.
# If there are more than two syllables to the right of the accent, move it to the first syllable of the '''next morpheme to the right'' if there is one, even if its first vowel is epenthetic.
# Repeat step 3 until the accent is no earlier than antepenultimate position.
# Alternating syllables to the left and right of the accent gain secondary stress.

Some examples, with the period . indicating morpheme boundaries:

'''néshodën''' 
'''morvo.gáño''' 
'''Mómuva'e''' 
'''të.bédo''' 
'''po'mon.á'a''' 
'''të.gáyå.'a''' 
'''ma.jani.dá.'a'''

== Morphophonological Processes ==

The morphophonology of Naidda is relatively straightforward. The major processes are as follows:

'''Epenthesis''' - various types of consonant clusters are not legal in Naidda. If an illegal cluster would be formed morphologically, an epenthetic '''a''' is inserted at the morpheme boundary to hold apart the cluster.

'''Medial voicing''' - voiceless stops (including the affricate '''c''') are contrasted with voiced ones only in initial position. When a prefix is added to a word beginning with a voiceless stop, it becomes voiced - or, more specifically, the contrast is neutralized, and voiced and voiceless pronunciations occur in free variation when this happens. But in any case such stops are always ''written'' voiced. The exception is that after determiner proclitics voiceless stops continue to be written voiceless, as there is a stronger preference among speakers for the voiceless pronunciation here - though the two are still in free variation. Voiceless fricatives remain contrasted in medial position and are unaffected by this rule.

'''Vowel elision''' - there are two possible results of adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a stem ending with a vowel. If the vowel of the stem is unstressed, it is simply overridden by the suffix vowel. If it is stressed however, the two will instead co-exist, diphthongized, if they are sufficiently different from each other (e.g. '''e''' and '''ë''' do not readily co-exist this way, which is a particular problem when verbs ending in either vowel occur in the first person). If they are not, elision may happen anyway - although a new resolution to the problem has recently arisen in the delta: separating the two vowels with an epenthetic glottal stop.

'''Eng palatalization''' - when a word ending in '''ng''' takes a suffix, the velar nasal changes to a palatal nasal '''ñ'''.

'''S-devoicing''' - when '''s''' comes before a voiced stop or fricative due to morphological processes, the stop or fricative devoices in the following manner:
* '''sb, sd, sg''' -> '''sp, st, sk'''
* '''sv''' -> '''sp'''
* '''sj, sz''' -> '''sc'''

= Noun Phrases =

== Structure ==

The structure of a Naidda noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:

Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)

Naidda nouns are '''invariable in form'''.

== Determiners ==

Before the noun there are two positions which can be filled by determiners. In every NP at least one of these two slots ''must'' be filled.

A first position determiner may be a proclitic which serves as an article or deictic, or it may be a possessive pronoun. These two sets do not co-occur. Quantifiers, which may be either numbers or non-numeral quantifiers, occur in the second determiner position.

'''NOTE:''' see the "pronominal prepositions" section for a fuller explanation of the possessive pronouns and how not only possessive ones can be determiners.

=== Articles and Deictics ===
{|
|
| Clitic
| Meaning
|-
|
| l-
| the
|
|-
|
| u- or w-
| a, some
|-
|
| d-
| as for
|-
|
| g-
| this
|-
|
| c-
| that
|}

These clitics, if present, attach to the beginning of the next word and are written hyphenated.

'''l-a'a''' 
''the woman''

'''Clitic Morphophonology'''

The indefinite article consists of u- before consonants and w- before vowels. The other proclitics are pronounced before vowels as if they were part of the word. Before consonants, an epenthetic schwa intervenes, unless a legal initial cluster is formed.

=== Possessive Pronouns ===

There are only three possessive pronouns, one for each person.

{|
|
| Person
| Pronoun
|-
|
| 1
| a'e
|
|-
|
| 2
| airo
|-
|
| 3
| a
|}

=== Non-Numeric Quantifiers ===
{|
|
| Quantifier
| Meaning
|-
|
| wa
| a few, a minority of
|
|-
|
| nam
| some, however many
|-
|
| ova
| many, lots of
|-
|
| i'i
| most
|
|-
|
| me
| no, none of
|-
|
| or
| all, each
|}

=== Numbers ===
{|
| Number
| Native
| Fáralo
|-
| 1
| kë
| ce
|-
| 2
| ni
| --
|-
| 3
| wo
| --
|-
| 4
| bo
| bu
|-
| 5
| du
| --
|-
| 6
| ïshï
| --
|-
| 7
| mëm
| --
|-
| 8
| son
| ude
|-
| 9
| nïl
| --
|-
| 10
| ro
| --
|}

For the numbers 1, 4, and 8, both the native and the borrowed Fáralo numbers are in common use.

Multiples of ten are formed by suffixing -ro. Ordinals are formed by prefixing ï-, or in the case of six, y-.

=== Examples ===

'''l-di''' 
''the tree''

'''ova di''' 
''many trees''

'''l-ova di''' 
''the many trees''

'''airo di''' 
''your tree''

'''a'e ïshï di''' 
''my six trees''

'''l-ïboro di''' 
''the fortieth tree''

== Modifiers ==

Three main types of modifiers are discussed here: nominal modifiers, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. These follow the head noun in that order:

''Modifiers - Prepositional Phrases - Relative Clauses''

=== Nominal Modifiers ===

Naidda does not have a distinct class of '''adjectives''', ''per se''. Instead, nouns are modified by other nouns. There remains a marginal syntactic distinction; a number of nouns are used much more often in an attributive role than as the head of an NP. These are generally translated in the lexicon with English adjectives. Nevertheless, any noun can be the head of a noun phrase, and any noun can be used to modify another.

It is never difficult to tell which of the nouns in a noun phrase is the head: it is ''always'' first. Additionally, nouns never take determiners when used attributively, while NP heads always do.

'''l-di spe''' 
''the green tree''

'''l-spe di''' 
''the tree's green'' (or ''the greenness of the tree'' or ''the shade of green on the tree'')

'''l-wo di spe''' 
''the three green trees''

=== Heavy Modifiers ===

'''Prepositional Phrases'''

PPs come in two types: full phrases, and "pronominal prepositions" (or, if you prefer, "prepositional pronouns"). Both are explained in the Prepositions section.

Both types occur in the same position in a noun phrase when used in the "normal" way (see the prepositions section): after the noun and after any nominal modifiers, but before any relative clauses.

'''Relative Clauses'''

Formation of relative clauses is covered below. Relative clauses, if any, always occur at the tail end of a noun phrase.

== Personal Pronouns ==

The personal pronouns of Naidda distinguish person, number, and within third person, animate/inanimate in the plural and masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular.

'''Free (stressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| e
| ove
|-
| 2
| liño
| wiño
|-
| 3m
| loro
| wamar
|-
| 3f
| la'a
| wamar
|-
| 3n
| lojon
| wajon
|}

=== Usage ===

These pronouns are not required in transitive clauses, with verbal participant reference marking being sufficient. Thus, Naidda is a '''pro-drop''' language. Free pronouns, which always bear lexical word stress like any other full content word, are used for three main purposes: contrast focus, non-sentential speech acts (such as insults and one-word answers to questions), and to supply more information in an otherwise ambiguous clause. More information on these later.

In intransitive clauses personal pronouns are required, even if a full noun or a pro-form is also used. In this case, a reduced and unstressed form of the pronoun cliticizes to the end of the verb.

'''Enclitic (unstressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''Ñadawon.''' 
''They slept.''

= The Verb Complex =

== Auxiliaries ==

Naidda marks the time of a clause (tense and aspect) with a set of auxiliary verbs. Each AUX indicates one or more specific combinations of tense and aspect, except for '''ïna''' which makes a sentence imperative.

To use an auxiliary:
# Add the AUX to the beginning of the clause (before the verb, but after any left-dislocated information).
# Move the main verb to later in the clause, usually the end, if it isn't there already.
# Mark the AUX, but not the main verb, for participant reference.

'''Stån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s open 
''He is opening it.''

The auxiliary verbs are:

{|
|
| AUX
| time
| gloss
|-
|
| '''0'''
| preterite
| ---
|-
|
| '''ste'''
| nonfuture imperfect
| NF-IMPF
|-
|
| '''we'''
| future imperfect
| F-IMPF
|-
|
| '''steda'''
| nonfuture inceptive
| NF-INCP
|-
|
| '''weda'''
| future inceptive
| F-INCP
|-
|
| '''stevë'''
| nonfuture perfect
| NF-PRF
|-
|
| '''wevë'''
| future perfect
| F-PRF
|-
|
| '''cona'''
| aorist
| AOR
|-
|
| '''ïna'''
| imperative
| IMP
|}

=== Usage ===

'''Imperfects''' are used for actions that are or will be incomplete (depending on whether the future or nonfuture AUX is used), or for states that are or will be ongoing.

'''Inceptives''' indicate the beginning of an action, or onset of a state.

'''Perfects''' are very comparable to "I have done it" or "I will have done it" in English.

When there is no auxiliary at all, a '''preterite''' (past-perfective, or "narrative past") time is usually assumed. However, this is highly context-dependent: when several clauses in a row have exactly the same time, i.e. they would use the same AUX, often only the first one is marked and the subsequent clauses stand without auxiliaries, inheriting their time indication from the prior clause. This inheritance can continue indefinitely until the time of a clause needs to be different than that of the previous one.

The '''aorist''' is used mostly for states, rather than actions, and indicates that the state is generally true, or is true over an indefinitely long timespan. For example, "the sky is blue" would be translated with the aorist.

'''Imperatives''' are commands or instructions to do something.

''When no main verb appears in the clause, the auxiliaries become copulas.''

== Morphology ==

=== Participant Reference: Transitive ===

Naidda uses a complex system of suffixes to mark the person and number of both the agent and patient of the verb, if it is transitive. While these suffixes are patterned in ways that derive from the pronouns the suffixes originally came from, in this discussion we treat them as unanalyzable.

There are two exceptions to this, however. Reflexive suffixes occur for certain person-number combinations that either can or must indicate somebody performing the action on themselves. Reflexives are formed by suffixing '''-in-''' between the root and the rest of the transitive suffix. '''Italicized forms in the table are reflexive.'''

The other exception is that except for reflexives, suffixes denoting singular patients consist of the suffix for a plural patient, plus final '''-n'''.

The following table demonstrates these suffixes in use in the verb '''piño''', "to fear". The person and number of agent arguments are in rows, while the person and number of patient arguments are in columns. Thus, if "he" fears "all of you", the entry for 3sg-2pl is used: '''piñaddo'''.

{|
|
| me
| us
| thee
| ye
| him
| them
|-
| I/we
| piñoyin/''piñin''
| piñoyi/''piñini''
| piñeddon
| piñeddo
| piñoyån
| piñoyå
|-
| thou
| piñoron
| piñoro
| ''piñinolon''
| piñorol
| piñorån
| piñorå
|-
| you
| piñorwin
| piñorwi
| piñorilon
| ''piñinil''
| piñorwan
| piñorwa
|-
| he
| piñin
| piñi
| piñaddon
| piñaddo
| piñån/''piñinån''
| piñå
|-
| they
| piñain
| piñai
| piñaiddon
| piñaiddo
| piñiwan
| piñiwa/''piñinwa''
|}

*These suffixes are applied to the first verb in the sentence - whether it's the main verb or an auxiliary.
*There is no differentiation between 1sg and 1pl agents in these suffixes. Thus for 1-1sg and for 1-1pl, there is both a reflexive and a non-reflexive possibility.
*In the third person, specifically 3sg-3sg and 3pl-3pl, there are reflexive and non-reflexive forms. The REFL-3sg-3sg form means "he did it to himself" and the plain 3sg-3sg form means "he did it to (someone else)".

=== Participant Reference: Intransitive ===

As previously discussed, in intransitive clauses the verb - or the aux - is suffixed with an enclitic pronoun. For reference, here is the table again:

'''Enclitic Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''USAGE'''

Exactly who the enclitic pronoun refers to - an agent? a patient? - is a matter of some flexibility. A wide variety of apparently contradictory uses have been observed in Naidda, which, bewilderingly, appear to cause the speakers few difficulties. The grammatical analyst can at best state some general trends in what is observed, but with the caveat that any particular instance may disobey them.

* Verbs which nearly always take agents, like "to run": the enclitic pronoun refers to this agent.
* Verbs which nearly always take patients, like "to sleep": the enclitic pronoun refers to this patient.
* Verbs which can go either way, like "to hit": the pronoun ''usually'' refers to the agent (and the full nominal argument as well, if there is any; the pronoun and the nominal argument are '''always''' co-referential.) It can also refer to the patient, however. Where the referent falls on the animacy hierarchy is highly relevent: entities high on the hierarchy are highly likely to be agents, while entities low on the hierarchy are at least somewhat likely to be patients instead.

Simply put: if one reading doesn't make sense, try the other. If both make sense, assume the pronoun refers to an agent.

=== The Irrealis ===

In Naidda, a verb is made irrealis with a prefix that has multiple forms.

*Before vowels: e'-
*Before sibilants ('''s''' and '''sh'''): e-
*Before any other consonant: s-

'''E'odolor.''' 
IRR-come-he 
''He would come.''

'''Usage '''

Unlike participant suffixes, the irrealis prefix always appears on the main verb, even if an auxiliary is present. The irrealis marks that a statement is '''counterfactual'''. That is, while a realis clause makes a claim that the statement expressed in the clause is true, an irrealis clause makes no such claim at all.

The irrealis may or may not co-occur with a modal adverb. When it stands without such an adverb, an "if"-clause preceding or following the irrealis clause makes it conditional. When the irrealis appears with a modal adverb, the adverb specifies the modality of the clause.

=== Negation ===

A clause is negated by the prefix '''ma-''' (before consonants) or '''m-''' (before vowels). As with other prefixes, intial voiceless stops and affricates become voiced.

'''Usage'''

'''Negative concord''' is exhibited between main verbs and auxiliaries: if both are present, the negative prefix generally appears either on both, or on neither.

'''Mwevëlor modo.''' 
NEG-AUX(F-PRF)-he NEG-come 
''He will not come.''

The negative prefix and the irrealis prefix are mutually exclusive on the main verb, but if an auxiliary is present, it may still be negated while the main verb is irrealis. This occasionally necessitates re-wording so that an auxiliary may be used for carrying the negation.

'''Mastevëlor e'odo.''' 
NEG-AUX(NF-PRF)-he IRR-come 
''He would not come.''

=== Verbal Nouns ===

Naidda verbal nouns come in two flavors: active and passive.

{|
|
| suffix
| example
| gloss
|-
| active
| '''-'a'''
| '''ku'me'a''' "hitting"
| AVN
|-
| passive
| '''-sa'''
| '''ku'mesa''' "getting hit"
| PVN
|}

'''Gïmvin l-ku'mesa''' 
hurt-3s>1s DEF-hit-PVN 
''Getting hit hurt me.''

These suffixes create normal nouns from verb stems, and tend to fill roles that in other languages are filled by gerunds, infinitives, and participles. When used as the head of an NP they require '''determiners''' like any other noun. Note also that this is the only remaining trace of morphological passivity in Naidda. However, there is a periphrastic passive construction which uses the passive verbal noun.

You can also negate verbal nouns. When one is the head of a noun phrase, it takes the negative quantifier '''me''', but when used attributively, it instead takes verbal negation.

'''airo me cïna'a''' 
your NEG love-AVN 
''your heartlessness''

'''airo nïzri majïna'a''' 
your wife NEG-love-AVN 
''your unloving wife''

= Prepositional Phrases =

== Normal PPs ==

Conventional, full prepositional phrases in Naidda are straightforward and do not work significantly differently from those in English and many other languages. In short, a prepositional phrase consists of a P followed by an NP. Any noun phrase can be the object of a preposition, and the preposition is always in the third person. The one notable difference is that first and second person pronouns cannot appear after third person prepositions.

Prepositional phrases modifying nouns are placed late in the NP, normally after all one-word modifiers but before any relative clauses. Those modifying verbs can occur anywhere in the clause after the inflected verb or AUX.

Full clauses can also be the objects of prepositions; in this case, the clause is formed as a nominalized clause.

'''wo w-inzo''' 
for.3 INDEF-farmer 
''for a farmer''

== Pronominal Prepositions ==

Or, "prepositional pronouns", take your pick. Naidda prepositions are inflectable for person - first, second, or third - and these inflected prepositions are entire PPs unto themselves. The personal inflection specifies the object of the preposition. Or, if you look at it from another angle, these words are personal pronouns marked for a large number of grammatical cases.

=== Normal Usage ===

As an example, where in English we would say "to me", in Naidda we can say ''to.1'' and this is usually sufficient. However, whenever more information is desireable (such as the number of the referent), the preposition can take a personal pronoun as an object. This description is adequate for the first and second persons.

'''åddi''' 
to.1 
''to me'' or ''to us''

'''åddi ove''' 
to.1 us 
''to us''

In the third person, a preposition either has a full NP as its object (as described in the previous section), or it stands alone as an anaphor. That is, without an explicit object, it refers back to a noun phrase that has already been mentioned recently in the discourse. Similarly to the first and second persons, when in the third person more information about the preposition's referent is desireable, it can take a full pronoun as an object.

'''ådda''' 
to.3 
''to it/him/her/them''

'''ådda lojon''' 
to.3 him 
''to him''

=== Appositional Usage ===

First and second person prepositions can also take NP objects. In this case, the NP is ''apposed'' to the pronoun's referent.

'''we w-inzo''' 
for.1 INDEF-farmer 
''for me, a farmer'' (or ''for me as a farmer'')

=== Determiner Usage ===

The "possessive pronouns", previously discussed in the Noun Phrases section, are in fact the inflected possessive prepositions. As already covered, these can be used as determiners:

'''a'e båma''' 
of.1 wheat 
''my wheat''

Naidda distinguishes the determiner use of possessives from a non-determiner use:

'''g-båma a'e''' 
this-wheat of.1 
''this wheat of mine''

The latter construction is the normal, default use of a PP in Naidda, with the possessive prepositions doubling as possessive pronouns. That is how I have presented these things thus far, for the sake of simplicity.

However, it's not the whole truth. Actually, ''any'' inflected preposition can be a determiner the way the a possessive one can:

'''wodo myåsko''' 
for.2 party 
''the party for you'' (literally ''the-for-you party'')

This is a common device in Naidda, and is why the line between "preposition" and "pronoun" is blurry at best.

'''Cautionary Note'''

At first glance it may be difficult to tell determiner usages from appositional ones: how do you know if '''wodo myåsko''' means ''the party for you'' or ''for you as a party''?

Keep in mind that the determiner usage results in an NP while the appositional usage results in a PP. As such, as with any NP, prepositions used as determiners cannot co-occur with a determiner clitic - and that every NP ''must'' have at least one determiner. Therefore '''wodo myåsko''' cannot be appositional because there is no other determiner than '''wodo''' (not to mention that its meaning is bizarre). If you wanted to say this anyway, however, just bring in a proclitic: it makes completely clear that '''l-myåsko''' is the NP and that it is therefore the object of '''wodo'''.

== List of Prepositions ==
{|
| 1st
| 2nd
| 3rd/default
| ''meaning''
|-
| a'e
| airo
| '''a'''
| ''possessive''
|-
| we
| wodo
| '''wo'''
| ''"for", "concerning", ''at (directed towards)''
|-
| ume
| omvo
| '''om'''
| ''genitive (non-possessive association)''
|-
| ñwe
| ñudo
| '''ño'''
| ''essive, appositive; "as"''
|-
| kwëne
| kwïnzo
| '''kwïn'''
| ''comitative; "with"''
|-
| ale
| åro
| '''ål'''
| ''"without", "besides", "except for"''
|-
| pu'e
| poiro
| '''po'''
| ''"per", "for each"''
|-
| si
| sado
| '''sa'''
| ''ablative, "from"; instrumental, "with"''
|-
| ne
| nido
| '''ni'''
| ''"in", "into", "inside"''
|-
| åddi
| åddado
| '''ådda'''
| ''"to", "towards"''
|-
| wi
| wado
| '''wa'''
| ''"after", "since"''
|-
| ove
| ovro
| '''o'''
| ''"at (locative)", "near", "nearby to"''
|-
| sli
| slado
| '''sla'''
| ''"before", "by" (as in "by tomorrow")''
|-
| ñizedi
| ñizedo
| '''ñizi'''
| ''"until", "as far as", "as much as"''
|-
| råve
| råvëdo
| '''råvë'''
| ''"along", "via", "during"''
|-
| ledi
| ledado
| '''leda'''
| ''"between", "among", "throughout", "surrounding"''
|}

= Pronouns and Participant Reference =

== Role Disambiguation ==

As previously shown, the transitive participant markers for Naidda verbs are in some cases defective. They also do not supply as much information as personal pronouns do. In some cases, this can make it difficult to tell who is doing what to who. This is exacerbated by the tendency of speakers to avoid using full noun phrases to the extent they can get away with.

=== Animacy Hierarchy ===

The majority of such cases are clearly resolveable by context, primarily by means of an agency hierarchy (or "animacy hierarchy"). The hierarchy is a set of assumptions built into Naidda grammar about which of any two entities is most likely to be the agent, or source of the action. In general, the higher of any two entities on the following list is assumed to be the agent:

# 1st person
# 2nd person
# other people
# sentence topics (when marked with '''d-''')
# animals
# everything else

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-man 
''The man kicked the horse''

'''Coñïvån l-ro l-nalor.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-man DEF-horse 
''The man kicked the horse''

As one might guess, due to the transitive participant suffixes, cases in which the animacy hierarchy becomes important do not arise with extremely high frequency. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistently observed to resolve many clauses that might otherwise be ambiguous, when such situations do come up.

=== Use of Pronouns ===

In some cases even the animacy hierarchy will fail and a clause will remain ambiguous. This can happen for two reasons:

* both the subject and the direct object are at the same level on the hierarchy (both are people, or both are animals, etc.);
* the subject is meant to be the one that's ''lower'' on the hierarchy.

In either case, speakers will often simply tolerate the ambiguity, because the surrounding context is generally sufficient anyway. But if there is any doubt, a personal pronoun can be added to clarify. The pronoun is placed directly after the subject noun phrase, and refers to it; or if there is no NP, the pronoun will stand alone. This usage is syntactically identical to that of contrast focus.

'''Coñïvån l-nalor lojon l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse it DEF-man 
''The horse kicked the man.''

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-zivra lojon.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-sheep it 
''The sheep kicked the horse.''

In addition, a pronoun may simply be used to supply more information about its referent, even if grammatical roles are already clear:

'''Dëñëlyån ove.''' 
like-1>3s we 
''We like it.'' (without the pronoun, the sentence could also mean "I like it.")

== Gender and Animacy ==

The animacy system for Naidda personal pronouns is very straightforward. The 3-feminine and 3-masculine pronouns are used for human beings (and gods), as is the 3-animate in the plural, while the 3-neuter pronouns are used for everything else. However, in a number of narratives and folk tales, other entities - animals, even rocks - can be personified, in which case the animate pronouns are used.

Gender of pronouns is semantically rather than grammatically based: it varies by biological sex of the referent, as in English, and has nothing to do with any grammatical property of the antecedent noun.

The historical basis for all of the above is that the masculine and feminine personal pronouns derive from "the man" and "the woman" as a relatively recent development in Naidda (within the last five centuries). Indeed, the full form of the feminine pronoun '''la'a''' remains perfectly homophonous with "the woman", '''l-a'a''', and the masculine pronoun has diverged only slightly.

== Contrast Focus ==

Contrast focus, also called ''disjunction'', is one of the main uses of personal pronouns. It draws attention to the fact that the sentence subject itself, and not some other person or thing, is the source of the action.

In this usage, a pronoun is simply supplied as an overtly expressed clause subject, either on its own when no such subject is otherwise needed, or else in addition to a full noun phrase, especially a personal name. In the latter case, the pronoun always directly follows the noun.

'''Goñiyån.''' 
break-1>3s 
''I/we broke it.''

'''Goñiyån e''' 
break-1>3s I 
''I broke it myself.''

'''Goñinån Murisi loro.''' 
break-3s>3s NAME he 
''Murisi broke it himself.''

== Pro-forms ==

{|
|
| ''query''
| ''this''
| ''that''
| ''some''
| ''no''
| ''every''
|-
| '''thing'''
| gëa
| gåyë
| ceyë
| nayë
| mayë
| ëyë
|-
| '''person'''
| yaro
| gåro
| cero
| naro
| maro
| ëro
|-
| '''place'''
| malo
| gålo
| celo
| namlo
| malo
| ëlo
|-
| '''time'''
| sol
| gådol
| cesol
| nadol
| masol
| ëdol
|-
| '''way'''
| eba
| gï'n
| cï'n
| namï'n
|
|
|-
| '''reason'''
| nwa
|
| cïddo
|
|
|
|}

= Clause Types =

== Independent Clauses ==

=== Structure ===

The basic template for main clauses in Naidda is V1 - the verb comes first, and is followed by one or more other sentence elements, including nouns denoting agents or patients, and modifying information such as adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, or adverbs.

The order of these post-verb elements does not depend on the grammatical roles of subject or direct object, but instead on the principle "New Information Comes First" or ''NICF''.

NICF applies to all post-verbal constituents, not just noun phrases. For instance if the main new information in a clause is adverbial, it will precede any subjects or direct objects that are present.

Naidda can also be described as a "pronominal argument" language. The key notion of pro-arg is that the verb, including mandatory participant marking, is the core clause all by itself - everything else is oblique, including subject and object nominals.

'''Erån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the shell with a knife.''

If an auxiliary is present in the clause, it takes the V1 position at the beginning, and the main verb is moved to later in the clause - typically but not necessarily the end.

'''Stån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife open 
''He is opening the shell with a knife.''

=== Topicalization ===

While a noun marked as a sentence topic may be left in place after a verb, most often it will be dislocated to the beginning of the clause - before the verb. Nouns dislocated to left of the verb (or aux) are always marked as topics.

'''Erån d-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s TOP-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the'' shell, ''however, with a knife.''

'''D-wogïño erån kwïn u-gån.''' 
TOP-shell open-3s>3s with.3 INDEF-knife 
''As for the shell, he opened it with a knife.''

A noun can be extracted from just about any location and topicalized. Note that this works hand-in-hand with '''pronominal prepositions''' - when a preposition's object is moved to the front of the sentence, the P becomes a stranded anaphor.

'''D-gån erån l-wogïño kwïn.''' 
TOP-knife open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 
''As for a/the knife, he opened the shell with it.''

== Nominalized Clauses ==

In Naidda, most subclauses are handled by nominalization - subclauses fit into larger syntactic structures just as nouns would. Nominalized clauses are used for all of the following:

* complement clauses: clauses which serve as an argument (agent or patient) of the main verb
* objects of prepositions: prepositions, especially those with temporal meanings, can take nominalized clauses as objects just as they would regular nouns
* adverbial clauses: clauses which add more information to the main clause (this requires extra morphology)
* various other situations where in other languages you might find a subclause, infinitive clause, or something else along those lines

Nominalized clauses, except for adverbialized ones, are normal noun phrases and require '''determiners'''.

=== Formation ===

There are two types of nominalized clause formation: direct, and full.

'''Direct nominalized clauses''' are simple: word order is exactly like any other clause, and the verb is formed into a verbal noun. Note that verbal nouns cannot take participant marking, so pronouns - if any are needed - take their independent forms. Direct nominalized clauses are possible only when there is no AUX, and are problematic for transitive clauses. Nominalized transitive clauses tend to be of the full form, instead. Despite these limitations, direct nominalized clauses are usually preferred to the full form when possible.

'''wa l-ta'a loro''' 
after.3 DEF-die-AVN he 
''after he died''

'''Full nominalized clauses''' are more complex than direct ones, but offer more flexibility. The nominalizer '''ri''' (glossed as SUB) takes the verb-initial position and inflects like an AUX (including participant marking and negation), and the main verb is displaced to the end of the sentence just like it would be with any other AUX. If there is already another AUX, the nominalizer is prefixed to it.

'''wa l-rilor ta''' 
after.3 DEF-SUB-he die 
''after he died''

'''råvë l-ristån arå la'a skïn''' 
during.3 DEF-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-3s.3s evening.meal she cook 
''while she was making dinner''

There is little semantic difference between the two types, but full nominalized clauses tend to be associated with more formal and technical registers of speech, and occur less frequently in day-to-day chatter.

=== Adverbial Clauses ===

Adverbial clauses are also nominalized clauses, further modified by adding the adverbial prefix '''të-''' to the nominalizer; thus: '''tëri'''. This prefix is mutually exclusive with the negative prefix, so negative concord is broken, but the main verb remains negatable if it's not irrealis.

'''Tëriste kwïn omvo li, naive cån boda.''' 
ADV-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-I with.3 your year work-I greatly even.more 
''When I was your age, I worked even harder.'' (literally: ''(when) I was with your years, I worked even more greatly'')

Direct nominalized clauses can also take the adverbial prefix, which simply attaches to the verb:

'''Kåstalon l-tolo tëlila'a l-ånze.''' 
continue-it DEF-time ADV-flow-AVN DEF-river 
''Time passes as the river flows.''

Since adverbs and verbal arguments are on the same syntactic level in Naidda it should be no surprise that the line between a complement clause and an adverbial clause is blurry. Morphologically they are distinct, but whether a subclause in a given sentence takes the adverbial prefix will vary from speaker to speaker and day to day. Subclauses describing the '''time''', '''place''', or '''manner''' of the main sentence will usually take the adverbial prefix.

== Relative Clauses ==

Naidda relative clauses are embedded clauses modifying a nominal word that participates in the clause. They are formed with the relativizer '''rom'''. This works much like the clause nominalizer '''ri''', in that the relativizer takes the verbal participant marking and negative concord and the verb is moved to the end, as it would be with an auxiliary - and if there is another AUX already, the relativizer is simply prefixed to it.

Relative clauses follow the relativized noun, generally after most other modifying information.

'''l-ro romlor ta''' 
DEF-man REL-he die 
''the man who died''

'''l-ro maromastelor mada''' 
DEF-man NEG-REL-AUX(NF-IMP)-he NEG-die 
''the man who isn't dying''

The relativized noun does not appear within the relative clause, except for verbal participant reference, which takes care of role disambiguation just like it would in any other clause:

'''l-ro romyån ena''' 
DEF-man REL-1>3s see 
''the man who I saw''

'''l-ro romin ena''' 
DEF-man REL-3s>1s see 
''the man who saw me''

== Predicatives ==

Predicatives are those sentences using a copula, those which in English use the copular verb "to be". The Naidda copula is not a single verb, however; instead, it is the entire set of auxiliaries. A predicative clause in Naidda follows the same pattern: an auxiliary, the subject NP, then the predicated material. The latter can be another noun phrase, an attributive noun, a prepositional phrase, or in clefts even a relative clause.

important traits shared by predicative clauses:
* They lack full verbs (this is most immediately obvious difference from full clauses).
* They universally follow the order AUX - subject - predicate.
* A comma-pause normally can be found between the subject and predicate. This is important; without the pause, the syntactic boundary between subject and predicate would often be hard to discern. When there the subject is expressed only by an AUX suffix, rather than an NP, the comma-pause becomes even more important.
* Even if the time of the clause would normally not involve any AUX in a full clause, one is always required in a predicative clause.
* Although the copulas are identical to the auxiliaries in form and function, for clarity they are glossed as COP instead of AUX.

=== Predicate Nominals ===

A predicate nominal is a clause in which an NP is the predicated material. It must be a full proper Naidda noun phrase, requiring a determiner, to distinguish it from a predicate attributive. The usual uses of predicate nominals are for '''equation''', to equate one noun to another ("that man is my father") and '''proper inclusion''', to identify membership of the subject in a group or class ("that man is a Fáralo").

'''Conalor, u-lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he INDEF-friend 
''He is a friend.''

=== Predicate Attributives ===

Predicate attributives are clauses where the predicated material is a property or trait being ascribed to the subject, and which consists of a noun used attributively (i.e. outside of a noun phrase, with no determiner). This is often a verbal noun.

'''Conalor, lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he friend 
''He is friendly.''

Note that the difference between the predicate nominal and predicate attributive versions of this example is made simply by the presence or absence of a determiner.

=== Predicate Locatives and Possessives ===

A predicative locative is simply a clause where the predicated material is a prepositional phrase.

'''Stela Koili, o l-wïmlo.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-she NAME at.3 DEF-home 
''Koili is at home.''

Possessive clauses in Naidda come in two flavors: full clauses, in which a verb like '''båre''', "own", is used, and predicate locatives in which the prepositional phrase uses '''kwïn''', "with". The former type is semantically marked, and occurs roughly as often as we would use "own" or "possess" in English (and isn't a predicative clause at all); the latter type is more frequent and less marked, and roughly equivalent to when we'd use "have" in English.

'''Ste u-marsha båre.''' 
AUX(NF-IMP)-I INDEF-hammer own 
''I own a hammer.''

'''Ste, kwïn u-marsha.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-I with.3 INDEF-hammer 
''I have a hammer.''

=== Clefts ===

A cleft is a predicative clause with two special characteristics:
# the predicated material is a relative clause in which the subject NP is the relativized noun; and
# the subject is dislocated to the left of the copula and marked as a topic.

'''D-Murisi stelor, romin ena.''' 
TOP-NAME COP(NF-IMP)-he REL-3s>1s see 
''Murisi is who saw me.''

=== Zero predication ===

In formal or careful speech, an auxiliary stands as a copula for all predicative clauses, and speaking this way is never wrong. Nevertheless, an informal but very common construction exists that can be analyzed as using the zero-AUX as a copula. On the surface, these expressions take the form of straightforward noun phrases shorn of any clausal structure. However, the meaning is predicative in nature, implying a zero copula that would fit in perfectly with the use of the zero-AUX - especially because the implied tense-aspect (preterite, narrative past, or time inherited from prior clause) is the same.

'''l-wïmlo woli''' 
DEF-house full 
''the full house''

'''L-wïmlo woli.''' 
[0-COP] DEF-house full 
''The house was full.''

There is a very strong preference to avoid any complex material in a zero-copula clause; in general, they appear identical in form to simple noun phrases, and rarely involve subclauses, coordination, or other such complexities. The construction also tends to be limited to informa registers where less attention is paid to how one speaks, and may come across as "folksy", blunt, or clipped, though it does appear in some poetry as well.

= Other Syntax =

== Adverbs ==

=== Formation ===

Naidda adverbs come in two types: roots that are adverbs by default, and nominal stems adverbialized by means of the prefix '''të-'''.

'''cån''' 
''greatly''

'''tëde'o''' 
ADV-normal 
''normally''

Verb roots can also be made into adverbs, but the prefix can only be used with nouns, so the verb must first be formed into a verbal noun.

'''tëjïna'a''' 
ADV-love-AVN 
''tenderly''

=== NP usage ===

An adverb is used whenever a nominal modifier itself needs to be modified.

A nominal word occurring ''by itself'' after a head noun modifies it, unless it is marked as an adverb, in which case it modifies the nearest nominal word to the left (which itself is a modifier of the head noun).

'''l-tolïddo nabï''' 
DEF-sunset red 
''the red sunset''

'''l-tolïddo nabï cån''' 
DEF-sunset red greatly 
''the very red sunset''

Adverbs in this environment can also modify each other. In all such cases, an adverb modifies the word immediately to its left.

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a cån''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN greatly 
''a very tenderly spoken word''

This modification of the word immediately to the left applies to all simple adverb strings, in both the NP and clausal usages. When multiple adverbs together modify the head (the nominal word or the clause) instead, they must be '''listed''' - separated from each other by the conjuction '''n''', "and", or at minimum by a comma-pause:

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a, tëjå'e''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN ADV-soft 
''a softly and tenderly spoken word''

=== Clausal usage ===

Naidda adverbs - except for those appearing in noun phrases - are generally best considered to operate on the level of the whole clause, rather than "modifying" the verb. The main reason for this is that on the whole they do not show any preference for being placed after - or even necessarily anywhere near - the verb, though there are some limited exceptions.

Instead, Naidda adverbs - and adverbial clauses and prepositional phrases - behave as constituents on the same level as the clause's subject and direct object: all of these elements tend to be listed after the verb (or AUX) in an order primarily determined by NICF. In turn it is this behavior that leads some analysts to describe full-NP subjects and objects of the verb as oblique.

'''Ñade bo.''' 
sleep-I again 
''I slept again.''

Like with noun phrases, adverbs can be moved to the front of a clause. This may be used for emphasis that the adverb is a key point of the clause. Or, it can simply be done for stylistic purposes, imparting in some cases a sense of continuity or bridging from previous content.

'''Tëde'o, majonayå a kåve mavïñor.''' 
ADV-normal NEG-AUX(AOR)-1>3p their law NEG-respect 
''Normally, we do not respect their laws.''

=== Modal Adverbs ===

Modal adverbs in Naidda are used to impart modality, or ''grammatical mood'', to a clause. There are various modal adverbs, the most common of which are listed below. It is a small, closed class, and differs from more run-of-the-mill adverbs in that their placement in a clause is restricted to the position '''directly after the verb or AUX''' and that their functions are generally limited to imparting a specific modality.

Modal adverbs can be divided into two classes: those which govern the irrealis verb form, and those which do not. The former require the verb be made irrealis, and express a range of irrealis meanings; they are a majority of modal adverbs. There are only two modal adverbs that do not govern the irrealis, and they do not require the verb to be realis either; both options are possible. They are generally considered to be modal adverbs because their meanings and placement are as restricted as the irrealis ones.

'''Irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| va
| permissive
| '''E'ë'olrån va.''' - ''"You may take it."''
|-
|
| oso
| admonitive
| '''E'ë'olrån oso.''' - ''"You should take it."''
|-
|
| co'o
| obligative
| '''E'ë'olrån co'o.''' - ''"You must take it."''
|-
|
| oivre
| desiderative
| '''E'ë'olrån oivre.''' - ''"You would like to take it."''
|-
|
| oinae
| hortative, optative
| '''E'ë'olrån oinae.''' - ''"If only you would take it."''
|}

'''Non-irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| ïrnon
| futilitive
| '''Ë'olrån ïrnon.''' - ''"You are trying to take it."''
|-
|
| moiso
| antivolitional
| '''Ë'olrån moiso.''' - ''"You are forced to take it."''
|}

== Questions ==

=== Polar Questions ===

Like its sister language Fáralo, Naidda forms polar questions (those requesting a yes or no answer) in several ways.

Most often, questions are formed with tag words. The most common tags are '''lonzë''', "correct", and '''ca''', "yes", which seek confirmation that a sentence is true. '''Lonzë''' is the more formal of the two.

'''Talor, ca?''' 
die-he yes 
''He died, right?''

This pattern can be used with a negated sentence as well, to seek confirmation that the affirmative version of the sentence is ''not'' true. (compare English "He didn't die, right?") Alternatively, negative tags, most often '''sumo''', "wrong", can be used in conjunction with the irrealis, to much the same effect:

'''Stalor, sumo?''' 
IRR-die-he wrong 
''He didn't die, did he?"

In general Naidda speakers follow the confirmation-seeking approach to questions, but there are times when a neutral question that does not suggest its own answer is more desirable. In these questions, one offers the listener a choice by using two tags, one affirmative and the other negative:

'''Talor, lonzë, sumo?''' 
die-he correct wrong 
''Did he die?''

Finally, there is a highly formal question form, borrowed from Fáralo. In this type of question, one uses the irrealis and fronts the verb to before the AUX. (It cannot be used without an AUX.)

'''Sta wevëlor?" 
IRR-die AUX(F-PRF)-he 
''Will he die?"

=== Disjunctive Questions ===

A disjunctive question is one that requests the listener choose between two or more offered options, generally with the assumption that only one of them can be correct; compare English ''Do you you prefer large or small?''. In Naidda such questions are formed in a manner highly parallel to yes-no questions with two tags, in that both options are listed at the very end of the sentence and set off by comma-pauses just as tags would be:

'''Wevëliñ mura, gådol, cesol?''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-you decide now then 
''Will you decide now or later?''

The tagged options are quite often entire nominalized clauses. Similarly, when a disjunctive question is asking for which of two ''verbs'' is correct, they are formed into verbal nouns, leaving the clause without a main verb and thus converting it into a predicative clause:

'''Wevëliñ, kïña'a, orë'a?''' 
COP(F-PRF)-you walk-AVN run-AVN 
''Will you be walking or running?''

* Note that English "he is walking" does not otherwise have any grammaticalized analog in Naidda syntax, save that predicating one verbal noun to another (c.f. ''to live is to die'') is permissible. The syntactic resemblance in disjunctive questions is coincidental.
* Questions with more than two options also occur. The extra options are simply appended to the list of tags. In rare cases half a dozen or more options may be listed in such a question.

=== Content questions ===

Content questions are those which request the listener fill in the blank. Interrogative words are fronted; the clause is otherwise normal.

'''Gëa torwan?''' 
what eat-2s>3s 
''what did you eat?''

'''Yaro wabayån?''' 
who hit-3s>1s 
''who hit me?''

== Periphrasis ==

The Delta dialect of Naidda makes use of a number of periphrastic constructions for various grammatical purposes. Different types and uses of paraphrasis is one of the major points of variation between dialects; many of these do not exist outside the Delta area.

=== Passive ===

Fundamental Naidda does not have any manner of passive voice. Intransitive clauses appear with a single argument that can be the agent or the patient, and context is relied on to make the direction of action clear, via the animacy hierarchy. This remains the "educated" way to speak. However, in recent generations a passivizing construction has come into widespread and frequent use in the delta.

'''Characteristics:'''

* the semantic patient is the grammatical sentence subject
* the syntactic main verb of the sentence is "come"
* the lexical verb is formed into a passive verbal noun
* this verbal noun is made the object of the preposition "to"
* the semantic agent can optionally be specified by making it the object of "from"

'''Odolor ådda l-ïñosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-kill-PVN 
''He was killed.''

'''Odolor ådda l-kåirosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-make.welcome-PVN 
''He was made welcome.''

'''Wove ådda l-ïñosa sa odo.''' 
AUX(F-IMPF)-we to.3 DEF-kill-PVN from.3 come 
''We will be killed by it.''

=== Evidential verbs ===

Certain Naidda verbs can be added after the main verb to impart '''evidentiality''' to the clause - that is, how the speaker knows the information. In some ways this may look like a case of serial verbs, but Naidda has no other serial verb constructions, and in fact this is derived from the elision of grammatical material that would have made clear that it is actually a subclause embedded in a grammaticalized main clause.

'''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear he will ask you''

Let's take a look at how we build this clause.

First, consider the sentence "he asked you" - this would be '''kënaddon''' (ask-3s.2s). Now, consider the strategy English uses to add evidentiality; let's say this information is hearsay. In English we often mark this by making a subclause out of the action and embedding it in "I hear ...". Naidda has followed a similar approach. In historical writings we can find much the same construction:

'''Ste l-riaddon këno måddë.''' (archaic) 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-I DEF-SUB-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear that he asked you''

Next comes the elision. The AUX, its suffix, the article, and the clause nominalizer were always exactly the same between all of these evidential clauses, so over time it became common to simply omit them: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>addon këno måddë.''' This of course left a participant-reference suffix hanging unattached to anything, so it then migrated to the verb: '''Kënaddon måddë.'''

When the subclause already had an AUX, that problem didn't even arise: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>wevaddon këno måddë.''' --> '''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' The net result ended up just like tagging an extra verb word onto the end of a clause; it's as simple as that.

There are only four verbs used in this way for evidential marking:
* '''måddë''' (to hear) - the information is hearsay
* '''ena''' (to see) - the information is gained by direct sensory experience (even if that experience is auditory!) - '''Kënaddon ena.''' ''He asked you (I heard him do it).''
* '''må'n''' (to know) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively high confidence - '''Kënaddon må'n.''' ''He must have asked you.''
* '''nilïn''' (to suppose) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively low confidence; it is a guess - '''Kënaddon nilïn.''' ''I guess he asked you.''

==== with predicatives ====

At first glance, this might seem tricky: a predicative clause looks much like any other except that it ''lacks a main verb''. So what happens when we use a predicative clause with an evidential verb? It might sound like it would be hard to tell from a non-predicative clause. But in fact they always look different, because a predicative sentence is grammatically '''intransitive''' and the evidential verbs, when used as main verbs, are always '''transitive''' - so they use different participant reference suffixes. Plus, there is the usual comma-pause of a predicative clause that also helps mark it. Here is the closest the two constructions get to ambiguity:

* '''Conalor, u-lanång ena.''' ''"I see that he is a friend."''
* '''Conalån u-lanång ena.''' ''"He sees a friend."''

So once again, the advice to students of Naidda is: pay attention to commas! The transitive and intransitive suffixes are just as important, though, and there are often other clues as well - for instance, the aorist AUX '''cona''' is infrequently used with action verbs like "see" because of semantic incompatibility (seeing something tends to be a transitory action rather than an ongoing state).

=== Comparison ===

Naidda comparison is indicated with the adverb '''në''', which means "more" or "most". These two meanings, often called ''comparative'' and ''superlative'' respectively, are distinguished in Naidda not by morphology or the form or choice of the comparative adverb, but instead by whether the head of the noun phrase is indefinite or definite:

'''l-wïmlo pi''' 
DEF-house big 
''the big house''

'''u-wïmlo pi në''' 
INDEF-house big more 
''a bigger house''

'''l-wïmlo pi në''' 
DEF-house big more 
''the biggest house''

When the standard of comparison is already well identified to the discourse participants it is generally omitted from the comparison, as above. When mentioned, however, it takes the form of a prepositional phrase using the locative preposition:

'''u-wïmlo pi në o airo wïmlo''' 
INDEF-house big more LOC.3 your house 
''a bigger house than yours''

'''u-dïmve lize në o cero''' 
INDEF-child young more LOC.3 that.person 
''a younger child than that''

'''Conae, zewe në ovro.''' 
COP(AOR)-1s tall more LOC.2 
''I am taller than you.''

=== Causative Constructions ===

Naidda does not make use of any morphological causative. There are a few lexically causative verbs (e.g. '''ïño''' "to kill"), but the great majority of causation is expressed by either of two available periphrastic constructions, the direct causative and the indirect causative.

The semantic difference between these two constructions lies in the means of causation. The direct construction is prototypically used when the causer is immediately, directly, even physically responsible for the situation caused, and it selects a human causer. By contrast, the indirect construction is used when there is a greater degree of removal of the causer from the situation caused, and inanimate causers are freely allowed.

For example, if Isamïng hits Murisi because she was told to do so by Gado, one would ordinarily describe this with the indirect causative, whereas if Gado physically picks up her hand and hits Murisi with it, the direct causative becomes the obvious choice.

==== Direct Causative ====

The direct causative is a valency-increasing operation, in which the subject is demoted and replaced by the cause of the situation expressed. The treatment of the demoted subject depends on its semantic role; usually it becomes a direct object, but in the case where there already is a direct object and the demoted subject is an agent, it becomes the object of the instrumental preposition instead.

''' Examples '''

* intransitive - '''Ïddolor.''' - ''He fell.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Ïddoyån.''' - ''I made him fall.'' (literally: ''I fell him.'')

* intransitive - '''Avwalon a'e wïnlo.''' - ''My garden thrived.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Avwayån a'e wïnlo.''' - ''I made my garden thrive.'' (literally: ''I thrived my garden.'')

Notable is that the application of the direct causative to intransitive clauses is quite akin to what English does with its "middle verbs"; it's much the same relationship as between English ''"the window broke."'' and ''"I broke the window."'' One major difference is that Naidda's process is productive with most verbs, instead of restricted to a specific class of middle verbs. English examples with non-middle verbs - like ''"I volunteered her for the mission."'' - are marginal and quite idiosyncratic.

The transitive version, meanwhile, is essentially identical to a clause that indicates an instrument. Compare:

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sado.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I hit him with you.'')
whereas:
* '''Ku'mån l-bå'n.''' - ''The stick hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sa l-bå'n.''' - ''I hit him with the stick.''

==== Indirect Causative ====

Indirect causatives have a looser semantic relationship between the causer and the causee than the direct causative does, and a correspondingly looser syntactic relationship between them as well.

The caused situation is expressed as a nominalized clause, which is made the direct object of some verb, for which the causer is its subject. However, there is no single verb that simply means "to cause"; instead, a number of verbs can be used for this, and selection of the verb expresses information about the means and volitionality of causation. The most neutral choice is '''cåve''', "give".

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Cåveyån l-rirån ku'me.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I gave that you hit him.'')

Some other causative verbs are:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg l}}
|-
! verb !! means of causation !! volitional?
|-
| ''naive'' "work" || by working to bring it about || yes
|-
| ''cïrïm'' "discuss" || by persuasion or guile || yes
|-
| ''såvme'' "force" || by command or threat of force || yes
|-
| ''gaño'' "move" || by physical placement of objects involved || yes
|-
| ''lu'ï'' "try" || by testing, or trial and error || yes
|-
| ''åddë'' "stand" || by obstruction || sometimes
|-
| ''dë'' "touch" || by provoking a reaction || sometimes
|-
| ''stïn'' "lose" || by accident, happenstance || no
|-
|}

'''Cashae n dëyån l-po'mona'a l-li.''' 
sneeze-1sg and touch-1sg>3sg DEF-flee-AVN DEF-bird 
''I sneezed and scared the bird away.''

'''Cïrïmrån l-riån a muzeda ïm.''' 
discuss-2sg>3sg DEF-SUB-3s>3s his approach change 
''You persuaded him to reconsider.''

= Derivation =

== Compounding ==

Naidda often uses compounding to form new words. Following are some of the most productive types.

It should be noted that Naidda speakers have a penchant for deleting material around the morpheme boundary in a compound, generally to the left of it. Often this is nothing more than deleting the final vowel of the first root, but sometimes speakers will elide a whole syllable, or more.

=== Descriptive ===

Descriptive compounds are the most frequently occurring in Naidda. They usually consist of a head followed by a modifier (though in a few words of ancient vintage this order is reversed), and result in a noun. Descriptive compounds always name a more specific thing than specified by its parts - just as English ''blackbird'' names a specific bird and cannot be used for just any bird that is black. For this reason, descriptive compounds are listed in the lexicon, whereas instrumental and dvandva compounds tend not to be because their meanings are usually more compositional.

'''u-li'uwë''' 
INDEF-bird-water 
''a duck''

=== Instrumental ===

One type of compound is the instrumental. In this type, a noun compounded to a verb names the instrument used - much like English ''can-opener'' but without needing the final ''-er''.

'''l-kailïnåri'e''' 
DEF-wall-paint 
''the paintbrush''

=== Dvandva ===

A productive type of Naidda compounding is the '''dvandva''' - as an alternative to the conjunction of two nouns with '''n''', "and", they can simply be concatenated into a compound word. In particular, this is done with things that occur together naturally, and the dvandva provides a handy way to refer to them as a combined entity.

'''g-årobïlo''' 
this-wind-rain 
''this wind and rain ''

Sometimes the dvandva will contain a relic of the conjunction, between the two morphemes:

'''airo mëvwënomo''' 
your father-and-mother 
''your parents''

== Derivational Morphology ==

=== -lo and -vo ===

'''-lo''' is a '''nominal locative''', essentially meaning "place of". It is attached most often to verbs, but can sometimes be used with nouns. This suffix is very highly productive. 
'''me''' "speak" -> '''melo''' "stage, pulpit" (or other places where you speak from) 
'''sïm''' "cloud" -> '''sïmlo''' "sky"

'''-vo''' is a deverbal '''agent nominalizer''', much like English ''-er''. The modern productive usage always has the form ''-vo'' and always produces nouns referring to human beings, but numerous fossilized words have old allomorphs of this suffix (like '''-zo''' and '''-po''') and may refer to animals or other nonhuman things. 
'''uro''' "cure" -> '''uruvo''' "doctor" 
'''seddï''' "jump" -> '''seddïspo''' "frog"

Both '''-lo''' and '''-vo''' are so common they pervade the lexicon, and often you will find triplets of a root appearing bare and with both suffixes: 
'''kïmvål''' "denounce, complain" 
'''kïmvålo''' "tavern" (place where you complain) 
'''kïmvålvo''' "old woman" (person who complains a lot)

=== weakeners ===

'''-le''' tends to function as a verbal '''attenuative''' - it weakens the base meaning. Until recently this suffix saw mainly fossilized usage, and meanings of these words have often drifted from simple attenuation - but use of the suffix with a productively attenuative meaning or an ironical reverse meaning has found more popular favor in the last generation or so. 
'''pobo''' "dance" -> '''povle''' "twitch" 
'''numye''' "exaggerate" -> '''numyele''' "tell a whopper"

'''-l''' is a '''diminutive'''. It is mostly restricted to personal names, but occasionally appears on other nouns. Children's names (and nouns) are most often shortened before the -l is added; names of adults are not similarly clipped. 
'''bada''' "sweet" -> '''badal''' "berry" 
'''Maroshi''' (name of person) -> '''Marol''' or '''Maroshil''' "dear/sweet/little Maroshi"

The suffix '''-vwa''' is used productively with many attributive nouns naming one end of a spectrum or dichotomy, and indicates '''somewhat''' or a '''middle-of-spectrum state'''. 
'''vårïse''' "hot, humid" -> '''vårïsevwa''' "mild weather, moderate temperature" 
'''shalan''' "obese" -> '''shalanavwa''' "somewhat plump"

=== borrowed Fáralo morphology ===

'''-o''' serves as a '''patient and instrument nominalizer''', but it is not productive. It is restricted almost entirely to roots borrowed from Fáralo. 
'''sëbo''' "gift" (from Far. ''saepu'', "given thing")

'''ña-''' tends in Naidda to act as another '''participial nominalizer''', but it is also mostly restricted to Fáralo roots, and the exact effect of this prefix varies. 
'''ñagada''' "pleasant" (from Far. ''ngakada'', "pleasing")

=== other morphology ===

'''vo-''' (or '''vom-''' before vowels) is a type of '''causative''' seen on some noun roots, converting them into verbs. Its use is restricted mainly to color words and terms for emotional or physical states that can be experienced by people. 
'''lïsho''' "cold" -> '''volïsho''' "make cold"

'''-da''' has several uses. One of the major ones is to impart an '''inceptive or dynamic''' aspect to verbs (this can be accomplished grammatically with auxiliaries; the suffix offers a lexical alternative). It can also indicate a '''temporary condition'''. When applied to some noun roots, a new verb is derived meaning '''become X'''. This morpheme also appears in some fossilized nouns, with poorly predictable effects. 
'''bårë''' "own" -> '''bårëda''' "acquire" 
'''rålña''' "be insane" -> '''rålñada''' "go crazy" 
'''iddi''' "need" -> '''iddida''' "temporarily need" 
'''gåya''' "angry" -> '''gåyada''' "get mad" 
'''gom''' "life" -> '''gomada''' "culture"

'''ai-''' or '''ay-''' denotes '''membership''' in a thing, group, people, country, etc. 
'''Tolya''' (god of the sun-cult) -> '''Aidolya''' "Tolyism" or "Tolyist" (of-Tolya) 
'''Lashumo''' (toponym) -> '''Ailashumo''' "Lashuman"

'''-ïshmïl''' is a suffix indicating "knowledge of". It is used infrequently, but still productively. Somewhat equivalent to English ''-ology''. 
'''vi''' "star" -> '''vyïshmïl''' "astronomy"

'''-år''' forms deverbal nouns with various effects. It can be used for nonhuman actors in much the same way -vo is used for human actors; most common among these are '''resultatives''' and '''instrumentals'''. 
'''vïspe''' "punish" -> '''vïspår''' "pain" 
'''koda''' "close, cover" -> '''kodår''' "roof" 
'''ïnå''' "sense, perceive" -> '''ïnår''' "sensation, perception"

=== -ya and -yo ===

These twin morphemes are not very straightforward and demand a closer look than the other derivational morphology.

Firstly, whether they are even suffixes at all is debatable; they may simply be the noun roots '''ya''' and '''yo''', used attributively. But if so, they are nearly always found directly after the noun they modify, before any other modifiers. The dictionary lists them as independent words, and my convention is to write them separately most of the time, but as suffixes when part of a naming system.

Second, there are two distinct realms where they appear. One is the "productive" usage: most nouns can take one or both, where '''ya''' indicates goodness, happiness, or some manner of nobility, and '''yo''' indicates importance or salience. These are thus their dictionary definitions.

The other realm is that they are built into several naming systems. Their meanings in these names are often at odds with their dictionary definitions, and sometimes choice of '''-ya''' versus '''-yo''' is important while at other times they are interchangeable. They appear always on names of gods and days of the week, and often on color words. They are also part of the archaic system for forming large numbers (which has been largely replaced by the Fáralo system).

==== Days ====

Names of the days by default take -ya, while -yo indicates certainty of the day in question, or insistance on it:

'''gomya''' "Tuesday" (English day name is chosen arbitrarily, here) 
'''gomyo''' "definitely Tuesday"

This varies in other dialects. In the southern dialect for instance, days of the week always take -yo, and -ya is not used.

==== Gods ====

Gods, meanwhile, take '''-ya''' by default, while '''-yo''' is primarily a vocative which occurs in prayer:

'''Tolya''' "the Sun God" 
'''Tolyo''' "o Sun God"

An exception is that priests devoted to a particular god will often use only '''-yo''' with that god's name.

==== Colors ====

In the delta dialect (but not most others) '''-ya''' and '''-yo''' are interchangeable on color names, and indicate a prototypical or pure instance of the color:

'''sisiya, sisiyo''' "pure blue"

==== Other ====

* Multiples of a hundred used to be formed with -ya and multiples of a thousand with -yo, but this is no longer often encountered except for 100 itself. ('''këya''' "100"; rarely: '''sonya''' "800", '''royo''' "10,000")
* Practitioners of a religion tend to add -yo to the name of their faith but not to others, especially in a context where multiple religions are mentioned. For example, Etúgeists in the delta refer to their religion as '''Tugëyo'''.
* In some areas -yo will be used on the name of a lord as an informal reference to his nobility, while in other areas this is seen as crudely deifying the lord.
* Names of animals are converted into anthropomorphized character names in fables by adding -ya. ('''Nalorya n Imwaya''' "Horse and Snake")

= Sample Text =

see: [[Delta Naidda/Texts]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Kasca]]

Delta Naidda

2025-02-01T19:23:47Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naidda}}
{{Language
| language = Naidda (Delta dialect)
| phonetic = [ˈnai.ɾə]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Kasca
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Fáralo script
| family = Edastean  Eastern   Naidda
| word-or = V1; nonconfigurational
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = direct
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

[[Image:Kasca physical.png|thumb|right|300px|Physical map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

= Sketch of Delta Naidda =

Herein begins a sketch of the Delta dialect of Naidda, the language of the land of [[Kasca]]. The dialect is spoken in the delta of the Ya river, and though it is not the prestige dialect, it has far more speakers than any other. This sketch also represents a major revision of the original version of the Naidda language, which was intended to be the Southern dialect but also needed a great deal of repair.

Thus you may see ΔNaidda or ΔN from time to time as a punning abbreviation of "Delta Naidda" - ΔX representing, in math and physics, "change in X".

[[Culture of Kasca]]

[http://www.almeopedia.com/Kasadgad Description of early Kasca]

[http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/Naidda_dictionary2.html A dictionary of Delta Naidda]

== Standardization Note ==

Unlike Fáralo or Adāta, no variety of the Naidda language has been codified into a written standard in over a millennium. Furthermore, Kasca is a region where dialects are continually contaminating each other; the speech of any one person will reflect wordforms that originated in multiple dialects, and in many cases more than one form of a given word will be in common use even within the same town. Complicating this picture further is that sound changes have originated in different parts of Kasca and spread to some but often not all of the rest, so that the speech varieties of any two given towns will have had sound changes that applied only in one, or else in both but in different orders, resulting in even more lexical variation.

The bottom line is that the Delta Naidda dictionary should not be taken as a standardized word list for any particular location. Instead it tries to reflect most-common forms for the Delta dialect overall, and it shouldn't be neglected that variant forms will also exist for numerous words.

Among the biggest points of variation is vowel losses. Word-initial vowels were very frequently dropped in Delta Naidda words of three or more original syllables, and trisyllabic words often dropped medial vowels as well, or instead. But numerous wordforms have been imported from or influenced by other dialects that retained these vowels. Various consonant clusters also show a range of outcomes, but a full description of even just the major variations would be a massive task, and is beyond the scope of this grammatical sketch.

To summarize: it is ''not'' safe to assume that the following grammar and the entire dictionary are adequate descriptions of any single person's speech. Your Mileage May Vary.

= Genealogy =
Naidda is descended from the eastern dialects of [[Ndak Ta]], forming part of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]], which in turn belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. Sister languages of Naidda include [[Fáralo]], [[Adāta]], [[Ndok Aisô]], [[Buruya Nzaysa]], and [[Komejech]]. Of these, it is most closely related to Fáralo and Komejech, with which it comprises the Eastern subbranch of Edastean, and especially to Buruya Nzaysa, which is even classified as a dialect of Naidda by some scholars. Naidda has one known descendant, [[Wippwo]].

{{:Languages of Akana/NT daughters}}

== Dialectology ==

[[Image:Naidda dialects.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialect map of '''Kasca''', c. 170 YP]]

There are five principal dialects of the Naidda language.

* Delta. This the is dialect covered in this sketch, and is spoken in the [[Aiwa|Ya river]] delta. This variety may be considered the "core" version of Naidda, though it has less prestige; its range is central in Kasca and it is spoken by more people than any other variety.
* Southern. Spoken in [[Kasca#P.C3.A5we|Påwe]] and environs. This is the second-largest and most prestigious variety of Naidda, but is almost completely mutually intelligible with Delta speech.
* Momuva'e. A sub-variety of the Delta dialect, spoken in the city of [[Momuva'e]] and its immediate vicinity. Main article [[Mësting Momuva'e]].
* Coastal. This variety of Naidda is fairly divergent, as it has had stronger interference from [[Fáralo]] than other dialects. Spoken in the coastal towns of Kasca.
* Buruyan. The variety of Naidda spoken in Buruya is the most divergent, and is not really mutually intelligible with other dialects - so it may well be considered a separate language, were it not traditional to classify it as part of Naidda. Main article [[Buruya Nzaysa]].

= Phonology =

== Phonemes ==

The 22 consonants of Delta Naidda are as follows:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Postalveolar
| Palatal
| Velar
| Glottal
|-
| Voiceless Plosive
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| ''' ' ''' /ʔ/
|-
| Voiced Plosive
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| Voiceless Affricate    
|
|
| '''c''' /ʧ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Affricate
|
|
| '''j''' /ʤ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiceless Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/
|
|
|
|-
| Voiced Fricative
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /ʒ/
|
|
|
|-
| Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
| Tap
|
| '''dd''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Trill
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|-
| Approximant
| '''w''' /w/
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|}

Delta Naidda has eight vowels:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ï''' /ɪ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| Mid High    
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o ''' /o/
|-
| Mid Low
| '''ë''' /ɛ/
|
|
|-
| Low
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''å''' /ɒ/
|}

== Rules and Distributions ==

=== Consonants ===
* Naidda words never end in obstruents (plosives, fricatives, or affricates), only in vowels or sonorant consonants.
* Voiceless plosives and affricates ('''p t c k''') occur only in initial position, or after '''s''' or '''sh'''.
* Voiced plosives and affricates ('''b d j g''') occur only in initial position and between vowels. They contrast with their voiceless counterparts only initially.
* The velar nasal occurs only at the ends of words, in which position it contrasts with all three other nasals. The other three ('''m n ñ''') occur with no such restriction.
* '''r''' and '''dd''' contrast only intervocalically, where they are a trill and a flap, both dental or alveolar. In all other environments, there is only a tapped '''r''' (a slightly different phone from the flap). This often weakens to an approximant in codas.
* '''ly''' is realized as [ʎ], a palatal lateral approximant. This sound is analyzed in this sketch as underlyingly being a cluster of '''l''' with '''y'''.
* '''z''' is normally postalveolar [ʒ] in most regions of the Delta, but for some speakers may occur in free variation with dental [z]. In a few areas only the dental pronunciation occurs.
* Medially within words, all fricatives and sonorants ('''s sh v z m n ñ l r w y''') can form consonant clusters with each other, in any order. None of them but '''s''' and '''sh''' can cluster with plosives and plosives cannot cluster with each other. Clusters of more than two consecutive consonants do not occur.
* All clusters beginning with a fricative, that are legal medially, can occur in initial position as well. A few other clusters can also occur initially, such as '''mw''', '''tw''', or '''py'''.
* The glottal stop clusters only with nasals, and only before them. These clusters can occur both medially and finally. In final position the nasal of such a cluster is syllabic. The glottal stop also occurs between vowels, but never initially or finally.
* '''f''' does not occur in this dialect of Naidda, though it does in others (but only in loanwords even there, mostly from Faralo '''f''' and '''h'''). Delta Naidda has generally imported such loanwords with '''p''' in initial position and '''v''' medially. Thus Huyfarah is called Fuifara in the Southern dialect and, borrowed from that, '''Pwivara''' in the Delta dialect.

=== Vowels ===
* All back vowels are rounded ('''u o å''') and all non-back vowels are unrounded ('''i ï e ë a''').
* There are no phonemic diphthongs, but adjacent vowels freely diphthongize in normal speech unless separated by a glottal stop. Except where noted below, the first of the two vowels tends to be the nucleus of such a diphthong, with the other forming an offglide. In careful speech the adjacent vowels may be separated into two full syllables.
* The vowels can be classed into two groups, "strong" and "weak". The strong vowels are '''i e u o''', which share the characteristic that they do not tend to be reduced in unstressed syllables. The weak vowels are '''a å ï''', which share the characteristic that in fully unstressed syllables they become schwa, thus neutralizing the distinction between them. In addition, in any vowel sequence consisting of a strong and a weak vowel, the weak vowel becomes the diphthong nucleus and the strong vowel becomes an offglide or onglide.
* '''ë''' behaves sometimes as a strong vowel and sometimes as a weak vowel. Its behavior in unstressed syllables and in diphthongs varies by rate of speech and from speaker to speaker.
* The realization of '''ï''' and '''å''' vary from town to town. The former is normally either [ɪ] or [ɨ], or occasionally [ə], and the latter can be [ɒ] or [ɔ] and in a few places has merged with '''a'''. Other vowels vary less than these do.
* '''u''' normally cannot be found at the ends of words; it becomes '''o''' instead. However, in a very few cases a '''u''' persists in this position, like '''du''' "four" and '''myu''' "stupid". These exceptions are rare and the ones that do occur are generally monosyllabic. However, the onomatopoeic '''uwu''' "owl" has it too.

=== Stress ===

The algorithm for assigning lexical stress in Naidda is as follows:

# Start by assigning the accent to the first syllable of the root (or the first root, in a compound word).
# For certain derivational prefixes, the accent is attracted to the first syllable of the prefix instead.
# If there are more than two syllables to the right of the accent, move it to the first syllable of the '''next morpheme to the right'' if there is one, even if its first vowel is epenthetic.
# Repeat step 3 until the accent is no earlier than antepenultimate position.
# Alternating syllables to the left and right of the accent gain secondary stress.

Some examples, with the period . indicating morpheme boundaries:

'''néshodën''' 
'''morvo.gáño''' 
'''Mómuva'e''' 
'''të.bédo''' 
'''po'mon.á'a''' 
'''të.gáyå.'a''' 
'''ma.jani.dá.'a'''

== Morphophonological Processes ==

The morphophonology of Naidda is relatively straightforward. The major processes are as follows:

'''Epenthesis''' - various types of consonant clusters are not legal in Naidda. If an illegal cluster would be formed morphologically, an epenthetic '''a''' is inserted at the morpheme boundary to hold apart the cluster.

'''Medial voicing''' - voiceless stops (including the affricate '''c''') are contrasted with voiced ones only in initial position. When a prefix is added to a word beginning with a voiceless stop, it becomes voiced - or, more specifically, the contrast is neutralized, and voiced and voiceless pronunciations occur in free variation when this happens. But in any case such stops are always ''written'' voiced. The exception is that after determiner proclitics voiceless stops continue to be written voiceless, as there is a stronger preference among speakers for the voiceless pronunciation here - though the two are still in free variation. Voiceless fricatives remain contrasted in medial position and are unaffected by this rule.

'''Vowel elision''' - there are two possible results of adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a stem ending with a vowel. If the vowel of the stem is unstressed, it is simply overridden by the suffix vowel. If it is stressed however, the two will instead co-exist, diphthongized, if they are sufficiently different from each other (e.g. '''e''' and '''ë''' do not readily co-exist this way, which is a particular problem when verbs ending in either vowel occur in the first person). If they are not, elision may happen anyway - although a new resolution to the problem has recently arisen in the delta: separating the two vowels with an epenthetic glottal stop.

'''Eng palatalization''' - when a word ending in '''ng''' takes a suffix, the velar nasal changes to a palatal nasal '''ñ'''.

'''S-devoicing''' - when '''s''' comes before a voiced stop or fricative due to morphological processes, the stop or fricative devoices in the following manner:
* '''sb, sd, sg''' -> '''sp, st, sk'''
* '''sv''' -> '''sp'''
* '''sj, sz''' -> '''sc'''

= Noun Phrases =

== Structure ==

The structure of a Naidda noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:

Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)

Naidda nouns are '''invariable in form'''.

== Determiners ==

Before the noun there are two positions which can be filled by determiners. In every NP at least one of these two slots ''must'' be filled.

A first position determiner may be a proclitic which serves as an article or deictic, or it may be a possessive pronoun. These two sets do not co-occur. Quantifiers, which may be either numbers or non-numeral quantifiers, occur in the second determiner position.

'''NOTE:''' see the "pronominal prepositions" section for a fuller explanation of the possessive pronouns and how not only possessive ones can be determiners.

=== Articles and Deictics ===
{|
|
| Clitic
| Meaning
|-
|
| l-
| the
|
|-
|
| u- or w-
| a, some
|-
|
| d-
| as for
|-
|
| g-
| this
|-
|
| c-
| that
|}

These clitics, if present, attach to the beginning of the next word and are written hyphenated.

'''l-a'a''' 
''the woman''

'''Clitic Morphophonology'''

The indefinite article consists of u- before consonants and w- before vowels. The other proclitics are pronounced before vowels as if they were part of the word. Before consonants, an epenthetic schwa intervenes, unless a legal initial cluster is formed.

=== Possessive Pronouns ===

There are only three possessive pronouns, one for each person.

{|
|
| Person
| Pronoun
|-
|
| 1
| a'e
|
|-
|
| 2
| airo
|-
|
| 3
| a
|}

=== Non-Numeric Quantifiers ===
{|
|
| Quantifier
| Meaning
|-
|
| wa
| a few, a minority of
|
|-
|
| nam
| some, however many
|-
|
| ova
| many, lots of
|-
|
| i'i
| most
|
|-
|
| me
| no, none of
|-
|
| or
| all, each
|}

=== Numbers ===
{|
| Number
| Native
| Fáralo
|-
| 1
| kë
| ce
|-
| 2
| ni
| --
|-
| 3
| wo
| --
|-
| 4
| bo
| bu
|-
| 5
| du
| --
|-
| 6
| ïshï
| --
|-
| 7
| mëm
| --
|-
| 8
| son
| ude
|-
| 9
| nïl
| --
|-
| 10
| ro
| --
|}

For the numbers 1, 4, and 8, both the native and the borrowed Fáralo numbers are in common use.

Multiples of ten are formed by suffixing -ro. Ordinals are formed by prefixing ï-, or in the case of six, y-.

=== Examples ===

'''l-di''' 
''the tree''

'''ova di''' 
''many trees''

'''l-ova di''' 
''the many trees''

'''airo di''' 
''your tree''

'''a'e ïshï di''' 
''my six trees''

'''l-ïboro di''' 
''the fortieth tree''

== Modifiers ==

Three main types of modifiers are discussed here: nominal modifiers, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. These follow the head noun in that order:

''Modifiers - Prepositional Phrases - Relative Clauses''

=== Nominal Modifiers ===

Naidda does not have a distinct class of '''adjectives''', ''per se''. Instead, nouns are modified by other nouns. There remains a marginal syntactic distinction; a number of nouns are used much more often in an attributive role than as the head of an NP. These are generally translated in the lexicon with English adjectives. Nevertheless, any noun can be the head of a noun phrase, and any noun can be used to modify another.

It is never difficult to tell which of the nouns in a noun phrase is the head: it is ''always'' first. Additionally, nouns never take determiners when used attributively, while NP heads always do.

'''l-di spe''' 
''the green tree''

'''l-spe di''' 
''the tree's green'' (or ''the greenness of the tree'' or ''the shade of green on the tree'')

'''l-wo di spe''' 
''the three green trees''

=== Heavy Modifiers ===

'''Prepositional Phrases'''

PPs come in two types: full phrases, and "pronominal prepositions" (or, if you prefer, "prepositional pronouns"). Both are explained in the Prepositions section.

Both types occur in the same position in a noun phrase when used in the "normal" way (see the prepositions section): after the noun and after any nominal modifiers, but before any relative clauses.

'''Relative Clauses'''

Formation of relative clauses is covered below. Relative clauses, if any, always occur at the tail end of a noun phrase.

== Personal Pronouns ==

The personal pronouns of Naidda distinguish person, number, and within third person, animate/inanimate in the plural and masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular.

'''Free (stressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| e
| ove
|-
| 2
| liño
| wiño
|-
| 3m
| loro
| wamar
|-
| 3f
| la'a
| wamar
|-
| 3n
| lojon
| wajon
|}

=== Usage ===

These pronouns are not required in transitive clauses, with verbal participant reference marking being sufficient. Thus, Naidda is a '''pro-drop''' language. Free pronouns, which always bear lexical word stress like any other full content word, are used for three main purposes: contrast focus, non-sentential speech acts (such as insults and one-word answers to questions), and to supply more information in an otherwise ambiguous clause. More information on these later.

In intransitive clauses personal pronouns are required, even if a full noun or a pro-form is also used. In this case, a reduced and unstressed form of the pronoun cliticizes to the end of the verb.

'''Enclitic (unstressed) Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''Ñadawon.''' 
''They slept.''

= The Verb Complex =

== Auxiliaries ==

Naidda marks the time of a clause (tense and aspect) with a set of auxiliary verbs. Each AUX indicates one or more specific combinations of tense and aspect, except for '''ïna''' which makes a sentence imperative.

To use an auxiliary:
# Add the AUX to the beginning of the clause (before the verb, but after any left-dislocated information).
# Move the main verb to later in the clause, usually the end, if it isn't there already.
# Mark the AUX, but not the main verb, for participant reference.

'''Stån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s open 
''He is opening it.''

The auxiliary verbs are:

{|
|
| AUX
| time
| gloss
|-
|
| '''0'''
| preterite
| ---
|-
|
| '''ste'''
| nonfuture imperfect
| NF-IMPF
|-
|
| '''we'''
| future imperfect
| F-IMPF
|-
|
| '''steda'''
| nonfuture inceptive
| NF-INCP
|-
|
| '''weda'''
| future inceptive
| F-INCP
|-
|
| '''stevë'''
| nonfuture perfect
| NF-PRF
|-
|
| '''wevë'''
| future perfect
| F-PRF
|-
|
| '''cona'''
| aorist
| AOR
|-
|
| '''ïna'''
| imperative
| IMP
|}

=== Usage ===

'''Imperfects''' are used for actions that are or will be incomplete (depending on whether the future or nonfuture AUX is used), or for states that are or will be ongoing.

'''Inceptives''' indicate the beginning of an action, or onset of a state.

'''Perfects''' are very comparable to "I have done it" or "I will have done it" in English.

When there is no auxiliary at all, a '''preterite''' (past-perfective, or "narrative past") time is usually assumed. However, this is highly context-dependent: when several clauses in a row have exactly the same time, i.e. they would use the same AUX, often only the first one is marked and the subsequent clauses stand without auxiliaries, inheriting their time indication from the prior clause. This inheritance can continue indefinitely until the time of a clause needs to be different than that of the previous one.

The '''aorist''' is used mostly for states, rather than actions, and indicates that the state is generally true, or is true over an indefinitely long timespan. For example, "the sky is blue" would be translated with the aorist.

'''Imperatives''' are commands or instructions to do something.

''When no main verb appears in the clause, the auxiliaries become copulas.''

== Morphology ==

=== Participant Reference: Transitive ===

Naidda uses a complex system of suffixes to mark the person and number of both the agent and patient of the verb, if it is transitive. While these suffixes are patterned in ways that derive from the pronouns the suffixes originally came from, in this discussion we treat them as unanalyzable.

There are two exceptions to this, however. Reflexive suffixes occur for certain person-number combinations that either can or must indicate somebody performing the action on themselves. Reflexives are formed by suffixing '''-in-''' between the root and the rest of the transitive suffix. '''Italicized forms in the table are reflexive.'''

The other exception is that except for reflexives, suffixes denoting singular patients consist of the suffix for a plural patient, plus final '''-n'''.

The following table demonstrates these suffixes in use in the verb '''piño''', "to fear". The person and number of agent arguments are in rows, while the person and number of patient arguments are in columns. Thus, if "he" fears "all of you", the entry for 3sg-2pl is used: '''piñaddo'''.

{|
|
| me
| us
| thee
| ye
| him
| them
|-
| I/we
| piñoyin/''piñin''
| piñoyi/''piñini''
| piñeddon
| piñeddo
| piñoyån
| piñoyå
|-
| thou
| piñoron
| piñoro
| ''piñinolon''
| piñorol
| piñorån
| piñorå
|-
| you
| piñorwin
| piñorwi
| piñorilon
| ''piñinil''
| piñorwan
| piñorwa
|-
| he
| piñin
| piñi
| piñaddon
| piñaddo
| piñån/''piñinån''
| piñå
|-
| they
| piñain
| piñai
| piñaiddon
| piñaiddo
| piñiwan
| piñiwa/''piñinwa''
|}

*These suffixes are applied to the first verb in the sentence - whether it's the main verb or an auxiliary.
*There is no differentiation between 1sg and 1pl agents in these suffixes. Thus for 1-1sg and for 1-1pl, there is both a reflexive and a non-reflexive possibility.
*In the third person, specifically 3sg-3sg and 3pl-3pl, there are reflexive and non-reflexive forms. The REFL-3sg-3sg form means "he did it to himself" and the plain 3sg-3sg form means "he did it to (someone else)".

=== Participant Reference: Intransitive ===

As previously discussed, in intransitive clauses the verb - or the aux - is suffixed with an enclitic pronoun. For reference, here is the table again:

'''Enclitic Pronoun Forms'''
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
|-
| 1
| -e
| -ove
|-
| 2
| -liñ
| -wiñ
|-
| 3m
| -lor
| -war
|-
| 3f
| -la
| -war
|-
| 3n
| -lon
| -won
|}

'''USAGE'''

Exactly who the enclitic pronoun refers to - an agent? a patient? - is a matter of some flexibility. A wide variety of apparently contradictory uses have been observed in Naidda, which, bewilderingly, appear to cause the speakers few difficulties. The grammatical analyst can at best state some general trends in what is observed, but with the caveat that any particular instance may disobey them.

* Verbs which nearly always take agents, like "to run": the enclitic pronoun refers to this agent.
* Verbs which nearly always take patients, like "to sleep": the enclitic pronoun refers to this patient.
* Verbs which can go either way, like "to hit": the pronoun ''usually'' refers to the agent (and the full nominal argument as well, if there is any; the pronoun and the nominal argument are '''always''' co-referential.) It can also refer to the patient, however. Where the referent falls on the animacy hierarchy is highly relevent: entities high on the hierarchy are highly likely to be agents, while entities low on the hierarchy are at least somewhat likely to be patients instead.

Simply put: if one reading doesn't make sense, try the other. If both make sense, assume the pronoun refers to an agent.

=== The Irrealis ===

In Naidda, a verb is made irrealis with a prefix that has multiple forms.

*Before vowels: e'-
*Before sibilants ('''s''' and '''sh'''): e-
*Before any other consonant: s-

'''E'odolor.''' 
IRR-come-he 
''He would come.''

'''Usage '''

Unlike participant suffixes, the irrealis prefix always appears on the main verb, even if an auxiliary is present. The irrealis marks that a statement is '''counterfactual'''. That is, while a realis clause makes a claim that the statement expressed in the clause is true, an irrealis clause makes no such claim at all.

The irrealis may or may not co-occur with a modal adverb. When it stands without such an adverb, an "if"-clause preceding or following the irrealis clause makes it conditional. When the irrealis appears with a modal adverb, the adverb specifies the modality of the clause.

=== Negation ===

A clause is negated by the prefix '''ma-''' (before consonants) or '''m-''' (before vowels). As with other prefixes, intial voiceless stops and affricates become voiced.

'''Usage'''

'''Negative concord''' is exhibited between main verbs and auxiliaries: if both are present, the negative prefix generally appears either on both, or on neither.

'''Mwevëlor modo.''' 
NEG-AUX(F-PRF)-he NEG-come 
''He will not come.''

The negative prefix and the irrealis prefix are mutually exclusive on the main verb, but if an auxiliary is present, it may still be negated while the main verb is irrealis. This occasionally necessitates re-wording so that an auxiliary may be used for carrying the negation.

'''Mastevëlor e'odo.''' 
NEG-AUX(NF-PRF)-he IRR-come 
''He would not come.''

=== Verbal Nouns ===

Naidda verbal nouns come in two flavors: active and passive.

{|
|
| suffix
| example
| gloss
|-
| active
| '''-'a'''
| '''ku'me'a''' "hitting"
| AVN
|-
| passive
| '''-sa'''
| '''ku'mesa''' "getting hit"
| PVN
|}

'''Gïmvin l-ku'mesa''' 
hurt-3s>1s DEF-hit-PVN 
''Getting hit hurt me.''

These suffixes create normal nouns from verb stems, and tend to fill roles that in other languages are filled by gerunds, infinitives, and participles. When used as the head of an NP they require '''determiners''' like any other noun. Note also that this is the only remaining trace of morphological passivity in Naidda. However, there is a periphrastic passive construction which uses the passive verbal noun.

You can also negate verbal nouns. When one is the head of a noun phrase, it takes the negative quantifier '''me''', but when used attributively, it instead takes verbal negation.

'''airo me cïna'a''' 
your NEG love-AVN 
''your heartlessness''

'''airo nïzri majïna'a''' 
your wife NEG-love-AVN 
''your unloving wife''

= Prepositional Phrases =

== Normal PPs ==

Conventional, full prepositional phrases in Naidda are straightforward and do not work significantly differently from those in English and many other languages. In short, a prepositional phrase consists of a P followed by an NP. Any noun phrase can be the object of a preposition, and the preposition is always in the third person. The one notable difference is that first and second person pronouns cannot appear after third person prepositions.

Prepositional phrases modifying nouns are placed late in the NP, normally after all one-word modifiers but before any relative clauses. Those modifying verbs can occur anywhere in the clause after the inflected verb or AUX.

Full clauses can also be the objects of prepositions; in this case, the clause is formed as a nominalized clause.

'''wo w-inzo''' 
for.3 INDEF-farmer 
''for a farmer''

== Pronominal Prepositions ==

Or, "prepositional pronouns", take your pick. Naidda prepositions are inflectable for person - first, second, or third - and these inflected prepositions are entire PPs unto themselves. The personal inflection specifies the object of the preposition. Or, if you look at it from another angle, these words are personal pronouns marked for a large number of grammatical cases.

=== Normal Usage ===

As an example, where in English we would say "to me", in Naidda we can say ''to.1'' and this is usually sufficient. However, whenever more information is desireable (such as the number of the referent), the preposition can take a personal pronoun as an object. This description is adequate for the first and second persons.

'''åddi''' 
to.1 
''to me'' or ''to us''

'''åddi ove''' 
to.1 us 
''to us''

In the third person, a preposition either has a full NP as its object (as described in the previous section), or it stands alone as an anaphor. That is, without an explicit object, it refers back to a noun phrase that has already been mentioned recently in the discourse. Similarly to the first and second persons, when in the third person more information about the preposition's referent is desireable, it can take a full pronoun as an object.

'''ådda''' 
to.3 
''to it/him/her/them''

'''ådda lojon''' 
to.3 him 
''to him''

=== Appositional Usage ===

First and second person prepositions can also take NP objects. In this case, the NP is ''apposed'' to the pronoun's referent.

'''we w-inzo''' 
for.1 INDEF-farmer 
''for me, a farmer'' (or ''for me as a farmer'')

=== Determiner Usage ===

The "possessive pronouns", previously discussed in the Noun Phrases section, are in fact the inflected possessive prepositions. As already covered, these can be used as determiners:

'''a'e båma''' 
of.1 wheat 
''my wheat''

Naidda distinguishes the determiner use of possessives from a non-determiner use:

'''g-båma a'e''' 
this-wheat of.1 
''this wheat of mine''

The latter construction is the normal, default use of a PP in Naidda, with the possessive prepositions doubling as possessive pronouns. That is how I have presented these things thus far, for the sake of simplicity.

However, it's not the whole truth. Actually, ''any'' inflected preposition can be a determiner the way the a possessive one can:

'''wodo myåsko''' 
for.2 party 
''the party for you'' (literally ''the-for-you party'')

This is a common device in Naidda, and is why the line between "preposition" and "pronoun" is blurry at best.

'''Cautionary Note'''

At first glance it may be difficult to tell determiner usages from appositional ones: how do you know if '''wodo myåsko''' means ''the party for you'' or ''for you as a party''?

Keep in mind that the determiner usage results in an NP while the appositional usage results in a PP. As such, as with any NP, prepositions used as determiners cannot co-occur with a determiner clitic - and that every NP ''must'' have at least one determiner. Therefore '''wodo myåsko''' cannot be appositional because there is no other determiner than '''wodo''' (not to mention that its meaning is bizarre). If you wanted to say this anyway, however, just bring in a proclitic: it makes completely clear that '''l-myåsko''' is the NP and that it is therefore the object of '''wodo'''.

== List of Prepositions ==
{|
| 1st
| 2nd
| 3rd/default
| ''meaning''
|-
| a'e
| airo
| '''a'''
| ''possessive''
|-
| we
| wodo
| '''wo'''
| ''"for", "concerning", ''at (directed towards)''
|-
| ume
| omvo
| '''om'''
| ''genitive (non-possessive association)''
|-
| ñwe
| ñudo
| '''ño'''
| ''essive, appositive; "as"''
|-
| kwëne
| kwïnzo
| '''kwïn'''
| ''comitative; "with"''
|-
| ale
| åro
| '''ål'''
| ''"without", "besides", "except for"''
|-
| pu'e
| poiro
| '''po'''
| ''"per", "for each"''
|-
| si
| sado
| '''sa'''
| ''ablative, "from"; instrumental, "with"''
|-
| ne
| nido
| '''ni'''
| ''"in", "into", "inside"''
|-
| åddi
| åddado
| '''ådda'''
| ''"to", "towards"''
|-
| wi
| wado
| '''wa'''
| ''"after", "since"''
|-
| ove
| ovro
| '''o'''
| ''"at (locative)", "near", "nearby to"''
|-
| sli
| slado
| '''sla'''
| ''"before", "by" (as in "by tomorrow")''
|-
| ñizedi
| ñizedo
| '''ñizi'''
| ''"until", "as far as", "as much as"''
|-
| råve
| råvëdo
| '''råvë'''
| ''"along", "via", "during"''
|-
| ledi
| ledado
| '''leda'''
| ''"between", "among", "throughout", "surrounding"''
|}

= Pronouns and Participant Reference =

== Role Disambiguation ==

As previously shown, the transitive participant markers for Naidda verbs are in some cases defective. They also do not supply as much information as personal pronouns do. In some cases, this can make it difficult to tell who is doing what to who. This is exacerbated by the tendency of speakers to avoid using full noun phrases to the extent they can get away with.

=== Animacy Hierarchy ===

The majority of such cases are clearly resolveable by context, primarily by means of an agency hierarchy (or "animacy hierarchy"). The hierarchy is a set of assumptions built into Naidda grammar about which of any two entities is most likely to be the agent, or source of the action. In general, the higher of any two entities on the following list is assumed to be the agent:

# 1st person
# 2nd person
# other people
# sentence topics (when marked with '''d-''')
# animals
# everything else

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-man 
''The man kicked the horse''

'''Coñïvån l-ro l-nalor.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-man DEF-horse 
''The man kicked the horse''

As one might guess, due to the transitive participant suffixes, cases in which the animacy hierarchy becomes important do not arise with extremely high frequency. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistently observed to resolve many clauses that might otherwise be ambiguous, when such situations do come up.

=== Use of Pronouns ===

In some cases even the animacy hierarchy will fail and a clause will remain ambiguous. This can happen for two reasons:

* both the subject and the direct object are at the same level on the hierarchy (both are people, or both are animals, etc.);
* the subject is meant to be the one that's ''lower'' on the hierarchy.

In either case, speakers will often simply tolerate the ambiguity, because the surrounding context is generally sufficient anyway. But if there is any doubt, a personal pronoun can be added to clarify. The pronoun is placed directly after the subject noun phrase, and refers to it; or if there is no NP, the pronoun will stand alone. This usage is syntactically identical to that of contrast focus.

'''Coñïvån l-nalor lojon l-ro.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse it DEF-man 
''The horse kicked the man.''

'''Coñïvån l-nalor l-zivra lojon.''' 
kick-3s>3s DEF-horse DEF-sheep it 
''The sheep kicked the horse.''

In addition, a pronoun may simply be used to supply more information about its referent, even if grammatical roles are already clear:

'''Dëñëlyån ove.''' 
like-1>3s we 
''We like it.'' (without the pronoun, the sentence could also mean "I like it.")

== Gender and Animacy ==

The animacy system for Naidda personal pronouns is very straightforward. The 3-feminine and 3-masculine pronouns are used for human beings (and gods), as is the 3-animate in the plural, while the 3-neuter pronouns are used for everything else. However, in a number of narratives and folk tales, other entities - animals, even rocks - can be personified, in which case the animate pronouns are used.

Gender of pronouns is semantically rather than grammatically based: it varies by biological sex of the referent, as in English, and has nothing to do with any grammatical property of the antecedent noun.

The historical basis for all of the above is that the masculine and feminine personal pronouns derive from "the man" and "the woman" as a relatively recent development in Naidda (within the last five centuries). Indeed, the full form of the feminine pronoun '''la'a''' remains perfectly homophonous with "the woman", '''l-a'a''', and the masculine pronoun has diverged only slightly.

== Contrast Focus ==

Contrast focus, also called ''disjunction'', is one of the main uses of personal pronouns. It draws attention to the fact that the sentence subject itself, and not some other person or thing, is the source of the action.

In this usage, a pronoun is simply supplied as an overtly expressed clause subject, either on its own when no such subject is otherwise needed, or else in addition to a full noun phrase, especially a personal name. In the latter case, the pronoun always directly follows the noun.

'''Goñiyån.''' 
break-1>3s 
''I/we broke it.''

'''Goñiyån e''' 
break-1>3s I 
''I broke it myself.''

'''Goñinån Murisi loro.''' 
break-3s>3s NAME he 
''Murisi broke it himself.''

== Pro-forms ==

{|
|
| ''query''
| ''this''
| ''that''
| ''some''
| ''no''
| ''every''
|-
| '''thing'''
| gëa
| gåyë
| ceyë
| nayë
| mayë
| ëyë
|-
| '''person'''
| yaro
| gåro
| cero
| naro
| maro
| ëro
|-
| '''place'''
| malo
| gålo
| celo
| namlo
| malo
| ëlo
|-
| '''time'''
| sol
| gådol
| cesol
| nadol
| masol
| ëdol
|-
| '''way'''
| eba
| gï'n
| cï'n
| namï'n
|
|
|-
| '''reason'''
| nwa
|
| cïddo
|
|
|
|}

= Clause Types =

== Independent Clauses ==

=== Structure ===

The basic template for main clauses in Naidda is V1 - the verb comes first, and is followed by one or more other sentence elements, including nouns denoting agents or patients, and modifying information such as adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, or adverbs.

The order of these post-verb elements does not depend on the grammatical roles of subject or direct object, but instead on the principle "New Information Comes First" or ''NICF''.

NICF applies to all post-verbal constituents, not just noun phrases. For instance if the main new information in a clause is adverbial, it will precede any subjects or direct objects that are present.

Naidda can also be described as a "pronominal argument" language. The key notion of pro-arg is that the verb, including mandatory participant marking, is the core clause all by itself - everything else is oblique, including subject and object nominals.

'''Erån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the shell with a knife.''

If an auxiliary is present in the clause, it takes the V1 position at the beginning, and the main verb is moved to later in the clause - typically but not necessarily the end.

'''Stån l-wogïño kwïn u-gån ero.''' 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 INDEF-knife open 
''He is opening the shell with a knife.''

=== Topicalization ===

While a noun marked as a sentence topic may be left in place after a verb, most often it will be dislocated to the beginning of the clause - before the verb. Nouns dislocated to left of the verb (or aux) are always marked as topics.

'''Erån d-wogïño kwïn u-gån.''' 
open-3s>3s TOP-shell with.3 INDEF-knife 
''He opened the'' shell, ''however, with a knife.''

'''D-wogïño erån kwïn u-gån.''' 
TOP-shell open-3s>3s with.3 INDEF-knife 
''As for the shell, he opened it with a knife.''

A noun can be extracted from just about any location and topicalized. Note that this works hand-in-hand with '''pronominal prepositions''' - when a preposition's object is moved to the front of the sentence, the P becomes a stranded anaphor.

'''D-gån erån l-wogïño kwïn.''' 
TOP-knife open-3s>3s DEF-shell with.3 
''As for a/the knife, he opened the shell with it.''

== Nominalized Clauses ==

In Naidda, most subclauses are handled by nominalization - subclauses fit into larger syntactic structures just as nouns would. Nominalized clauses are used for all of the following:

* complement clauses: clauses which serve as an argument (agent or patient) of the main verb
* objects of prepositions: prepositions, especially those with temporal meanings, can take nominalized clauses as objects just as they would regular nouns
* adverbial clauses: clauses which add more information to the main clause (this requires extra morphology)
* various other situations where in other languages you might find a subclause, infinitive clause, or something else along those lines

Nominalized clauses, except for adverbialized ones, are normal noun phrases and require '''determiners'''.

=== Formation ===

There are two types of nominalized clause formation: direct, and full.

'''Direct nominalized clauses''' are simple: word order is exactly like any other clause, and the verb is formed into a verbal noun. Note that verbal nouns cannot take participant marking, so pronouns - if any are needed - take their independent forms. Direct nominalized clauses are possible only when there is no AUX, and are problematic for transitive clauses. Nominalized transitive clauses tend to be of the full form, instead. Despite these limitations, direct nominalized clauses are usually preferred to the full form when possible.

'''wa l-ta'a loro''' 
after.3 DEF-die-AVN he 
''after he died''

'''Full nominalized clauses''' are more complex than direct ones, but offer more flexibility. The nominalizer '''ri''' (glossed as SUB) takes the verb-initial position and inflects like an AUX (including participant marking and negation), and the main verb is displaced to the end of the sentence just like it would be with any other AUX. If there is already another AUX, the nominalizer is prefixed to it.

'''wa l-rilor ta''' 
after.3 DEF-SUB-he die 
''after he died''

'''råvë l-ristån arå la'a skïn''' 
during.3 DEF-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-3s.3s evening.meal she cook 
''while she was making dinner''

There is little semantic difference between the two types, but full nominalized clauses tend to be associated with more formal and technical registers of speech, and occur less frequently in day-to-day chatter.

=== Adverbial Clauses ===

Adverbial clauses are also nominalized clauses, further modified by adding the adverbial prefix '''të-''' to the nominalizer; thus: '''tëri'''. This prefix is mutually exclusive with the negative prefix, so negative concord is broken, but the main verb remains negatable if it's not irrealis.

'''Tëriste kwïn omvo li, naive cån boda.''' 
ADV-SUB-AUX(NF-IMP)-I with.3 your year work-I greatly even.more 
''When I was your age, I worked even harder.'' (literally: ''(when) I was with your years, I worked even more greatly'')

Direct nominalized clauses can also take the adverbial prefix, which simply attaches to the verb:

'''Kåstalon l-tolo tëlila'a l-ånze.''' 
continue-it DEF-time ADV-flow-AVN DEF-river 
''Time passes as the river flows.''

Since adverbs and verbal arguments are on the same syntactic level in Naidda it should be no surprise that the line between a complement clause and an adverbial clause is blurry. Morphologically they are distinct, but whether a subclause in a given sentence takes the adverbial prefix will vary from speaker to speaker and day to day. Subclauses describing the '''time''', '''place''', or '''manner''' of the main sentence will usually take the adverbial prefix.

== Relative Clauses ==

Naidda relative clauses are embedded clauses modifying a nominal word that participates in the clause. They are formed with the relativizer '''rom'''. This works much like the clause nominalizer '''ri''', in that the relativizer takes the verbal participant marking and negative concord and the verb is moved to the end, as it would be with an auxiliary - and if there is another AUX already, the relativizer is simply prefixed to it.

Relative clauses follow the relativized noun, generally after most other modifying information.

'''l-ro romlor ta''' 
DEF-man REL-he die 
''the man who died''

'''l-ro maromastelor mada''' 
DEF-man NEG-REL-AUX(NF-IMP)-he NEG-die 
''the man who isn't dying''

The relativized noun does not appear within the relative clause, except for verbal participant reference, which takes care of role disambiguation just like it would in any other clause:

'''l-ro romyån ena''' 
DEF-man REL-1>3s see 
''the man who I saw''

'''l-ro romin ena''' 
DEF-man REL-3s>1s see 
''the man who saw me''

== Predicatives ==

Predicatives are those sentences using a copula, those which in English use the copular verb "to be". The Naidda copula is not a single verb, however; instead, it is the entire set of auxiliaries. A predicative clause in Naidda follows the same pattern: an auxiliary, the subject NP, then the predicated material. The latter can be another noun phrase, an attributive noun, a prepositional phrase, or in clefts even a relative clause.

important traits shared by predicative clauses:
* They lack full verbs (this is most immediately obvious difference from full clauses).
* They universally follow the order AUX - subject - predicate.
* A comma-pause normally can be found between the subject and predicate. This is important; without the pause, the syntactic boundary between subject and predicate would often be hard to discern. When there the subject is expressed only by an AUX suffix, rather than an NP, the comma-pause becomes even more important.
* Even if the time of the clause would normally not involve any AUX in a full clause, one is always required in a predicative clause.
* Although the copulas are identical to the auxiliaries in form and function, for clarity they are glossed as COP instead of AUX.

=== Predicate Nominals ===

A predicate nominal is a clause in which an NP is the predicated material. It must be a full proper Naidda noun phrase, requiring a determiner, to distinguish it from a predicate attributive. The usual uses of predicate nominals are for '''equation''', to equate one noun to another ("that man is my father") and '''proper inclusion''', to identify membership of the subject in a group or class ("that man is a Fáralo").

'''Conalor, u-lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he INDEF-friend 
''He is a friend.''

=== Predicate Attributives ===

Predicate attributives are clauses where the predicated material is a property or trait being ascribed to the subject, and which consists of a noun used attributively (i.e. outside of a noun phrase, with no determiner). This is often a verbal noun.

'''Conalor, lanång.''' 
COP(AOR)-he friend 
''He is friendly.''

Note that the difference between the predicate nominal and predicate attributive versions of this example is made simply by the presence or absence of a determiner.

=== Predicate Locatives and Possessives ===

A predicative locative is simply a clause where the predicated material is a prepositional phrase.

'''Stela Koili, o l-wïmlo.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-she NAME at.3 DEF-home 
''Koili is at home.''

Possessive clauses in Naidda come in two flavors: full clauses, in which a verb like '''båre''', "own", is used, and predicate locatives in which the prepositional phrase uses '''kwïn''', "with". The former type is semantically marked, and occurs roughly as often as we would use "own" or "possess" in English (and isn't a predicative clause at all); the latter type is more frequent and less marked, and roughly equivalent to when we'd use "have" in English.

'''Ste u-marsha båre.''' 
AUX(NF-IMP)-I INDEF-hammer own 
''I own a hammer.''

'''Ste, kwïn u-marsha.''' 
COP(NF-IMP)-I with.3 INDEF-hammer 
''I have a hammer.''

=== Clefts ===

A cleft is a predicative clause with two special characteristics:
# the predicated material is a relative clause in which the subject NP is the relativized noun; and
# the subject is dislocated to the left of the copula and marked as a topic.

'''D-Murisi stelor, romin ena.''' 
TOP-NAME COP(NF-IMP)-he REL-3s>1s see 
''Murisi is who saw me.''

=== Zero predication ===

In formal or careful speech, an auxiliary stands as a copula for all predicative clauses, and speaking this way is never wrong. Nevertheless, an informal but very common construction exists that can be analyzed as using the zero-AUX as a copula. On the surface, these expressions take the form of straightforward noun phrases shorn of any clausal structure. However, the meaning is predicative in nature, implying a zero copula that would fit in perfectly with the use of the zero-AUX - especially because the implied tense-aspect (preterite, narrative past, or time inherited from prior clause) is the same.

'''l-wïmlo woli''' 
DEF-house full 
''the full house''

'''L-wïmlo woli.''' 
[0-COP] DEF-house full 
''The house was full.''

There is a very strong preference to avoid any complex material in a zero-copula clause; in general, they appear identical in form to simple noun phrases, and rarely involve subclauses, coordination, or other such complexities. The construction also tends to be limited to informa registers where less attention is paid to how one speaks, and may come across as "folksy", blunt, or clipped, though it does appear in some poetry as well.

= Other Syntax =

== Adverbs ==

=== Formation ===

Naidda adverbs come in two types: roots that are adverbs by default, and nominal stems adverbialized by means of the prefix '''të-'''.

'''cån''' 
''greatly''

'''tëde'o''' 
ADV-normal 
''normally''

Verb roots can also be made into adverbs, but the prefix can only be used with nouns, so the verb must first be formed into a verbal noun.

'''tëjïna'a''' 
ADV-love-AVN 
''tenderly''

=== NP usage ===

An adverb is used whenever a nominal modifier itself needs to be modified.

A nominal word occurring ''by itself'' after a head noun modifies it, unless it is marked as an adverb, in which case it modifies the nearest nominal word to the left (which itself is a modifier of the head noun).

'''l-tolïddo nabï''' 
DEF-sunset red 
''the red sunset''

'''l-tolïddo nabï cån''' 
DEF-sunset red greatly 
''the very red sunset''

Adverbs in this environment can also modify each other. In all such cases, an adverb modifies the word immediately to its left.

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a cån''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN greatly 
''a very tenderly spoken word''

This modification of the word immediately to the left applies to all simple adverb strings, in both the NP and clausal usages. When multiple adverbs together modify the head (the nominal word or the clause) instead, they must be '''listed''' - separated from each other by the conjuction '''n''', "and", or at minimum by a comma-pause:

'''u-lëi mesa tëjïna'a, tëjå'e''' 
INDEF-word say-PVN ADV-love-AVN ADV-soft 
''a softly and tenderly spoken word''

=== Clausal usage ===

Naidda adverbs - except for those appearing in noun phrases - are generally best considered to operate on the level of the whole clause, rather than "modifying" the verb. The main reason for this is that on the whole they do not show any preference for being placed after - or even necessarily anywhere near - the verb, though there are some limited exceptions.

Instead, Naidda adverbs - and adverbial clauses and prepositional phrases - behave as constituents on the same level as the clause's subject and direct object: all of these elements tend to be listed after the verb (or AUX) in an order primarily determined by NICF. In turn it is this behavior that leads some analysts to describe full-NP subjects and objects of the verb as oblique.

'''Ñade bo.''' 
sleep-I again 
''I slept again.''

Like with noun phrases, adverbs can be moved to the front of a clause. This may be used for emphasis that the adverb is a key point of the clause. Or, it can simply be done for stylistic purposes, imparting in some cases a sense of continuity or bridging from previous content.

'''Tëde'o, majonayå a kåve mavïñor.''' 
ADV-normal NEG-AUX(AOR)-1>3p their law NEG-respect 
''Normally, we do not respect their laws.''

=== Modal Adverbs ===

Modal adverbs in Naidda are used to impart modality, or ''grammatical mood'', to a clause. There are various modal adverbs, the most common of which are listed below. It is a small, closed class, and differs from more run-of-the-mill adverbs in that their placement in a clause is restricted to the position '''directly after the verb or AUX''' and that their functions are generally limited to imparting a specific modality.

Modal adverbs can be divided into two classes: those which govern the irrealis verb form, and those which do not. The former require the verb be made irrealis, and express a range of irrealis meanings; they are a majority of modal adverbs. There are only two modal adverbs that do not govern the irrealis, and they do not require the verb to be realis either; both options are possible. They are generally considered to be modal adverbs because their meanings and placement are as restricted as the irrealis ones.

'''Irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| va
| permissive
| '''E'ë'olrån va.''' - ''"You may take it."''
|-
|
| oso
| admonitive
| '''E'ë'olrån oso.''' - ''"You should take it."''
|-
|
| co'o
| obligative
| '''E'ë'olrån co'o.''' - ''"You must take it."''
|-
|
| oivre
| desiderative
| '''E'ë'olrån oivre.''' - ''"You would like to take it."''
|-
|
| oinae
| hortative, optative
| '''E'ë'olrån oinae.''' - ''"If only you would take it."''
|}

'''Non-irrealis Adverbs'''
{|
|
| '''Adverb'''
| '''Modality'''
| '''Example'''
|-
|
| ïrnon
| futilitive
| '''Ë'olrån ïrnon.''' - ''"You are trying to take it."''
|-
|
| moiso
| antivolitional
| '''Ë'olrån moiso.''' - ''"You are forced to take it."''
|}

== Questions ==

=== Polar Questions ===

Like its sister language Fáralo, Naidda forms polar questions (those requesting a yes or no answer) in several ways.

Most often, questions are formed with tag words. The most common tags are '''lonzë''', "correct", and '''ca''', "yes", which seek confirmation that a sentence is true. '''Lonzë''' is the more formal of the two.

'''Talor, ca?''' 
die-he yes 
''He died, right?''

This pattern can be used with a negated sentence as well, to seek confirmation that the affirmative version of the sentence is ''not'' true. (compare English "He didn't die, right?") Alternatively, negative tags, most often '''sumo''', "wrong", can be used in conjunction with the irrealis, to much the same effect:

'''Stalor, sumo?''' 
IRR-die-he wrong 
''He didn't die, did he?"

In general Naidda speakers follow the confirmation-seeking approach to questions, but there are times when a neutral question that does not suggest its own answer is more desirable. In these questions, one offers the listener a choice by using two tags, one affirmative and the other negative:

'''Talor, lonzë, sumo?''' 
die-he correct wrong 
''Did he die?''

Finally, there is a highly formal question form, borrowed from Fáralo. In this type of question, one uses the irrealis and fronts the verb to before the AUX. (It cannot be used without an AUX.)

'''Sta wevëlor?" 
IRR-die AUX(F-PRF)-he 
''Will he die?"

=== Disjunctive Questions ===

A disjunctive question is one that requests the listener choose between two or more offered options, generally with the assumption that only one of them can be correct; compare English ''Do you you prefer large or small?''. In Naidda such questions are formed in a manner highly parallel to yes-no questions with two tags, in that both options are listed at the very end of the sentence and set off by comma-pauses just as tags would be:

'''Wevëliñ mura, gådol, cesol?''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-you decide now then 
''Will you decide now or later?''

The tagged options are quite often entire nominalized clauses. Similarly, when a disjunctive question is asking for which of two ''verbs'' is correct, they are formed into verbal nouns, leaving the clause without a main verb and thus converting it into a predicative clause:

'''Wevëliñ, kïña'a, orë'a?''' 
COP(F-PRF)-you walk-AVN run-AVN 
''Will you be walking or running?''

* Note that English "he is walking" does not otherwise have any grammaticalized analog in Naidda syntax, save that predicating one verbal noun to another (c.f. ''to live is to die'') is permissible. The syntactic resemblance in disjunctive questions is coincidental.
* Questions with more than two options also occur. The extra options are simply appended to the list of tags. In rare cases half a dozen or more options may be listed in such a question.

=== Content questions ===

Content questions are those which request the listener fill in the blank. Interrogative words are fronted; the clause is otherwise normal.

'''Gëa torwan?''' 
what eat-2s>3s 
''what did you eat?''

'''Yaro wabayån?''' 
who hit-3s>1s 
''who hit me?''

== Periphrasis ==

The Delta dialect of Naidda makes use of a number of periphrastic constructions for various grammatical purposes. Different types and uses of paraphrasis is one of the major points of variation between dialects; many of these do not exist outside the Delta area.

=== Passive ===

Fundamental Naidda does not have any manner of passive voice. Intransitive clauses appear with a single argument that can be the agent or the patient, and context is relied on to make the direction of action clear, via the animacy hierarchy. This remains the "educated" way to speak. However, in recent generations a passivizing construction has come into widespread and frequent use in the delta.

'''Characteristics:'''

* the semantic patient is the grammatical sentence subject
* the syntactic main verb of the sentence is "come"
* the lexical verb is formed into a passive verbal noun
* this verbal noun is made the object of the preposition "to"
* the semantic agent can optionally be specified by making it the object of "from"

'''Odolor ådda l-ïñosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-kill-PVN 
''He was killed.''

'''Odolor ådda l-kåirosa.''' 
come-he to.3 DEF-make.welcome-PVN 
''He was made welcome.''

'''Wove ådda l-ïñosa sa odo.''' 
AUX(F-IMPF)-we to.3 DEF-kill-PVN from.3 come 
''We will be killed by it.''

=== Evidential verbs ===

Certain Naidda verbs can be added after the main verb to impart '''evidentiality''' to the clause - that is, how the speaker knows the information. In some ways this may look like a case of serial verbs, but Naidda has no other serial verb constructions, and in fact this is derived from the elision of grammatical material that would have made clear that it is actually a subclause embedded in a grammaticalized main clause.

'''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' 
AUX(F-PRF)-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear he will ask you''

Let's take a look at how we build this clause.

First, consider the sentence "he asked you" - this would be '''kënaddon''' (ask-3s.2s). Now, consider the strategy English uses to add evidentiality; let's say this information is hearsay. In English we often mark this by making a subclause out of the action and embedding it in "I hear ...". Naidda has followed a similar approach. In historical writings we can find much the same construction:

'''Ste l-riaddon këno måddë.''' (archaic) 
AUX(NF-IMPF)-I DEF-SUB-3s>2s ask hear 
''I hear that he asked you''

Next comes the elision. The AUX, its suffix, the article, and the clause nominalizer were always exactly the same between all of these evidential clauses, so over time it became common to simply omit them: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>addon këno måddë.''' This of course left a participant-reference suffix hanging unattached to anything, so it then migrated to the verb: '''Kënaddon måddë.'''

When the subclause already had an AUX, that problem didn't even arise: '''<s>Ste l-ri</s>wevaddon këno måddë.''' --> '''Wevaddon këno måddë.''' The net result ended up just like tagging an extra verb word onto the end of a clause; it's as simple as that.

There are only four verbs used in this way for evidential marking:
* '''måddë''' (to hear) - the information is hearsay
* '''ena''' (to see) - the information is gained by direct sensory experience (even if that experience is auditory!) - '''Kënaddon ena.''' ''He asked you (I heard him do it).''
* '''må'n''' (to know) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively high confidence - '''Kënaddon må'n.''' ''He must have asked you.''
* '''nilïn''' (to suppose) - the information is deduced or assumed with relatively low confidence; it is a guess - '''Kënaddon nilïn.''' ''I guess he asked you.''

==== with predicatives ====

At first glance, this might seem tricky: a predicative clause looks much like any other except that it ''lacks a main verb''. So what happens when we use a predicative clause with an evidential verb? It might sound like it would be hard to tell from a non-predicative clause. But in fact they always look different, because a predicative sentence is grammatically '''intransitive''' and the evidential verbs, when used as main verbs, are always '''transitive''' - so they use different participant reference suffixes. Plus, there is the usual comma-pause of a predicative clause that also helps mark it. Here is the closest the two constructions get to ambiguity:

* '''Conalor, u-lanång ena.''' ''"I see that he is a friend."''
* '''Conalån u-lanång ena.''' ''"He sees a friend."''

So once again, the advice to students of Naidda is: pay attention to commas! The transitive and intransitive suffixes are just as important, though, and there are often other clues as well - for instance, the aorist AUX '''cona''' is infrequently used with action verbs like "see" because of semantic incompatibility (seeing something tends to be a transitory action rather than an ongoing state).

=== Comparison ===

Naidda comparison is indicated with the adverb '''në''', which means "more" or "most". These two meanings, often called ''comparative'' and ''superlative'' respectively, are distinguished in Naidda not by morphology or the form or choice of the comparative adverb, but instead by whether the head of the noun phrase is indefinite or definite:

'''l-wïmlo pi''' 
DEF-house big 
''the big house''

'''u-wïmlo pi në''' 
INDEF-house big more 
''a bigger house''

'''l-wïmlo pi në''' 
DEF-house big more 
''the biggest house''

When the standard of comparison is already well identified to the discourse participants it is generally omitted from the comparison, as above. When mentioned, however, it takes the form of a prepositional phrase using the locative preposition:

'''u-wïmlo pi në o airo wïmlo''' 
INDEF-house big more LOC.3 your house 
''a bigger house than yours''

'''u-dïmve lize në o cero''' 
INDEF-child young more LOC.3 that.person 
''a younger child than that''

'''Conae, zewe në ovro.''' 
COP(AOR)-1s tall more LOC.2 
''I am taller than you.''

=== Causative Constructions ===

Naidda does not make use of any morphological causative. There are a few lexically causative verbs (e.g. '''ïño''' "to kill"), but the great majority of causation is expressed by either of two available periphrastic constructions, the direct causative and the indirect causative.

The semantic difference between these two constructions lies in the means of causation. The direct construction is prototypically used when the causer is immediately, directly, even physically responsible for the situation caused, and it selects a human causer. By contrast, the indirect construction is used when there is a greater degree of removal of the causer from the situation caused, and inanimate causers are freely allowed.

For example, if Isamïng hits Murisi because she was told to do so by Gado, one would ordinarily describe this with the indirect causative, whereas if Gado physically picks up her hand and hits Murisi with it, the direct causative becomes the obvious choice.

==== Direct Causative ====

The direct causative is a valency-increasing operation, in which the subject is demoted and replaced by the cause of the situation expressed. The treatment of the demoted subject depends on its semantic role; usually it becomes a direct object, but in the case where there already is a direct object and the demoted subject is an agent, it becomes the object of the instrumental preposition instead.

''' Examples '''

* intransitive - '''Ïddolor.''' - ''He fell.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Ïddoyån.''' - ''I made him fall.'' (literally: ''I fell him.'')

* intransitive - '''Avwalon a'e wïnlo.''' - ''My garden thrived.''
becomes:
* transitive - '''Avwayån a'e wïnlo.''' - ''I made my garden thrive.'' (literally: ''I thrived my garden.'')

Notable is that the application of the direct causative to intransitive clauses is quite akin to what English does with its "middle verbs"; it's much the same relationship as between English ''"the window broke."'' and ''"I broke the window."'' One major difference is that Naidda's process is productive with most verbs, instead of restricted to a specific class of middle verbs. English examples with non-middle verbs - like ''"I volunteered her for the mission."'' - are marginal and quite idiosyncratic.

The transitive version, meanwhile, is essentially identical to a clause that indicates an instrument. Compare:

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sado.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I hit him with you.'')
whereas:
* '''Ku'mån l-bå'n.''' - ''The stick hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Ku'meyån sa l-bå'n.''' - ''I hit him with the stick.''

==== Indirect Causative ====

Indirect causatives have a looser semantic relationship between the causer and the causee than the direct causative does, and a correspondingly looser syntactic relationship between them as well.

The caused situation is expressed as a nominalized clause, which is made the direct object of some verb, for which the causer is its subject. However, there is no single verb that simply means "to cause"; instead, a number of verbs can be used for this, and selection of the verb expresses information about the means and volitionality of causation. The most neutral choice is '''cåve''', "give".

* '''Ku'merån.''' - ''You hit him.''
becomes:
* '''Cåveyån l-rirån ku'me.''' - ''I made you hit him.'' (literally: ''I gave that you hit him.'')

Some other causative verbs are:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg l}}
|-
! verb !! means of causation !! volitional?
|-
| ''naive'' "work" || by working to bring it about || yes
|-
| ''cïrïm'' "discuss" || by persuasion or guile || yes
|-
| ''såvme'' "force" || by command or threat of force || yes
|-
| ''gaño'' "move" || by physical placement of objects involved || yes
|-
| ''lu'ï'' "try" || by testing, or trial and error || yes
|-
| ''åddë'' "stand" || by obstruction || sometimes
|-
| ''dë'' "touch" || by provoking a reaction || sometimes
|-
| ''stïn'' "lose" || by accident, happenstance || no
|-
|}

'''Cashae n dëyån l-po'mona'a l-li.''' 
sneeze-1sg and touch-1sg>3sg DEF-flee-AVN DEF-bird 
''I sneezed and scared the bird away.''

'''Cïrïmrån l-riån a muzeda ïm.''' 
discuss-2sg>3sg DEF-SUB-3s>3s his approach change 
''You persuaded him to reconsider.''

= Derivation =

== Compounding ==

Naidda often uses compounding to form new words. Following are some of the most productive types.

It should be noted that Naidda speakers have a penchant for deleting material around the morpheme boundary in a compound, generally to the left of it. Often this is nothing more than deleting the final vowel of the first root, but sometimes speakers will elide a whole syllable, or more.

=== Descriptive ===

Descriptive compounds are the most frequently occurring in Naidda. They usually consist of a head followed by a modifier (though in a few words of ancient vintage this order is reversed), and result in a noun. Descriptive compounds always name a more specific thing than specified by its parts - just as English ''blackbird'' names a specific bird and cannot be used for just any bird that is black. For this reason, descriptive compounds are listed in the lexicon, whereas instrumental and dvandva compounds tend not to be because their meanings are usually more compositional.

'''u-li'uwë''' 
INDEF-bird-water 
''a duck''

=== Instrumental ===

One type of compound is the instrumental. In this type, a noun compounded to a verb names the instrument used - much like English ''can-opener'' but without needing the final ''-er''.

'''l-kailïnåri'e''' 
DEF-wall-paint 
''the paintbrush''

=== Dvandva ===

A productive type of Naidda compounding is the '''dvandva''' - as an alternative to the conjunction of two nouns with '''n''', "and", they can simply be concatenated into a compound word. In particular, this is done with things that occur together naturally, and the dvandva provides a handy way to refer to them as a combined entity.

'''g-årobïlo''' 
this-wind-rain 
''this wind and rain ''

Sometimes the dvandva will contain a relic of the conjunction, between the two morphemes:

'''airo mëvwënomo''' 
your father-and-mother 
''your parents''

== Derivational Morphology ==

=== -lo and -vo ===

'''-lo''' is a '''nominal locative''', essentially meaning "place of". It is attached most often to verbs, but can sometimes be used with nouns. This suffix is very highly productive. 
'''me''' "speak" -> '''melo''' "stage, pulpit" (or other places where you speak from) 
'''sïm''' "cloud" -> '''sïmlo''' "sky"

'''-vo''' is a deverbal '''agent nominalizer''', much like English ''-er''. The modern productive usage always has the form ''-vo'' and always produces nouns referring to human beings, but numerous fossilized words have old allomorphs of this suffix (like '''-zo''' and '''-po''') and may refer to animals or other nonhuman things. 
'''uro''' "cure" -> '''uruvo''' "doctor" 
'''seddï''' "jump" -> '''seddïspo''' "frog"

Both '''-lo''' and '''-vo''' are so common they pervade the lexicon, and often you will find triplets of a root appearing bare and with both suffixes: 
'''kïmvål''' "denounce, complain" 
'''kïmvålo''' "tavern" (place where you complain) 
'''kïmvålvo''' "old woman" (person who complains a lot)

=== weakeners ===

'''-le''' tends to function as a verbal '''attenuative''' - it weakens the base meaning. Until recently this suffix saw mainly fossilized usage, and meanings of these words have often drifted from simple attenuation - but use of the suffix with a productively attenuative meaning or an ironical reverse meaning has found more popular favor in the last generation or so. 
'''pobo''' "dance" -> '''povle''' "twitch" 
'''numye''' "exaggerate" -> '''numyele''' "tell a whopper"

'''-l''' is a '''diminutive'''. It is mostly restricted to personal names, but occasionally appears on other nouns. Children's names (and nouns) are most often shortened before the -l is added; names of adults are not similarly clipped. 
'''bada''' "sweet" -> '''badal''' "berry" 
'''Maroshi''' (name of person) -> '''Marol''' or '''Maroshil''' "dear/sweet/little Maroshi"

The suffix '''-vwa''' is used productively with many attributive nouns naming one end of a spectrum or dichotomy, and indicates '''somewhat''' or a '''middle-of-spectrum state'''. 
'''vårïse''' "hot, humid" -> '''vårïsevwa''' "mild weather, moderate temperature" 
'''shalan''' "obese" -> '''shalanavwa''' "somewhat plump"

=== borrowed Fáralo morphology ===

'''-o''' serves as a '''patient and instrument nominalizer''', but it is not productive. It is restricted almost entirely to roots borrowed from Fáralo. 
'''sëbo''' "gift" (from Far. ''saepu'', "given thing")

'''ña-''' tends in Naidda to act as another '''participial nominalizer''', but it is also mostly restricted to Fáralo roots, and the exact effect of this prefix varies. 
'''ñagada''' "pleasant" (from Far. ''ngakada'', "pleasing")

=== other morphology ===

'''vo-''' (or '''vom-''' before vowels) is a type of '''causative''' seen on some noun roots, converting them into verbs. Its use is restricted mainly to color words and terms for emotional or physical states that can be experienced by people. 
'''lïsho''' "cold" -> '''volïsho''' "make cold"

'''-da''' has several uses. One of the major ones is to impart an '''inceptive or dynamic''' aspect to verbs (this can be accomplished grammatically with auxiliaries; the suffix offers a lexical alternative). It can also indicate a '''temporary condition'''. When applied to some noun roots, a new verb is derived meaning '''become X'''. This morpheme also appears in some fossilized nouns, with poorly predictable effects. 
'''bårë''' "own" -> '''bårëda''' "acquire" 
'''rålña''' "be insane" -> '''rålñada''' "go crazy" 
'''iddi''' "need" -> '''iddida''' "temporarily need" 
'''gåya''' "angry" -> '''gåyada''' "get mad" 
'''gom''' "life" -> '''gomada''' "culture"

'''ai-''' or '''ay-''' denotes '''membership''' in a thing, group, people, country, etc. 
'''Tolya''' (god of the sun-cult) -> '''Aidolya''' "Tolyism" or "Tolyist" (of-Tolya) 
'''Lashumo''' (toponym) -> '''Ailashumo''' "Lashuman"

'''-ïshmïl''' is a suffix indicating "knowledge of". It is used infrequently, but still productively. Somewhat equivalent to English ''-ology''. 
'''vi''' "star" -> '''vyïshmïl''' "astronomy"

'''-år''' forms deverbal nouns with various effects. It can be used for nonhuman actors in much the same way -vo is used for human actors; most common among these are '''resultatives''' and '''instrumentals'''. 
'''vïspe''' "punish" -> '''vïspår''' "pain" 
'''koda''' "close, cover" -> '''kodår''' "roof" 
'''ïnå''' "sense, perceive" -> '''ïnår''' "sensation, perception"

=== -ya and -yo ===

These twin morphemes are not very straightforward and demand a closer look than the other derivational morphology.

Firstly, whether they are even suffixes at all is debatable; they may simply be the noun roots '''ya''' and '''yo''', used attributively. But if so, they are nearly always found directly after the noun they modify, before any other modifiers. The dictionary lists them as independent words, and my convention is to write them separately most of the time, but as suffixes when part of a naming system.

Second, there are two distinct realms where they appear. One is the "productive" usage: most nouns can take one or both, where '''ya''' indicates goodness, happiness, or some manner of nobility, and '''yo''' indicates importance or salience. These are thus their dictionary definitions.

The other realm is that they are built into several naming systems. Their meanings in these names are often at odds with their dictionary definitions, and sometimes choice of '''-ya''' versus '''-yo''' is important while at other times they are interchangeable. They appear always on names of gods and days of the week, and often on color words. They are also part of the archaic system for forming large numbers (which has been largely replaced by the Fáralo system).

==== Days ====

Names of the days by default take -ya, while -yo indicates certainty of the day in question, or insistance on it:

'''gomya''' "Tuesday" (English day name is chosen arbitrarily, here) 
'''gomyo''' "definitely Tuesday"

This varies in other dialects. In the southern dialect for instance, days of the week always take -yo, and -ya is not used.

==== Gods ====

Gods, meanwhile, take '''-ya''' by default, while '''-yo''' is primarily a vocative which occurs in prayer:

'''Tolya''' "the Sun God" 
'''Tolyo''' "o Sun God"

An exception is that priests devoted to a particular god will often use only '''-yo''' with that god's name.

==== Colors ====

In the delta dialect (but not most others) '''-ya''' and '''-yo''' are interchangeable on color names, and indicate a prototypical or pure instance of the color:

'''sisiya, sisiyo''' "pure blue"

==== Other ====

* Multiples of a hundred used to be formed with -ya and multiples of a thousand with -yo, but this is no longer often encountered except for 100 itself. ('''këya''' "100"; rarely: '''sonya''' "800", '''royo''' "10,000")
* Practitioners of a religion tend to add -yo to the name of their faith but not to others, especially in a context where multiple religions are mentioned. For example, Etúgeists in the delta refer to their religion as '''Tugëyo'''.
* In some areas -yo will be used on the name of a lord as an informal reference to his nobility, while in other areas this is seen as crudely deifying the lord.
* Names of animals are converted into anthropomorphized character names in fables by adding -ya. ('''Nalorya n Imwaya''' "Horse and Snake")

= Sample Text =

see: [[Delta Naidda/Texts]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Kasca]]

Pencek

2025-02-01T19:18:00Z

Cedh: /* Lexicon */ remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Pencek
| phonetic = [ˈpeːɳ.ʈʂək]
| date = c. 1100 YP
| place = Ici Forest
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ŋauro script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Eastern Dāiadak    Pencek
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Article}}

== Introduction ==

=== Background ===

'''Pencek''' is a language of the [[Edastean]] language family and the dominant tongue of the northeastern half of the great Ici Forest, or ''Tah Ici''. Nowadays, of course, in the 1100th [[Year of the Prophet]], much of this land has been deforested in favor of farms and pastures, but the name remains. The Ici Forest is roughly halfway between the lands of ''Rathan'' (Adāta "[[Rathedān]]") and ''Kazc'' (Naidda "[[Kasca]]") which lie to the west and east respectively. The vast and densely populated [[Aiwa|Eka]] river valley lies to the north. The Ici forest is peopled by several ethnic groups, but dominant among these are the speakers of Pencek, who call themselves ''Tactak'' (Adāta "[[Dāiadak]]")

''Tah Ici'' is to this day a backwater region, not well connected to the trade routes and machinations of the more powerful and populous lands that surround it. Perhaps this disconnection is why Pencek remains a vibrant, healthy language spoken by perhaps two million people natively and at least half again as many second-language speakers as a lingua franca throughout the huge but thinly populated Forest region.

Despite its continuing viability and relative social dominance, Pencek is not a majority language even in its home territory - at least in terms of daily speech and usage. Even within the region comprising the lands claimed by all the various Tactak lords, only about 50% are ethnic Tactak and speak Pencek natively. Another 40% are ethnic [[Miw]] and speak languages of the [[Miwan languages|Miwan]] language family (actually a highly diverse dialect continuum) amongst each other on a day-to-day basis, even though the Miwan languages are rarely if ever written. Pencek is the sole language of writing and formal education. The remaining ten percent of people in Tactak-claimed lands speak the foreign languages Sata, Poni, or Nosk, or any of various other non-Miw indigenous languages, such as [[Necine]] and [[Ktacwa]].

Of those minority languages, Sata ([[Aθáta]]), Poni ([[Puoni]]), and Nosk ([[Ndok Aisô]]) are all of the Edastean language family, and thus related to Pencek itself. Pencek belongs to the Southwestern branch of Edastean, as it is descended from [[Adāta]], the language that was spoken in the Rathan highlands a millennium ago, and thus is most closely related to Sata and more distantly to Nosk and Poni.

=== Sociolinguistic History ===

Pencek diverged rather sharply from Classical Adāta between 1000 and 750 years ago, undergoing a great spate of phonological and grammatical change in that period, but has been somewhat more stable since then.

Initially, Adāta was brought to the Ici Forest by missionaries seeking to convert the mostly-Miw native population to [[Anaitism]] and thus bring them under the rule of Rathan. It did not take long for the missionaries to notice the wealth of natural resources in the forest, and in particular the promise of mining - Rathan having been a region long dependent on mines for its wealth. Ores bearing silver (rarely found in Rathan) were found, as well as the priceless and hitherto extroardinarily rare sapphires. Within a generation great waves of miners showed up, bringing with them logistic support from Rathan, their families, their way of life, and of course their speech. The Miw hardly knew what hit them. Since time immemorial they had lived blissfully undisturbed by the ongoings of more advanced nations to the north, and remained largely ignorant of civilization. The Dāiadak colonization ended this isolation. Their advanced technology, intricate culture, and seductive religion transformed the local Miw from a tribal, animist, hunter-gatherer society into a dirt-poor agrarian vassal population of a distant power.

Many Miw of the areas initially colonized, incredulous and impressed, swallowed Dāiadak culture whole. However, what they lacked in advancement, they made up for in numbers: even a century after the first colonists arrived, Miw outnumbered Dāiadak twenty to one. Their first encounters with missionaries had resulted in a pidgin language, with Adāta the primary lexical source; a century later this pidgin had creolized, with thousands of native speakers both Miw and Dāiadak. 25,000 Miw had converted to Anaitism and increasing numbers were fluent in Adāta proper, not just the creolized bastard tongue. Trilingualism in Miw, Adāta, and the creole became commonplace.

Then the silver mines ran out. Then the sapphires - searched for with great hope for over a century - finally proved not to be more than sporadic finds. The influx of settlers slowed to a trickle, then a crawl, and then reversed as increasing numbers of miners packed up and went home to Rathan. But a majority of immigrants and their descendents - often half or 3/4 Miw - stayed put. The forest was a pleasant place to live, after all, and they had Miw workers to keep up production from the fields their forefathers had carved out of the forest. The Dāiadak had firmly entrenched themselves as local overlords by the time the mines ran out, and most of those of Miw or mixed ethnicity looked to them for security and social structure.

When a plague struck these lands in the Year of the Prophet 244, the local Miw population was cut nearly in half. Thereafter, their dependence upon the Dāiadak for their wellbeing was absolute. The emergent [[Empire of Athalē]] was not unsympathetic: Athalē took seriously its responsibilities to its colonial lands. More and more aid was sent, cementing the empire-colony relationship; over the next 150 years the Miw of the northwestern Ici Forest regained relative prosperity and, for most, full Dāiadak-ization. It was during this period that the Adāta language both became entrenched past the point of no return as well as deeply and fundamentally altered by influence from the doomed creole and from the indigenous Miw tongues.

Connections to the Empire gradually attenuated, and eventually dissolved through disuse without any single event defining the severence. The mixed-ancestry population, which was now in the majority and Adāta-speaking, naturally inherited the power and social prestige. These people continud to call themselves Dāiadak (modern ''Tactak''), and their Adāta had diverged so much from the parent language of three centuries prior that it was no longer fully mutually intelligible with other Adāta dialects. From this time onwards, the Tactak (with their Miw subjects) went their own way in the world and took their language with them.

Nevertheless, population homogeneity never arrived. Local Tactak, cut off from the resources and wealth of the Empire, were less able to absorb the remaining Miw. Meanwhile, Miw and others from other parts of the Forest (the Dāiadak never had control over more than a third of it) were relocating to Tactak lands in the hope of greater prosperity. These mixed with the local Miw minority, reinforcing their Miw identity and increasing social distance from their Tactak masters. This continual immigration, counterbalanced by continual Tactakization, continues to the present day, ensuring that the northwestern half of the Ici Forest will remain precariously bilingual, bicultural, and bi-caste for a long time to come.

=== Dialectology ===

The dialect described in this sketch is the Central dialect spoken in the central and northern Ici Forest, which is the most populous of all Tactak areas, and perhaps the most well-known, although it is not necessarily any more prestigious than others. It is also the dialect from which others could be described as diverging: all dialects have more in common with Central Pencek than with any other. Thus, it is the best dialect to sketch if one wishes to address as much of the greater language as possible.

==== Southwest Pencek ====

The next most widely spoken dialect, and by far the most divergent, is that of the Southwest. At the time of this description of Central Pencek. the Southwest dialect might be called a separate language by some standards, although its primary divergence is phonological - much of the grammar is identical to that of Central.

Southwestern Pencek merits and will receive an independent linguistic sketch. The sketch will describe SW Pencek at a time approximately 200 years later, in the Year of the Prophet 1300. At about this time, it blossoms into a strong symbol of cultural identity in the Southwest and becomes more unified and codified as a newly independent language, its linguistic divergence completed by substantial differences from Central Pencek. Notable among these differences are:
* a triangular vowel harmony system
* further extensive vowel losses
* loss of the fortis plosives as a distinct set of consonants
* development of /ɸ/ and /m/ as new phonemes
* extensive ablaut brought about by vowel harmony and deletions

==== Far West Pencek ====

The variety of Pencek spoken in the far west, along the historical border of the Ici forest with Rathedān, is spoken by no more than a hundred thousand people. It merits mention for the following distinctions from Central Pencek:

* Fortis plosives are retained in many environments from which they were lost in the Central dialect.
* The distinction between /x/ and /h/ in Adāta has been maintained in Far Western. Nevertheless, other sound changes affecting these have spread to this region: /h/ (which occurs only initially) is [ɸ] before rounded vowels, and /x/ and /h/ both are realized as [ç] before [i].
* The fusion of Adāta's indirect pronouns to prepositions never occurred in Far Western. Instead it uses invariable prepositions with independent pronominal objects.
* Ktacwa, a language now nearly moribund but once widely spoken in the semi-arid region between the Ici forest and Rathedān, has been at least as great a source of loanwords as Miw. Nearly all Ktacwa loans in other Pencek dialects were acquired via Far Western. This has resulted in substantial lexical differences.

==== Kuaguatian Pencek ====

The variety of Pencek spoken in and near the land of [[Kuaguatia]] - along the eastern border of the Ici Forest - shows some linguistic interference from Poni (Puoni), the dominant language of Kuaguatia and its vicinity, and which is much more prestigious. This includes a vast number of Poni loanwords that have not made it into other dialects of Pencek. Kuaguatian Pencek is otherwise largely similar to the Central dialect, although it has a somewhat different set of Miw loanwords (and different forms for many of them) as well.

== Phonology ==

=== Phonemes ===

The twelve consonants of Pencek are as follows:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Retroflex
| Velar
|-
| Plosive
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
| '''k''' /k/
|-
| Fortis Plosive    
| '''ph''' /ˀpʰ/
| '''th''' /ˀtʰ/
|
| '''kh''' /ˀkʰ/
|-
| Affricate
|
|
| '''c''' /ʈʂ/
|
|-
| Fricative
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''z''' /ʂ/
| '''h''' /x/
|-
| Nasal
|
| '''n''' /n/
|
|
|-
| Tap
|
| '''r''' /ɾ/
|
|
|}

Pencek has a triangular seven-vowel system:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| '''i''' /i/
|
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| Mid High
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o ''' /o
|-
| Mid Low    
| '''ea''' /ɛ/
|
| '''oa''' /ɔ/
|-
| Low
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

=== Phonetics ===

# Plain plosives are voiced between vowels, and are otherwise voiceless.
# Fortis plosives are pronounced aspirated before a stressed vowel, and are also preglottalized when intervocalic. (They do not occur in other environments.)
# The "retroflex" consonants are, to be more specific, apical postalveolar.
# /x/, the velar fricative, becomes glottal [h] in initial position before unrounded vowels (except [i]), and bilabial [ɸ] in initial position before rounded vowels. In some speakers this phoneme is entirely lost in initial position, but this is nonstandard. In all positions it is pronounced [ç] before [i].
# /n/ assimilates to the point of articulation of a following consonant: bilabial, dental, retroflex, or velar.
# Unstressed mid vowels often reduce to schwa in fast speech, especially in initial position, but the high and low vowels are always maintained.

=== Prosody ===

# Pencek speech is stress-timed: stresses tend to occur at roughly equal intervals.
# Stress (both primary and secondary) takes the form of higher pitch with markedly greater duration of the vowel.
# The accent falls on the first vowel of a word that is preceded by a consonant. That is to say, words beginning with consonants have initial stress, while words beginning with vowels stress the second syllable instead, unless they are monosyllabic.
# Alternating syllables after the stressed syllable have secondary stress. Secondary stress is weak or nonpresent if immediately followed by a stress-initial word, and almost as strong as primary stress otherwise.
# The intonation contour of a declarative or imperative main clause can range from flat to global fall. The contour of questions is characterized by global rise, except for tag questions which show a quick rise and fall.
# Other intonation markers also occur; for example, fronted material (such as the topic in a topic-comment sentence) is set apart from the rest of the clause with a quick rise in the last syllable before the clause begins. Subordinating particles, conjunctions, noun phrases in a list, and expressions of contrastive focus, and many other things, also frequently show intonation that is marked in any of various ways.

=== Sound Changes from Adāta ===

The developments undergone by the sounds of Adāta as it changed to modern Pencek are summarized here. This list should not be taken as an exact description of every change in order, but instead a summary of the practical results. For example, the vowel deletions actually occurred in multiple stages, concurrently with some of the changes listed after it, but this is not important for predicting a word's outcome. Further, to the extent that outcomes are unaffected by it, rules are grouped according to type instead of precise chrononology (which is uncertain in some cases anyway). Approximate time depth of each development group is given.

Variables are as follows:
# P = plosives, including affricates except where noted
# F = fricatives
# V = vowels

1. MONOPHTHONGIZATION ''perhaps 900 years ago''
* diphthongs with front nuclei > eː
* diphthongs with back nuclei > oː
* diphthongs with [a] nuclei > aː
* i > j / _V

2. STRESS RELOCATION ''perhaps 900 years ago''
* V(ː) > "V(ː) / #(V(ː))C_
* V. > Vː / "_

3. FORTITION ''perhaps 850 years ago''
* P[-vcd] > Pʰ / _"V
* j > ɖʐ
* P[+vcd] > P[-vcd]

4. VOWEL SHIFT ''perhaps 800 years ago''
* e, o > a / (short only)
* a(ː) > ɛ(ː) / if i(ː) in next syllable
* a(ː) > ɔ(ː) / if u(ː) in next syllable

5. VOWEL DELETIONS ''between 600 and 850 years ago''

Unstressed vowels were frequently lost, but with many irregular outcomes. Several similar and related vowel-deletion rules occurred in the speech community at the same time, and these often interfered with each other in unpredictable ways. Nevertheless, certain patterns can be found.

The most prominant such pattern is that short vowels were much more likely to be lost than long vowels, especially pre-stress. Another pattern is that no clusters of more than two consonants were formed. Another still is that both long and short vowels were much less likely to be dropped from words that were already short.

No stressed vowels were lost.

6. CLUSTER CHANGES ''between 600 and 750 years ago''
* z > s / _P
* z > ɾ / P_
* PF > FP
* Pn > nP
* tʈʂ, ʈʂz > ʈʂ

7. CONTRAST LOSSES ''between 400 and 700 years ago''
* Vː > V
* l > ɾ
* m > n
* x > h / #_

8. PLOSIVE REORGANIZATION ''between about 300 and 400 years ago''
* P[+asp] > P[-asp] / unless pre-stress or intervocalic
* P1+P2 > P1[+asp] / (ʈʂ not included in this change)
* P[+asp] > P[+asp +preglot] / medially

9. OTHER CHANGES ''between 0 and 400 years ago''
* z > ʐ > ʂ
* s > ʂ / _ʈʂ
* x > k / n_
* h > ɸ / _V[+rnd]
* ɾVɾ > ɾVn
* ɾ > t / s_

10. NASAL ASSIMILATION ''active rule for at least the last 500 years''
* n > m, ɳ, ŋ / _p, _(ʈ)ʂ, _k

== Morphology ==

=== Nominal Morphology ===

Possession in Pencek is marked on the possessed noun, not the possessor, by means of five suffixes indicating the person and number of the possessor. Pencek nouns do not inflect for any other grammatical purpose, although they may take derivational affixes.
{|
| || Singular || Plural
|-
| First || '''-i''' || '''-ik'''
|-
| Second || '''-ato''' || '''-aro'''
|-
| Third || '''-ak'''
|}

These suffixes are simply appended to the noun, overriding the noun's final vowel (if any).

=== Verbs ===

Each Pencek verb has three principle parts: the imperfective, the perfective, and the supine. These verb forms often stand alone, but they also participate in the many analytic verb phrase constructions. No other grammatical category is directly inflected on the verb.

The imperfective is the least-marked form, and thus the citation form. The perfective is marked with a suffix -n, and the supine with the suffix -enc. These suffixes often trigger unpredictable thematic morphemes, predictable morphophonological processes, or both. The resulting inflection patterns are detailed below.

==== Athematic Verbs ====

'''Athematic Pattern 1:''' simple -n in the perfective; -enc replaces any final vowels in the supine. Most verbs ending in a vowel or '''r''' follow athematic pattern 1.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "punish" || pepi || pepin || pepenc
|-
| "celebrate" || nirka || nirkan || nirkenc
|-
| "lie" || par || parn || parenc
|-
| "bake" || thur || thurn || thurenc
|}

'''Athematic Pattern 2:''' perfective -n metathesizes with final consonant; simple suffixation of -enc in the supine. Most verbs ending in plosives follow this pattern.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "throw" || khak || khank || khakenc
|-
| "drink" || hap || hamp || hapenc
|-
| "change" || oarot || oaront || oarotenc
|}

'''Athematic Pattern 3a:''' the perfective is identical to the imperfective; supine -enc overrides the final vowel and '''n''' of the stem. Most verbs ending in '''n''' follow athematic pattern 3a.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "live" || tanan || tanan || tanenc
|-
| "scratch" || eran || eran || erenc
|-
| "admire" || hastin || hastin || hastenc
|}

'''Athematic Pattern 3b:''' the same as pattern 3, except the supine -enc is simply affixed. A few verbs ending in '''n''' follow this pattern instead of 3a.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "split" || ran || ran || ranenc
|}

==== Thematic Verbs ====

'''Thematic Pattern 1:''' Perfective -n follows thematic -a-; supine -enc is simply affixed. Most verbs ending in consonant clusters or fricatives follow this pattern.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "hunt" || tenk || tenkan || tenkenc
|-
| "die" || nas || nasan || nasenc
|-
| "trade" || theank || theankan || theankenc
|}

'''Thematic Pattern 2:''' Perfective -n follows thematic -za-; supine -enc follows thematic -z-. The -za- and -z- replace any final vowel unless the vowel follows a consonant cluster. The themes become -ra- and -r- following plosives, and such plosives become plain if they were fortis. No verbs ending in '''s''' or '''z''' follow this pattern - those that otherwise might, have all changed to follow thematic pattern 1 instead.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "ask" || khano || khanzan || khanzenc
|-
| "pray" || pane || panzan || panzenc
|-
| "tie" || khipe || khipran || khiprenc
|-
| "steal" || khuthe || khutran || khutrenc
|}

'''Thematic Pattern 3:''' Perfective -n follows thematic -aza; supine -enc follows thematic -az-. Both replace any final vowel.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine
|-
| "make" || pho || phazan || phazenc
|-
| "think" || ce || cazan || cazenc
|}

==== Irregular Verbs ====

Irregular verbs typically belong to one of the main patterns with only minor differences keeping them from being a perfect fit. Most such differences consist of vowel changes or aphaeresis in the perfective and supine. Other irregularities can also occur.

{|
| || Imperfective || Perfective || Supine || '''Pattern''' || ''irregularity''
|-
| "consider" || sirok || sirank || sirakenc || '''Athematic-2''' || ''vowel change''
|-
| "cry" || aphan || aphen || aphenc || '''Athematic-3b''' || ''vowel change''
|-
| "need" || ete || tazan || tazenc || '''Thematic-3''' || ''aphaeresis''
|-
| "fix" || khunan || khunzan || khunzenc || '''Thematic-2''' || ''final '''an''' deleted before suffixes as in Athematic-3a''
|}

=== Adjectives ===

Pencek adjectives are characterized by their ability to take a comparative/superlative suffix, and inability to inflect in any other way. This suffix is '''-nsa''' following a vowel or '''-ans''' following a consonant.

=== Prepositions ===

Pencek has nine core prepositions, which inflect for the person and number of their objects.

{|
|-
| || '''1sg''' || '''2sg''' || '''1pl''' || '''2pl''' || '''3''' || '''meaning'''
|-
| || asin || asant || asi || astak || asa || ''at, in, on''
|-
| || hin || hant || hi || harko || ha || ''of, from, out of, belonging to''
|-
| || hert || herton || herti || herak || herta || ''until, as far as, up to''
|-
| || nin || nent || ni || nerko || ne || ''inside, among, between''
|-
| || pean || panton || peani || parak || pana || ''near, by, with (comitative)
|-
| || rapen || rapant || rape || raprak || rapa || ''along, while, during, throughout''
|-
| || then || thant || the || tharko || tha || ''to, into, towards''
|-
| || tin || tent || ti || terko || te || ''via, with (instrumental)''
|-
| || zin || zont || zi || zorko || za || ''for, about, concerning, made of''
|}

== Syntax ==

=== Main Clauses ===

==== Declaratives ====

A declarative main clause, for the purposes of this discussion, is defined as a statement made with a full verb (i.e. any verb but the copula).

''' Word Order '''

Constituent word order in declarative clauses is SVO (transitive) or SV (intransitive).

'''''A sin zurk.''''' 
He likes cheese.

'''''I cant.''''' 
I slept.

Advebial material has a strong tendency to be located at the end of the clause, although simple adverbs and occasionally prepositional phrases can also precede it.

'''''I cant cap.''''' 
I slept poorly.

''' The Subject '''

In Pencek, the grammatical subject of a clause is always a pronoun. Full nominals are disallowed from the subject position (immediately before the verb phrase). When a full nominal must be indicated anyway, a topic-comment structure is employed.

'''''Thanu, a nas nah.''''' 
Thanu, he's ill today.

Note that direct pronouns are used for sentence subjects; indirect pronouns are used for everything else.

''' The Direct Object '''

No such restriction applies to direct objects. Full nominals and pronouns can both directly follow the verb. Pronouns in this position are always in the indirect case.

==== Predicatives ====

Predicatives are statements that use the copula.

''' Word Order '''

Constituent order in predicatives is subject - copula - predicate.

''' The Subject '''

As with declaratives, full nominals are barred from sentence subject position. A direct pronoun is always the subject, and always required, but topic-comment structure can be employed to express full nominals.

'''''Si nuran, a par kek.''''' 
The ice, it is dangerous.

''' The Predicate '''

The predicate may consist of a noun phrase (including indirect and locative pronouns), adjective phrase, or prepositional phrase.

'''''I par nuhant.''''' 
I am a baker.

'''''To par nump. ''''' 
You are stupid.

'''''A par ne si tah.''''' 
He is in the forest.

''' Existential Clauses '''

Pencek does not distinguish existential clauses from simple predicatives.

'''''Phir, a par ne si kinz.''''' 
There's a goat in the kitchen.

''' Possessive Clauses '''

Possessive clauses are predicatives (that is, they use a copula, not a full verb) with a prepositional phrase as the predicate. The preposition is invariably ''pana'', "with".

'''''A par pana si rohok.''''' 
She has the pox.

==== Questions ====

''' Yes/No Questions '''

Neutral yes/no questions are formed in Pencek by applying question intonation to standard declarative or predicative clauses.

'''''A sin zurk?''''' 
Does he like cheese?

Confirmation-seeking questions are formed by adding a tag question to the end of the clause. Many different questions tags are in use in various locales and registers, but the trait common to them all is that the tag suggests the answer one wants confirmed.

'''''A sin zurk, rat?''''' 
He likes cheese, correct?

''' Open-Ended Questions '''

Question words are always the leftmost word in a clause, and open-ended questions always show question intonation.

Questions asking the subject of the clause insert the appropriate question word in place of the direct pronoun.

'''''Haza seap a?''''' 
Who wants it?

Questions asking what would otherwise be the direct object of the clause, require the clause be made passive.

'''''Haza par sinenc tent?''''' 
Who do you like? (literally "who is liked by-you?")

Questions asking for obliques employ a more complex left-dislocation: to form these, change the NP asked for into the appropriate demonstrative pronoun ("there", "then", etc), then add the corresponding question word to the front of the clause before the direct pronoun.

'''''Nara i nan tha hoar?''''' 
Where am I going? (literally "where I go to there?")

==== Imperatives ====

Imperatives in Pencek are quite simple. They take the form VO: first verb, then the direct object if there is any. The perfective verb form is used for general and polite imperatives, while the imperfective is used to convey immediacy or urgency.

'''''Cant taco.''''' 
Sleep well.

'''''Pea puci!''''' 
Kiss me (right now)!

''' Auxiliaries '''

Except for the negative particle, auxiliaries never appear in imperative clauses.

'''''Nat khun puci, zora!''''' 
Don't hurt me, please!

=== Noun Phrases and Usage ===

==== Basic Order ====

The canonical Pencek NP word order is '''article or quantifier - noun - adjectives - phrasal and clausal modifiers'''

'''''sik ra naran ikhi phe asa ha harza''''' 
''the-PL ten horse black big in that pasture'' 
the ten big black horses in that pasture

==== Articles/Demonstratives and Quantifiers ====

'''Demonstratives are as follows.'''
{|
| || Singular || Plural
|-
| this || '''si''' || '''sik'''
|-
| that || '''ha''' || '''hak'''
|}

In most cases, Pencek nouns require one of these particles to come at the beginning of the NP if the noun is definite. '''Si''' and '''ha''' are necessary to mark definiteness (much as "the" does in English); however, unlike English "the", they still retain the meanings "this" and "that" respectively. In cases where the distinction between "this" and "that" is irrelevent, '''si''' is used.

The suffix '''-k''' on one of these articles indicates that the noun is plural.

Indefinite nouns are unmarked with any article. Plural and singular numbers are not grammatically distinguished for indefinite nouns, unless one wishes to specify with a numeral or other quantifier.

'''Quantifiers (non-numeral) are as follows.'''
{|
| Meaning || Word
|-
| none || '''ni'''
|-
| few || '''pha'''
|-
| some || '''kea'''
|-
| many || '''ura'''
|-
| most || '''utoa'''
|-
| each || '''or'''
|-
| all, every || '''aza'''
|}

These quantifiers are mutually exclusive with the definite articles. Typically they are used with indefinite nouns, but can also in some cases replace the article for definite nouns, whenever semantically appropriate.

'''Numerals''' can take the place of an article or co-occur with one (e.g. "the horses", "two horses", "the two horses"), but are mutually exclusive with non-numeral quantifiers.

==== Possessive Suffixes ====

The five possessive suffixes of Pencek are also sufficient to determine a noun in place of an article, and do not co-occur with one. They can however co-occur with both numerals and non-numeral quantifiers.

The four suffixes for first and second persons, singular and plural, function very much like possessive pronouns do in English. The third-person suffix, however, does not; it not only doesn't specify the grammatical number of the possessor (if any), it doesn't specify anything except that the noun is possessed. The possessor could even be first or second person, for instance if the speaker wished to conceal the fact that he or she is the noun's owner. It can also be used when a possessor is unknown.

== Lexicon ==

* [http://akana.conlang.org/user/radius/Pencek_Lexicon.htm Pencek Lexicon]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]

E'át

2025-02-01T19:07:19Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = E'át
| phonetic = [eːˈʔat]
| date = c. 1600 YP
| place = Milīr valley
| speakers = c. 1.5 million
| script = adapted Tjakori script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Central Dāiadak    E'át
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Rory
}}
{{Article}}

'''E'át''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken in the [[Milīr]] valley around 1600 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is descended from the eastern dialects of [[Aθáta]] and shows significant [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]] influence.

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Aθáta]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** '''E'át''' (c. 1600 YP)

A descendant of E'át itself is [[Yhát]].

== Sample ==
* ''Avlavan shif Shinkan, shiscazar, shisken Kelas, mlaka’en sam an sal: Aplin iln afpakáca’en mlazhin, ejavax shisklazax azhax rulazax akan ilín.''
* [ ˈav.lə.vən ʃif ˈʃiŋ.kən | ˈʃis.cə.zər | ˈʃis.keːn ˈkeː.ləs | ˈmla.kə.ʔeːn sam an sal ‖ ˈap.lin əf.pəˈka.cə.ʔeːn ˈmla.ʒin | ˈeːja.vax ˈʃis.klə.zəx ˈa.ʒəx ˈru.lə.zəx ˈa.kən iˈlin ]
* speak-PERF-3SG thus Shinkan, greatking, king-3SG Ke=land, brother-3SG sun and moon: sit-HAB-1SG before on-throne-3SG father-1SG, be-PERF-3PL country-PL all-PL foreign-PL hostile to-1SG-ACC
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/e%27at.html E'át grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]
{{stub}}

Yēt

2025-02-01T19:06:16Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Yēt
| phonetic = [jɛːɔ̯t]
| date = c. 2500 YP
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Yēt
| word-or = unknown
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = TzirTzi
}}
{{Article}}

'''Yēt''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Yād]] and a sister language of [[Zhaj]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** '''Yēt''' (c. 2500 YP)
***** [[Zhaj]] (c. 2500 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/yet.pdf Grammar of Yēt (PDF)]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:3rd millennium]]
{{stub}}

ʔAghïyï

2025-02-01T19:05:47Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aghiyi}}
{{Language
| language = ʔAghïyï
| phonetic = [ˈʔɑ.ɣɯ.jɯ]
| date = c. 5200 YP
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    ʔAghïyï
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = kodé
}}
{{Article}}

'''ʔAghïyï''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 5200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Arie]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** [[Zhaj]] (c. 2500 YP)
****** [[Aríe]] (c. 3700 YP)
******* [[Arie]] (c. 4500 YP)
******** '''ʔAghïyï''' (c. 5200 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/aghiyi-IPA.html ʔAghïyï grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:6th millennium]]
{{stub}}

Aríe

2025-02-01T19:05:12Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Aríe
| phonetic = [ˈɑ.ɹiː.e]
| date = c. 3700 YP
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Aríe
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = TzirTzi
}}
{{Article}}

'''Aríe''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 3700 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Zhaj]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** [[Zhaj]] (c. 2500 YP)
****** '''Aríe''' (c. 3700 YP)

A descendant of Aríe itself is [[Arie]] (without the acute).

== Sample ==
* ''Khénejin Shéŋanwur lhíphwamwur arírwu’wur, arírwu’wur Khwálha, míu’wur aréjma wón thwára, sý: Ýrnw wétalwu’in aréi wój khejrezla é’a mýrér, ‘éx! Weŋin worwyraj urwurirwukar wowire’wo ýr aréi.''
* [ ˈkʰeː.ne.jin ˈʃeː.ŋɑ.nʷuɹ ˈɮiː.pʰʷɒ.mʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ | ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ ˈkʰʷɒː.ɮɑ | ˈmiːɯ.ʔʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːj.mɑ woːn ˈtʰʷɒ.ɹɑ | sʉː ‖ ʉːɹnʷ ˈwøː.tɑ.lʷu.ʔin ˈɑ.ɹeː.i woːj ˈkʰej.ɹe.tɬɑ ˈeː.ʔɑ ˈmɨː.ɹeːɹ | ʔeːx | ˈwø.ŋin ˈwo.ɹʷʉ.ɹɑj ˈɯ.ɹʷu.ɹi.ɹʷu.kɑɹ ˈwo.wy.ɹe.ʔʷo ɨːɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːi ]
* PST.PERF-speak Shéŋan-NPOS.ERG mighty-NPOS.ERG king-NPOS.ERG, king-NPOS.ERG Khwálh-POS.NSP.OBL, brother-NPOS.ERG sun-POS.NSP.OBL and moon-POS.NSP.OBL, this-NPOS.OBL: before PST.IMPF-sit 1SG-OBL on throne-POS.NSP.OBL of father-POS.SP.OBL, alas! COP.PST.IMPF PL-foreign all.PL-kingdom PL-hostile to 1SG-OBL
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/Arie.pdf Aríe grammar (PDF)]
* [http://tzirtzi.ipage.com/conlanging/ArieText.pdf Aríe sample text] ''{broken link}''
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:4th millennium]]
{{stub}}

Zhaj

2025-02-01T19:04:26Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Zhaj
| phonetic = [ʑaɪ]
| date = c. 2500 YP
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Zhaj
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = con quesa
}}
{{Article}}

'''Zhaj''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Yād]] and a sister language of [[Yēt]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** '''Zhaj''' (c. 2500 YP)
***** [[Yēt]] (c. 2500 YP)

A descendant of Zhaj itself is [[Aríe]].

== Sample ==
* ''Khanıvin sı Shengan ur xız zijsuk, ngin zijsuk et Kod, ngin mixyt et zejm un thor: İrnu wetaluhin zher uv kajrel et mıze, hax! Ryrz isuhuzijsukar wengin xireho ır zher.''
* [ ˈkʰa.nɪ.vin sɪ ˈɕɛ.ŋan uɾ xɪz ˈzɪj.suk | ŋin zɪj.suk ɛt kod | ŋin ˈmi.xʉt ɛt zɛjm un tʰoɾ ‖ ˈɪɾ.nu ˈwɛ.ta.ɺu.hin ʑɛɾ uv ˈkaj.ɾɛɺ ɛt ˈmɪ.zɛ | hax | ɾʉɾz ˌi.su.ʔuˈzɪj.su.kaɾ ˈwɛ.ŋin ˈxi.ɾɛ.ʔo ɪɾ ʑɛɾ ]
* PRET-speak thus-OBJ Shengan great king, COPULA king of Kod, COPULA brother of sun and moon: before IMPERF-sit I-OBJ on throne of father-1sg:POS alas foreign all-PL-kingdom IMPERF-COPULA hostile to I
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/zhaj.htm Zhaj grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:3rd millennium]]
{{stub}}

Yād

2025-02-01T19:03:49Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Yād
| phonetic = [jaːd]
| date = c. 1600 YP
| place = Lasomo
| speakers = c. 4 million
| script = adapted Tjakori script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Yād
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = gsandi
}}
{{Article}}

'''Yād''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken across [[Lasomo]] and much of the middle [[Eigə]] valley around 1600 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Æðadĕ]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** '''Yād''' (c. 1600 YP)

Two daughter languages of Yād itself are [[Zhaj]] and [[Yēt]].

== Sample ==
* ''Ēvin sheb Shenkan, dhyesk hīz, dhyesk ē les ē Kōd, mīht ē Zem un ē Tōl: Ilnu ye ēbin uv ūbach ē mīzē, iz dhyeskal rülz in hīgun il yen.''
* [ ˈeː.vin ʃeb ˈʃeŋ.kʰan | ðjesk xiːz | ðjesk eː les eː koːd | miːxt eː zem un eː tʰoːl ‖ ˈil.nu je ˈeː.bin uv ˈuː.baʧ eː ˈmiː.zeː | iz ˈðjes.kal ryːlz in ˈhiː.ɡun il jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Shenkan, King great, King of Land of Kōd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/yad-1.shtml Yād grammar]
* [[/Sound changes|Sound changes from Æðadĕ to Yād]]
* [[Edastean languages]]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]
{{stub}}

Proto-Peninsular

2025-02-01T18:58:39Z

Cedh: add link to .txt lexicon file

{{Language
| language = Proto-Peninsular
| date = c. -1500 YP or earlier
| place = Peninsula (''*mrisaŋfa'')
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Peninsular languages  Proto-Peninsular
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Proto-Peninsular''' was spoken by the Proto-Peninsular people (autonym: ''*marnaç-(xa)'') in the southeasternmost peninsula (endonym: ''*mrisaŋfa'') of the continent of [[Peilaš]]. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the [[Peninsular languages|Peninsular language family]].

== Features ==
Proto-Peninsular is reconstructed with 13 consonants (''*p t k m n ŋ f s ç x h r l'') and three vowels (''*a i u''). Of note among the consonants are the triplet ''*ç x h'', which are fundamental to the three-vowel reconstruction: whereas five-vowel reconstructions may have had ''*he ha hʌ'', under the three-vowel reconstruction, these are ''*ça xa ha''. The nasals ''*m n ŋ'' and liquids ''*r l'' could (and frequently did) function as syllable nuclei.

Proto-Peninsular nouns did not have much inflection (although some descendants later developed an extensive case system). In contrast, the pronominal and verbal systems were fairly complex: The pronouns included a distinct reflexive root and seven full series of demonstratives, all of which distinguished animacy and several different genitives. Verbal morphology included up to six distinct aspectual stems per root, often formed in a rather unpredictable way, and inflection for five voices, six moods, two tenses, and an additional category traditionally called ''phase'', the purpose of which is yet to be fully understood by linguists.

== Descendants ==
Known descendants of Proto-Peninsular include the following languages:

{{:Languages of Akana/Peninsular}}

== See also ==
* [http://zhenlin.nfshost.com/akana/proto-peninsular/proto-peninsular.html Proto-Peninsular grammar]
* [http://zhenlin.nfshost.com/akana/proto-peninsular/lexicon.csv Proto-Peninsular lexicon (CSV)] / [http://akana.conlang.org/files/peninsular/lexicon.csv.txt (TXT)]

[[Category:Peninsular languages|*]]

Mûtsipsa'

2025-02-01T18:55:45Z

Cedh: fix link to grammar file

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mutsipsa}}
{{Language
| language = Mûtsipsa'
| phonetic = [mɯ.ʦɪˈpsɐʔ]
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Mûtsinamtsys
| speakers = c. 250.000
| script = Takuña script (abugida)
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]  Northern   Mûtsipsa'
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Rory
}}
{{Article}}

'''Mûtsipsa'''' is a language of the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]]. It was spoken around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] in the nation of [[Mûtsinamtsys]], situated on the islands of [[Ke'idû'ûs'as]] and [[Dûkejdih]] off the [[Siixtaguna]] coast. Most of the basic texts of [[Etúgə]], the national religion of imperial [[Huyfárah]], were originally written in Mûtsipsa'.

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Mûtsipsa'''' (c. 0-200 YP)

Mûtsipsa' and its geographically closest relative [[Máotatšàlì]], which is spoken on [[Tymytỳs]] off the northeastern edge of [[Peilaš]], are sometimes regarded as a genetic Northern subgroup of the Isles family. However, the evidence is unconclusive. There are obvious similarities in phonology, grammar and lexicon; but these may as well be due to areal influence such as extensive contact both with each other and with native languages of the [[Núalís-Takuña languages|Núalís-Takuña]] family.

== See also ==
* [[Mûtsipsa'/Lexicon]]
* [[Mûtsipsa'/Lexical addendum]]
* [[Mûtsipsa'/Sound changes]]
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/isles/mutsipsa'.html Mûtsipsa' grammar]

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
{{stub}}

Ppãrwak

2025-02-01T18:54:35Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Ppãrwak
| phonetic = [ˈpʰã.ʀwak]
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Ttiruku
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]   Ppãrwak
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Avaja|Avaja]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Ppãrwak''' is a language of the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]], spoken on the island of [[Ttiruku]] around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Ppãrwak''' (c. 0-200 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/isles/pparwak.html Ppãrwak grammar]

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
{{stub}}

Zele

2025-02-01T18:53:13Z

Cedh: remove dead link

{{Language
| language = Zele
| phonetic = [ze.ˈle]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Zeluzh
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]   Zele
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = brandrinn; revised version by [[User:Thedukeofnuke|Thedukeofnuke]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Zele''' is a language of the [[Isles_languages|Isles family]] spoken in the Kingdom of [[Zeluzh]] on the northwestern tip of the continent [[Zeluzhia]] to the east of [[Peilaš]]. It is the only known, at present at least, language spoken on that continent. It is dated to approximately 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Zele''' (c. 0-200 YP)

==Features==
Zele has a modest phonological inventory of 19 consonants and 8 vowels, more complex than Proto-Isles but comparable to many of its sister languages. Syllable structure is (C)V(C) initially and CV(C) medially and finally.

Nouns are inflected for six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and locative. They are not morphologically marked for number; this is expressed with quantifiers.
Verbs are inflected for five tenses: present, simple past, past perfect, future, and relative present.
Zele adjectives, unlike nouns, are indeclinable and do not inflect as such. Adverbs are not distinguished from adjectives.

The basic word order in Zele is SVO; SOV word order is also permitted although uncommon.

== See also ==
* [[Zele/Grammar]]
* [[Zele/Lexicon]]
* [[Zele/Sound changes]]
 
''The original version, by brandrinn:''
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/isles/Zele.pdf brandrinn's grammar sketch (.pdf)]
* [[Zele/Original grammar|brandrinn's grammar sketch (wiki)]]
* [[Zele/Zele texts with PI glosses|Zele texts with PI glosses]]

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
[[Category:Languages of Zeluzhia]]
{{stub}}

Máotatšàlì

2025-02-01T18:51:58Z

Cedh: fix links to grammar and lexicon files

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maotatshali}}
{{Language
| language = Máotatšàlì
| phonetic = [ˈmáw.ta.ʧà.lì]
| date = c. 0-200 YP
| place = Tymytỳs
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]  Northern   Máotatšàlì
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Kolyn|Kolyn]]
}}
{{Article}}

'''Máotatšàlì''' is the language spoken by the Tymúlaslì people of the northerly island of [[Tymytỳs]] around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It belongs to the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Máotatšàlì''' (c. 0-200 YP)

Máotatšàlì and its geographically closest relative [[Mûtsipsa']], which is spoken on the [[Mûtsinamtsys]] islands [[Ke'idû'ûs'as]] and [[Dûkejdih]] off the [[Siixtaguna]] coast, are sometimes regarded as a genetic Northern subgroup of the Isles family. However, the evidence is unconclusive. There are obvious similarities in phonology, grammar and lexicon; but these may as well be due to areal influence such as extensive contact both with each other and with native languages of the [[Núalís-Takuña languages|Núalís-Takuña]] family.

== See also ==
* [http://akana.conlang.org/files/isles/maotatshali.htm Máotatšàlì grammar]
* [[Máotatšàlì/Lexicon]] ''{→ [http://akana.conlang.org/files/isles/maotatshali_lexicon.htm original lexicon file]}''

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium]]
{{stub}}

Gezoro/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:44:14Z

Cedh: +3

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
|-
! class="l"| word !! stem !! type !! meaning !! etymology !! Western !! Southern !! Central !! Kasadgad
|-
| daːña || daːñɜ̃- (w) || adj || young, naïve, inexperienced (said of people) || {{gray|''*dłãγñẽ'' (cf. Tm. ''cańńę'' ‘childhood’)}} || doːñɜ̃ || daːnja || daːn (ja) || daːŋâ
|-
| digɔs || digɔsɔ- || adj || good || ''*duγasa'' ‘very good’ || digas (a) || digos (o) || diːgas (a) || digos
|-
| dɔzel || dɔzele- || adj || blue || ''*dudžeše'' ‘like the sky’ || dazel (e) || dozil (i) || dauzel (e) || dozer
|-
| dug || dugɔ- (w) || adj || correct, suitable || ''*duγa-'' ‘good’ || duga || duː || duːg (o) || dug
|-
| ɜ̃trañ || ɜ̃trañɔ- || adj || soft, tender, delicate || ''*ʔẽtałãγa'' ‘feather-spirit’ || ɜ̃troñ (a) || etran (o) || etran (jo) || êtraŋ
|-
| gem || gemɔ- (w) || adj || wrong, bad, inappropriate || ''*γema-'' || gema || geːm (o) || gaim (o) || gem
|-
| gemrañ || gemrañɔ- || adj || evil, malicious || ''*γemałãγa'' ‘bad spirit’ || gemroñ (a) || gimran (o) || gamran (jo) || gîraŋ
|-
| guːra || guːrɜ̃- (w) || adj || young, new, fresh (said of things) || {{gray|''*γudłũ-'' (cf. Tm. ''yocǫ'')}} || guːrɜ̃ || guːra || guːr (a) || guːrâ
|-
| gulrañ || gulrañɔ- || adj || nervous, agitated, fidgety, erratic, unpredictable, tentative, preliminary || ''*γučiłãγa'' ‘fish-spirit’ || guliroñ (a) || giːran (o) || guluran (jo) || gularaŋ
|-
| gwiː || gwiː- (w) || adj || big, large || ''*γʷuye-'' ‘heavy’ || giː || gwiː || gai || gwiː
|-
| jelil || jelili- || adj || quick, swift, agile || ''*yečiši'' ‘like an arrow’ || elil (i) || iːlil (i) || jeːlil (i) || jelir
|-
| jɜ̃ːkʰuːm || jɜ̃ːkʰuːmɔ- || adj || sweet || ''*džĩʔĩkʰaʔu ʔama'' ‘with honey’ || eːnkhuːm (a) || joːnkhuːm (o) || jaːnkhuːm (o) || jâːkum
|-
| jɔd || jɔdɔ- (w) || adj || old, ancient (said of things) || ''*yada-'' || jada || jod (o) || jaud (o) || jod
|-
| kɔsrañ || kɔsrañɔ- || adj || friendly || ''*kacałãγa'' ‘friend-spirit’ || kasroñ (a) || kosran (o) || kasran (jo) || kosaraŋ
|-
| kɔtsuːm || kɔtsuːmɔ- || adj || strong, powerful || ''*kʷacuʔu ʔama'' ‘with strength’ || katsuːm (a) || getsuːm (o) || kathuːm (o) || kâtsum
|-
| kʰets || kʰetsu- (w) || adj || bright || {{gray|''*kʰecu-''}} || khats (u) || khets (u) || keth (u) || kets
|-
| kʰɜ̃ː || kʰɜ̃ː- (w) || adj || black || ''*kʰãʔa-'' || khɜ̃ː || kheː || khaː || kêː
|-
| kʰiːlɔ || kʰiːlɔ- (w) || adj || dry || ''*kʰibła-'' || khiːla || khiːlo || khiːl (o) || kiːlo
|-
| kʰɔu || kʰɔu- (w) || adj || small || ''*kʰawa-'' ‘narrow’ || khoː || khuː || khau || kwau
|-
| lun || lunɔ- (w) || adj || green || ''*γłuna-'' || luna || luːn (o) || luːn (o) || lun
|-
| mɜ̃k || mɜ̃kɔ- (w) || adj || wet || ''*mĩkʷa-'' || monkha || menkho || mankha || mêk
|-
| mɜ̃ril || mɜ̃rili- || adj || angry, aggressive || {{gray|''*mĩłiši'' ‘like wind’}} || monil (i) || miːril (i) || maːril (i) || mêrir
|-
| mɜ̃s || mɜ̃su- (w) || adj || thick, broad, wide || ''*mãsu-'' ‘wide’ || mɜ̃s (u) || mes (u) || mes (u) || mês
|-
| mɔːx || mɔːxɔ- (w) || adj || sharp || ''*małka-'' || maː || moːx (o) || moːx (o) || moːg
|-
| ñeːl || ñeːle- || adj || complex, sophisticated, intricate || {{gray|''*ñiʔeše'' (cf. Tm. ''ńiʔ-'' ‘detailed’)}} || ñeːl (e) || niːl (i) || neːl (e) || ŋeːr
|-
| ñɔːdu || ñɔːdu- (w) || adj || dull, blunt || ''*ñałdu-'' || ñaːdu || njoːdu || naud (u) || ŋoːdu
|-
| ɔluːm || ɔluːmɔ- || adj || married || ''*ʔašẽʔu ʔama'' ‘with a wife’ || aluːm (a) || oluːm (o) || oluːm (o) || olum
|-
| pɜ̃ja || pɜ̃jɜ̃- (w) || adj || far, distant || {{gray|''*pãyẽ-'' (cf. Tm. ''peńę-'')}} || poñɜ̃ || peja || paːja || pêjâ
|-
| pʰit || pʰitɔ- (w) || adj || thin, narrow || ''*pʰita-'' ‘small’ || phit (a) || phid (o) || phit (o) || pit
|-
| pʰuːzu || pʰuːzu- (w) || adj || great, famous, heroic || {{gray|''*pʰuldzu-'' (cf. Tm. ''holco-'' ‘be desirable’)}} || phuːzu || phuːzu || phuːz (u) || puːzu
|-
| reː || reː- (w) || adj || high, tall || {{gray|''*leʔe-'' (cf. Tm. ''leʔ-'')}} || reː || reː || rai || reː
|-
| reːsɔrañ || reːsɔrañɔ- || adj || cunning, smart || ''*łeʔsałãγa'' ‘fox-spirit’ || reːsaroñ (a) || reːsoran (o) || reːsaran (jo) || reːsoraŋ
|-
| rɜ̃luːm || rɜ̃luːmɔ- || adj || rich, noble, respected || ''*łãšiʔu ʔama'' ‘with horses’ || ronuːm (a) || reluːm (o) || reluːm (o) || rêlum
|-
| riːrañ || riːrañɔ- || adj || poisonous || ''*łiyałãγa'' ‘snake-spirit’ || riːroñ (a) || riːran (o) || riːran (jo) || riːraŋ
|-
| rimɔs || rimɔsɔ- || adj || old, experienced (said of people) || {{gray|''*łimasa'' (cf. Tm. ''homa'' ‘old age’)}} || rimas (a) || riːmos (o) || riːmas (a) || rimos
|-
| rɔutʰ || rɔutʰe- (w) || adj || normal, ordinary, typical || {{gray|''*lawtʰe-'' (cf. Tm. ''lotwe-'' ‘widespread, common’)}} || roːth (e) || ruːth (i) || ruːth (e) || raut
|-
| rup || rupɔ- (w) || adj || unusual, strange, weird || {{gray|''*łupa-'' (cf. Tm. ''hop-'' ‘awkward’)}} || rup (a) || rub (o) || rup (o) || rup
|-
| sɜ̃r || sɜ̃rɔ- (w) || adj || round || ''*sũla-'' || sɛna || seːr (o) || saːr (o) || ser
|-
| sik || sikɔ- (w) || adj || yellow || ''*čika-'' || sik (a) || sig (o) || sik (o) || sik
|-
| sɔñiːm || sɔñiːmɔ- || adj || stupid, foolish || {{gray|''*šaʔẽʔu ʔiłma'' ‘without a mind’ (cf. Tm. ''śaʔę'' ‘mind’)}} || sañiːm (a) || seniːm (o) || saniːm (o) || soŋim
|-
| sɔrañ || sɔrañɔ- || adj || wise, intelligent, clever || {{gray|''*šaʔẽłãγa'' ‘mind-spirit’}} || sɛroñ (a) || soːran (o) || saːran (jo) || soraŋ
|-
| teɔliːm || teɔliːmɔ- || adj || bald || ''*tyašaʔu ʔiłma'' ‘without hair’ || tɛːliːm (a) || tjoliːm (o) || taːliːm (o) || taulim
|-
| tɔpil || tɔpili- || adj || rare, special, unique || ''*tupiši'' ‘like few others’ || tapil (i) || tobil (i) || topil (i) || topir
|-
| treː || treː- (w) || adj || flat, smooth, easy || {{gray|''*tleʔe-'' (cf. Tm. ''ciʔ-'' ‘broad, wide’)}} || treː || treː || trai || tarèː
|-
| tril || trili- (w) || adj || central, important || {{gray|''*tłiči-'' (cf. Tm. ''cic-'')}} || trili || triːl (i) || triːl (i) || tarìr
|-
| tsubuːm || tsubuːmɔ- || adj || full || {{gray|''*cubũʔu ʔama'' (cf. Tm. ''comǫ'' ‘content (of a bag or basket)’)}} || tsubuːm (a) || tsubuːm (o) || thubuːm (o) || tsubum
|-
| tusrañ || tusrañɔ- || adj || safe, reliable, comfortable || ''*tucałãγa'' ‘house-spirit’ || tusroñ (a) || tusran (o) || tusran (jo) || tusaraŋ
|-
| tʰɜ̃ːrañ || tʰɜ̃ːrañɔ- || adj || beautiful, attractive, sexy (said of people) || ''*tʰũdułãγa'' ‘sex-spirit’ || thoːnoñ (a) || theːran (o) || thaːran (jo) || tsêːraŋ
|-
| wama || wamɜ̃- (w) || adj || rough, uneven, complicated || {{gray|''*bãγʷã-'' (cf. Tm. ''momą-'')}} || omɜ̃ || waːma || waːm (a) || wamâ
|-
| weːli || weːli- (w) || adj || white || {{gray|''*webłi-'' (cf. Tm. ''wepi-'' ‘bright’)}} || weːli || wiːli || weːl (i) || weːli
|-
| wiːñɔm || wiːñɔmɔ- || adj || wounded, injured || ''*ʔuyaγẽʔu ʔama'' ‘with wounds’ || uːñam (a) || wiːnjom (o) || wiːnjam (o) || wiːŋom
|-
| wɔkʰ || wɔkʰe- (w) || adj || holy || ''*bakʰe'' ‘holiness’ || wakh (e) || wokh (i) || wokh (e) || wok
|-
| wɔmɔs || wɔmɔsɔ- || adj || long (in duration) || ''*błamasa'' ‘like waiting’ || omas (a) || woːmos (o) || waumas (a) || womos
|-
| xiːk || xiːkɔ- (w) || adj || valuable, precious || {{gray|''*kliγka-'' (cf. Tm. ''cek-'' ‘beautiful, attractive’)}} || iːk (a) || xiːg (o) || xiːk (o) || giːk
|-
| xutʰ || xutʰɔ- (w) || adj || short || ''*kłutʰa-'' || uth (a) || xuth (o) || xuth (a) || gut
|-
| zɜ̃l || zɜ̃li- (w) || adj || straight || ''*dzĩči-'' || zɛni || zeːl (i) || zaːl (i) || zor
|-
| zɔm || zɔmɔ- (w) || adj || red || ''*dzama-'' || zɛma || zoːm (o) || zaum (o) || zom
|-
| dɔːre || || adv || here || ''*dadłe'' || daːre || doːri || doːr || doːre
|-
| dɔna || || adv || surprisingly || {{gray|''*dłanẽ'' (cf. Tm. ''canę'' ‘suddenly’)}} || danɜ̃ || doːna || daun || donâ
|-
| duk || || adv || therefore || ''*duk'' || duk || dug || duk || duk
|-
| gɜ̃s || || adv || in the end, as a result, finally || {{gray|''*γĩsu'' (cf. Tm. ''ńęso'')}} || gɜ̃s || ges || ges || gês
|-
| jekɔt || || adv || not || ''*ye kut'' ‘not at all’ || ekat || jegod || jekot || jekot
|-
| jezɛt || || adv || but not || ''*ye džet'' || ezot || jezed || jaizat || jezat
|-
| kɛna || || adv || in fact, actually || {{gray|''*kʷaynã'' (cf. Tm. ''kwiną'')}} || kɛnɜ̃ || keːna || keːn || kenâ
|-
| kiːk || || adv || always || ''*kiʔka'' ‘continuously’ || kiːk || kiːg || kiːk || kiːk
|-
| kut || || adv || (narrative particle) || {{gray|''*kut'' (cf. Tm. ''koʔ'' ‘indeed, really, completely’)}} || kut || kud || kut || kut
|-
| kʰel || || adv || but, rather, however || ''*kʰeči'' ‘instead’ || khala || kheːl || kheːl || ker
|-
| kʰiñ || || adv || together || ''*kʰiña-'' || khiñi || khiːn || khiːn || kiŋ
|-
| miñuːm || || adv || once upon a time || ''*miñaʔu ʔama'' ‘with the day before yesterday’ || miñuːm || minjuːm || minjuːm || miŋum
|-
| mu || || adv || really, indeed || ''*mu'' ‘completely’ || mu || mu || mu || mu
|-
| niː || || adv || so, thus, in this way || {{gray|''*niʔi''}} || niː || niː || niː || niː
|-
| nɔz || || adv || sometimes || ''*nadže'' || naza || noz || nauz || nas
|-
| ñɔe || || adv || often || ''*ñaye'' || ñiː || njai || nai || ŋwai
|-
| pʰeːts || || adv || maybe, possibly || ''*pʰeyicu'' ‘like seeds’ || pheːts || pheːts || peːth || peːts
|-
| suːrɔ || || adv || soon || ''*sudła'' ‘tomorrow’ || suːra || suːro || suːr || suːro
|-
| tɜ̃ || || adv || because, due to || {{gray|''*tũ'' (cf. Tm. ''tǫ'')}} || tɜ̃ || ta || ta || tê
|-
| trɜ̃ || || adv || again || ''*tłã'' (back-formed from ''*tłãtłã'') || trɜ̃ || tra || tra || tarêː
|-
| tsatsɔr || || adv || moreover || ''*ca cał'' ‘and also’ || tsɛtsar || tsatsor || tathar || tsatsor
|-
| tseːre || || adv || there (visible) || ''*čʰedłe'' || tseːre || tsiːri || theːr || tseːre
|-
| tsiː || || adv || already || ''*cʰuy'' ‘yesterday’ || tsiː || tsiː || thiː || tsiː
|-
| tsɔr || || adv || also || ''*cał'' || tsɛra || tsoːr || thaːr || tsor
|-
| tʰɔːre || || adv || there (not visible) || ''*tʰadłe'' || thaːre || thoːri || thaːr || toːre
|-
| wɜ̃i || || adv || back, in reverse, the other way around || {{gray|''*wãyu'' (cf. Tm. ''eńo'' ‘again, repeatedly’)}} || wɜ̃ː || wai || wai || wâi
|-
| {{--}}ɔːm || || cj || and (postclitic, used to connect nouns within a phrase) || ''*ʔama'' ‘with’ || =aːm || =oːm || =oːm || =om
|-
| iː || || cj || if, whether || ''*ʔey'' || iː || iː || iː || i
|-
| jɔl || || cj || (complementizer) || ''*yaši'' (anaphoric intangible pronoun) || jala || joːl || joːl || jor
|-
| sɔu || || cj || or || ''*saw'' || soː || suː || sau || sau
|-
| tsɔ || || cj || and || ''*ca'' || tsa || tso || tha || tso
|-
| akɔr || akɔrɔ- || n || rain || ''*ʔakʷała'' ‘result of raining’ || ɛkar (a) || agor (o) || akor (o) || akor (o)
|-
| deːk || deːkɔ- || n || nation, ethnicity || ''*dłeʔka'' ‘tribe’ || deːk (a) || deːg (o) || deːk (o) || deːk (o)
|-
| dea || dea- || n || land, region, area, place, location || ''*dłeʔa'' || dɛː || daː || deː || dià
|-
| dɜ̃il || dɜ̃ili- || n || spear || ''*dłũyeči'' ‘long arrow’ || doːni || diːl (i) || diːl (i) || dâir (li)
|-
| dɜ̃uza || dɜ̃uzɜ̃- || n || blanket || ''*dãbudzũ'' ‘thick tool’ || dɜ̃ːzɜ̃ || dauza || dauz (a) || dâuzâ
|-
| duːnam || duːnamu- || n || boot || ''*duγanãγu'' ‘good foot’ || duːnom (u) || duːnam (u) || duːnam (u) || duːnam (u)
|-
| duːtruː || duːtruː- || n || status, social standing, reputation, honor || ''*duγatłuwa'' ‘good blood’ || duːtruː || duːdruː || duːtruː || duːtaru
|-
| duːxap || duːxape- || n || oak tree || {{gray|''*duγakłĩpe'' ‘good wood’}} || duːwop (e) || duːxab (i) || duːxap (e) || duːgap (e)
|-
| duz || duze- || n || sky || ''*dudže'' || duze || duz (i) || duːz (e) || dus (ze)
|-
| duzɛkʰei || duzɛkʰeː- || n || lightning || ''*dudžekʰaya'' ‘sky-fire’ || duzokheː || duzekhiː || duːzakhiː || duzakài
|-
| eːdɔ || eːdɔ- || n || lord, chief, leader || {{gray|''*ʔełda''}} || eːda || eːdo || eːd (o) || eːdo
|-
| edɔk || edɔki- || n || snail || ''*ʔidakʷi'' ‘slow-{{sc|dim}}’ || edak (i) || edog (i) || edok (i) || edok (i)
|-
| ertu || ertu- || n || reason, cause, motive || ''*ʔel-tu'' ‘because-{{sc|abstr}}’ || ertu || judu || ertu || ertu
|-
| geːziːru || geːziːru- || n || butter || ''*γelšisłu'' ‘made from fat’ || geːziːru || geːziːru || geːziːr (u) || gezìːru
|-
| geɔk || geɔki- || n || message, fact, piece of information || ''*γiyakʷi'' ‘hear-{{sc|dim}}’ || gɛːk (i) || goig (i) || gaːk (i) || gauk (i)
|-
| gepa || gepɜ̃- || n || pass (in mountains) || {{gray|''*γepĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''yepę'')}} || gepɜ̃ || geba || gep (a) || gepâ
|-
| gɜ̃zrɔu || gɜ̃zruː- || n || Gezoro || ''*γãdželawe'' ‘big person’ || gɜ̃zoroː || gezoroː || gezorau || gêzarau
|-
| gil || gile- || n || day || ''*γiše'' || gile || giːl (i) || giːl (e) || gir (le)
|-
| ginig || ginigɔ- || n || iron || || ginig (a) || giːniː || giːnig || ginig (o)
|-
| gɔːreg || gɔːrege- || n || salt || ''*γaʔleγ'' ‘salt-{{sc|edible}}’ || gaːreg (e) || goːreː || goːreg (e) || goːreg (e)
|-
| gɔːz || gɔːzi- || n || neck || ''*γalši'' || gaːz (i) || goːz (i) || gauz (i) || goːs (zi)
|-
| gɔñ || gɔñɔ- || n || leaf || ''*γaña'' || gaña || goːn (o) || gaːn (jo) || goŋ (o)
|-
| gɔñɔg || gɔñɔgɔ- || n || lettuce || ''*γañaγ'' ‘leaf-{{sc|edible}}’ || gañag (a) || goːnjoː || gaːngo || goŋog (o)
|-
| grid || gridu- || n || peak, summit || ''*γʷeleydu'' ‘mountain’ (honorific) || gridu || grid (u) || griːd (u) || garìd (u)
|-
| guːgɜ̃ || guːgɜ̃- || n || life || ''*γʷiwaγʷĩ'' || guːgɜ̃ || guːga || guːg (a) || guːgâ
|-
| guːz || guːzi- || n || grain || ''*γulši'' ‘millet’ || guːz (i) || guːz (i) || guːz (i) || guːs (zi)
|-
| gul || guli- || n || fish || ''*γuči'' || guli || guːl (i) || guːl (i) || gur (li)
|-
| guram || gurmɔ- || n || hill || ''*γʷułĩma'' ‘slope-place’ || gurma || guːm (o) || guːm (o) || guram (a)
|-
| gwaːm || gwaːmɔ- || n || fortification, defensive wall || {{gray|''*γʷaʔãma'' ‘resist-place’ (cf. Tm. ''waʔą'' ‘clash with, contradict’)}} || goːm (a) || gwaːm (o) || gaːm (o) || gwaːm (a)
|-
| gwatɔːrɔ || gwatɔːrɔ- || n || air, weather || ''*γʷĩtala'' ‘collection of winds’ || gotaːra || gwatoːro || gaːtoːr (o) || gwâtòːro
|-
| gweːbu || gweːbu- || n || servant || ''*γʷełbu'' ‘slave’ || goːbu || gweːbu || gaib (u) || gweːbu
|-
| gweːkʰ || gweːkʰɔ- || n || goods, products, supplies || ''*γʷuyekʰa'' ‘heavy things’ || goːkh (a) || gweːkh (o) || geːkh (a) || gweːk (o)
|-
| gwei || gweje- || n || mountain || ''*γʷeye'' ‘hill’ || geː || gwiː || gai || gwai
|-
| gweiriːpa || gweiriːpɜ̃- || n || promontory || ''*γʷeyełiγpĩ'' ‘hill-shoulder’ || geːriːpa || gwiːriːba || giːriːp (a) || gwairìːpâ
|-
| gwerim || gwerimɔ- || n || west || ''*γʷeleyma'' ‘mountain-place’ || gerim (a) || gwiːrim (o) || giːrim (o) || gwerim (a)
|-
| gwɛkud || gwɛkudu- || n || eagle || ''*γʷekudu'' || gokud (u) || gwegud (u) || gaikud (u) || gwekud (u)
|-
| gwɜ̃s || gwɜ̃su- || n || bone || ''*γʷãsu'' || gɜ̃s (u) || gwes (u) || ges (u) || gwâs (u)
|-
| gwɜ̃seɜ̃ || gwɜ̃seɜ̃- || n || grave || ''*γʷãsuγẽ'' ‘bone-place’ || gɜ̃sɜ̃ː || gwesja || gesja || gwâsiâ
|-
| gwɜ̃takama || gwɜ̃takamɜ̃- || n || bat || {{gray|''*γʷĩtakũγʷã'' ‘wind-mouse’ (cf. Tm. ''mętkomą'')}} || gonthɛkoma || gwenthagama || ganthakam (a) || gwâtakàmâ
|-
| gwɜ̃ukʰɔːs || gwɜ̃ukʰɔːsi- || n || pine tree || {{gray|''*γĩwakʰaʔši''}} || goːnkhaːs (i) || gwaunkhoːs (i) || gaunkhaːs (i) || gwâukos (i)
|-
| gwiːjɜ̃ || gwiːjɜ̃- || n || the world || ''*γʷiwaγẽ'' ‘life-place’ || giːjɜ̃ || gwiːja || gaːja || gwiːjâ
|-
| gwilañ || gwilañɜ̃- || n || berry || {{gray|''*γʷeyłĩγ'' ‘many-{{sc|edible}}’ (cf. Tm. ''wihę-'' ‘countless, innumerable’)}} || giloñ (ɜ̃) || gwiːlan (a) || giːlna || gwilaŋ (â)
|-
| gwɔraːzɜ̃ || gwɔraːzɜ̃- || n || abacus || {{gray|''*γʷałĩdzadzũ'' ‘count-tool’}} || gorɛːzɜ̃ || gworaːza || goːraːz (a) || gworàːzâ
|-
| gwɔs || gwɔsu- || n || side, edge || {{gray|''*γʷasu'' (cf. Tm. ''oso'')}} || gos (u) || gwos (u) || goːs (u) || gwos (u)
|-
| iːz || iːzɔ- || n || hand || ''*ʔilsa'' || iːz (a) || iːz (o) || iːz (o) || iːs (o)
|-
| iːzumɔkuː || iːzumɔkuː || n || shield || ''*ʔilsaʔu ʔũγʷukuʔu'' ‘solid shell of the hand’ || iːzumakuː || iːzunkhuː || iːzuːnkhuː || izumokùː
|-
| iːzurat || iːzuratɔ- || n || palm (of the hand) || ''*ʔilsaʔu lat'' ‘under the hand’ || iːzurɛt (a) || iːzurad (o) || iːzurto || izurat (o)
|-
| iseːzigɜ̃ || iseːzigɜ̃- || n || metallurgy || {{gray|''*ʔisaʔeʔdžiγʷĩ'' ‘hot sculpting’}} || iseːzigɜ̃ || iseːzoi || iseːzig (a) || isezìgen
|-
| itsɔɜ̃ || itsɔɜ̃- || n || hook || ''*ʔičʰadzũ'' ‘fish-catcher’ || itsɜ̃ː || itsau || ithau || itsâu
|-
| jaːner || jaːnerɔ- || n || picture, image || {{gray|''*yẽʔneła'' ‘result of painting’}} || ɛːner (a) || jaːnir (o) || jaːner (o) || jaːner (o)
|-
| jaːnɛkʰɛd || jaːnɛkʰɛdɔ- || n || paintbrush || {{gray|''*yẽʔnekʰeda'' ‘paint-thing’}} || ɛːnokhod (a) || jaːnkhed (o) || jaːnkhad (o) || janakèd (o)
|-
| jasɔd || jasɔdu- || n || sacrifice, offering || ''*yãsadu'' ‘meat’ (honorific) || ɛsad (u) || jasod (u) || jasad (u) || jâsod (u)
|-
| jasɔg || jasɔgɔ- || n || meat || ''*yãsaγ'' ‘meat-{{sc|edible}}’ || ɛsag (a) || jasoː || jasag (o) || jâsog (o)
|-
| jatʰɔg || jatʰɔgɔ- || n || garden || ''*yatʰaγ'' ‘garden-{{sc|edible}}’ || ɛthag (a) || jathoː || jathag (o) || jatog (o)
|-
| jeːñeː || jeːñeː- || n || uncle || {{gray|''*yeʔñeyaʔe'' ‘descendant of grandfather’}} || eːñeː || jeːnjeː || jaːnjeː || jeːŋe
|-
| jekjɜ̃u || jekjɜ̃u- || n || mouth || ''*yekuyãbu'' || ekɜ̃ː || jegjau || jekau || jekiâu
|-
| jel || jeli- || n || arrow || ''*yeči'' || eli || iːli || jeːl (i) || jer (li)
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| jelilet || jeliletu- || n || speed, swiftness, agility || ''*yečišitu'' ‘arrow-like-ness’ || elilet (u) || iːliled (u) || jeːlilet (u) || jelilèt (u)
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| jelkad || jelkadu- || n || tip (of a spear or arrow) || ''*yečiʔu kʷẽdu'' ‘arrow-head’ || elkɛd (u) || iːgad (u) || jelkad (u) || jerkâd (u)
|-
| jezɔr || jezɔrɔ- || n || war || ''*yedzała'' ‘result of pushing’ || ezar (a) || jezor (o) || jaizor (o) || jezor (o)
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| jɜ̃ː || jɜ̃ː- || n || bee || ''*džĩʔĩ'' || jɜ̃ː || jeː || jaː || jâː
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| jɜ̃ːkʰ || jɜ̃ːkʰɔ- || n || honey || ''*džĩʔĩkʰa'' || eːnkha || joːnkho || jaːkh (a) || jâːk (o)
|-
| jɜ̃ːli || -zɜ̃ːli- || n || breast || ''*džũbłi'' || eːni || iːli || jaːl (i) || jâːli
|-
| jɜ̃u || jɜ̃u- || n || hole || ''*yãbu'' ‘mouth’ || jɜ̃ː || jau || jau || jâu
|-
| jɜ̃z || jɜ̃zu- || n || bag || {{gray|''*yãdzu'' (cf. Tm. ''yano'')}} || jɜ̃ːzu || jez (u) || jaːz (u) || jâs (zu)
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| jɔb || jɔbi- || n || part, piece || {{gray|''*yabi'' (cf. Tm. ''yawi'')}} || jebi || job (i) || jaub (i) || job (i)
|-
| jɔlgɜ̃ || jɔlgɜ̃- || n || marriage || ''*yašiγʷĩ'' ‘holding’ || jalgɜ̃ || jaiga || jolga || jorgâ
|-
| jɔm || jɔmɔ- || n || sun || ''*yama'' || jama || joːm (o) || jaum (o) || jom (o)
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| jɔmeɔː || jɔmeɔː- || n || person || ''*yamayaʔa'' || ɛmaː || jomoi || jamaː || jomòː
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| jubleg || jublegi- || n || cheese || {{gray|''*yubišiγ''}} || ibleg (i) || jubleː || jubleg (i) || jubleg (i)
|-
| jupakʰ || jupakʰɔ- || n || ashes || ''*yupʰakʰa'' ‘that which remains’ || jupɛkh (a) || jubakh (o) || jupakh (a) || jupak (o)
|-
| kaduːrɔ || kaduːrɔ- || n || army || ''*kʷẽdula'' ‘collection of heads’ || kɛduːra || gaduːro || kaduːr (o) || kâdùːro
|-
| kama || kamɜ̃- || n || mouse || {{gray|''*kũγʷã'' (cf. Tm. ''komą'')}} || komɜ̃ || kaːma || kaːm (a) || kamâ
|-
| katsud || katsudu- || n || strength, energy, courage || ''*kʷacudu'' ‘strength’ (honorific) || kɛtsud (u) || katsud (u) || kathud (u) || katsud (u)
|-
| keːx || keːxɔ- || n || anvil || ''*kʰełka'' ‘stone’ || keː (jɛ) || keːx (o) || keːx (o) || keːg (o)
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| kekeɜ̃ || kekeɜ̃- || n || hearth, fireplace, kitchen || ''*kʷekʷuγẽ'' ‘cook-place’ || kekɜ̃ː || kegja || kekja (a) || kekiâ
|-
| kel || keli- || n || back (body part) || {{gray|''*kʷeči'' (cf. Tm. ''kwece'' ‘backbone; pillar’)}} || keli || kiːl (i) || keːl (i) || ker (li)
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| ker || kerɔ- || n || child || ''*kʷela'' || kera || keːr (o) || keːr (o) || ker (o)
|-
| kesɔr || kesɔrɔ- || n || felt || ''*kʷisała'' ‘result of squeezing’ || kesar (a) || kesor (o) || kesar (o) || kesor (o)
|-
| keuːnɔ || keuːnɔ- || n || goat || {{gray|''*kyuʔna'' (cf. Tm. ''ćoʔna'')}} || kuːna || koino || koːn (o) || kuːno
|-
| kɜ̃ːkʰiː || kɜ̃ːkʰiː- || n || arable soil || ''*kʰãʔakʰeya'' ‘black soil’ || koːnkhiː || koːnkhiː || kaːnkhiː || kêːki
|-
| kɜ̃d || kɜ̃du- || n || head || ''*kʷẽdu'' || kɜ̃du || ked (u) || kaːd (u) || kêd (u)
|-
| kɜ̃dukʰ || kɜ̃dukʰɔ- || n || hat, helmet || ''*kʷẽdukʰa'' ‘head-thing’ || kɜ̃dukh (a) || kedukh (o) || kaːdukh (a) || kêduk (o)
|-
| kɜ̃kʰ || kɜ̃kʰɔ- || n || finger || {{gray|''*kẽkʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''kęka'')}} || konkha || kekh (o) || kekh (a) || kêk (o)
|-
| kiːjakʰ || kiːjakʰɔ- || n || torch || {{gray|''*kʷiyĩkʰa'' ‘cave-thing’}} || kiːjɛkh (a) || kiːjakh (o) || kiːjakh (a) || kiːjâk (o)
|-
| kiːñɜ̃ || kiːñɜ̃- || n || cave || {{gray|''*kʷiyĩγẽ'' ‘cave-place’}} || kiːñɜ̃ || kiːnja || kiːn (ja) || kiːŋâ
|-
| kintʰɔr || kintʰɔrɔ- || n || wall (of a house) || ''*kʰiñatʰała'' ‘result of building’ || kinthar (a) || kinthor (o) || kinthar (o) || kîtor (o)
|-
| kirnam || kirnamɜ̃- || n || provisions, stored food || {{gray|''*kilnũγ'' ‘provide-{{sc|edible}}’}} || kirnom (ɜ̃) || koinam (a) || kiːnam (a) || kiranam (â)
|-
| kɔkʰeɔk || kɔkʰeɔki- || n || ore || ''*kʰãʔakʰeyakʷi'' ‘black sand’ || kakhɛːk (i) || gekhoig (i) || kokhaːk (i) || kokàuk (i)
|-
| kɔkʰeɔkeɜ̃ || kɔkʰeɔkeɜ̃- || n || mine || ''*kʰãʔakʰeyakʷiγẽ'' ‘black-sand-place’ || kakhɛːkɜ̃ː || gekhoija || kokhaːkja || kokàukiâ
|-
| kɔn || kɔnɔ- || n || group (of people) || {{gray|''*kana'' (cf. Tm. ''kana'')}} || kana || koːn (o) || koːn (o) || kon (o)
|-
| kɔpʰa || kɔpʰɜ̃- || n || wild animal || {{gray|''*kʷapʰũ'' (cf. Emp. ''kophum'' ‘roe’)}} || kaphɜ̃ || kopha (a) || koph (a) || kopâ
|-
| kɔsrɔu || kɔsruː- || n || friend || ''*kacalawa'' ‘friend-person’ || kasroː || kosroː || kasrau || kosarau
|-
| kuːgak || kuːgakɔ- || n || turtle || {{gray|''*kuʔuγũka'' ‘shell-pig’ (cf. Tm. ''koʔńǫka'')}} || kuːgɛk (a) || kuːgag (o) || kuːgak (o) || kuːgâk (o)
|-
| kuːtʰɔ || kuːtʰɔ- || n || sweat || {{gray|''*kułtʰa''}} || kuːtha || kuːtho || kuːth (a) || kuːto
|-
| kuːza || kuːzɜ̃- || n || bed, mattress || ''*kudadzũ'' ‘sleep-tool’ || kuːzɜ̃ || kuːza || kuːz (a) || kuːzâ
|-
| kula || kulɜ̃- || n || bow || {{gray|''*kʷučĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''kwoćę'' ‘sinew’)}} || kulɜ̃ || kuːla || kuːl (a) || kulâ
|-
| kur || kuru- || n || wolf || ''*kʷułu'' || kuru || kuːr (u) || kuːr (u) || kur (u)
|-
| kʰaːñɜ̃t || kʰaːñɜ̃tɔ- || n || crow, raven || ''*kʰãʔaʔẽta'' ‘black feather’ || khoːñontha || khaːnjentho || kaːntho || kaːŋêt (o)
|-
| kʰed || kʰedɔ- || n || thing, object || {{gray|''*kʰeda'' (cf. Tm. ''kera'')}} || khada || khed (o) || kheːd (o) || ked (o)
|-
| kʰeirɔu || kʰeiruː- || n || farmer, peasant || ''*kʰeyalawa'' ‘soil-person’ || kheːroː || khiːroː || khiːrau || kairau
|-
| kʰeiwɛtsa || kʰeiwɛtsɜ̃- || n || shovel || ''*kʰeyawetadzũ'' ‘soil-turner’ || kheːwotsɜ̃ || khiːwetsa || khiːwath (a) || kaiwàtsâ
|-
| kʰeɔːtsa || kʰeɔːtsɜ̃- || n || charcoal || ''*kʰayałacũ'' ‘ashes’ || khaːtsɜ̃ || khoitsa || kaːth (a) || koːtsâ
|-
| kʰernɔ || kʰernɔ- || n || horn (of an animal) || ''*kʰelna'' || kharna || khoino || kheːn (o) || keran (o)
|-
| kʰernɔd || kʰernɔdu- || n || ibex, mountain goat || ''*kʰelnadu'' ‘horn’ (honorific) || kharnad (u) || khoinod (u) || kheːndu || keranòd (u)
|-
| kʰes || kʰesɔ- || n || dung || ''*kʰesa'' || khas (a) || khes (o) || khes (a) || kes (o)
|-
| kʰesnu || kʰesnu- || n || light || {{gray|''*kʰecunuwa'' ‘bright flame’}} || khasnu || khesnu || khesnu || kesan (u)
|-
| kʰɜ̃ːgil || kʰɜ̃ːgile- || n || solar eclipse || ''*kʰãʔaγiše'' ‘black day’ || khɜ̃ːgil (e) || kheːgil (i) || khaːgil (e) || kêːgir (li)
|-
| kʰɜ̃ːxap || kʰɜ̃ːxape- || n || ebony tree || {{gray|''*kʰãʔakłĩpe'' ‘black wood’}} || khoːnɛp (e) || kheːxab (i) || khaːxap (e) || kêːgâp (e)
|-
| kʰiːleɜ̃ || kʰiːleɜ̃- || n || steppe, desert || ''*kʰibłaγẽ'' ‘dry place’ || khiːlɜ̃ː || khiːlja || khiːlja || kiːliâ
|-
| kʰiːlɔxak || kʰiːlɔxake- || n || leather || ''*kʰibłakłãke'' ‘dry skin’ || khiːlaːk (e) || khiːloxag (i) || khiːloxak (e) || kiːrgâk (e)
|-
| kʰib || kʰibu- || n || snake || ''*kʰeybu'' ‘worm’ || khibu || khib (u) || khiːb (u) || kib (u)
|-
| kʰig || kʰigɔ- || n || water || {{gray|''*kʰiγʷa'' (cf. Tm. ''kiho'' ‘drop of liquid’)}} || khiga || khiː || khiːg (o) || kig (o)
|-
| kʰiñeɔr || kʰiñeɔrɔ- || n || council, assembly || ''*kʰiñaʔayała'' ‘result of being together’ || khiñɛːra || khinjaːra || khinjaːr (o) || kiŋaur (o)
|-
| kʰit || kʰitɔ- || n || womb, vagina || ''*kʷʰeyta'' || khit (a) || khid (o) || khit (o) || kit (o)
|-
| kʰɔːs || kʰɔːsi- || n || tree || {{gray|''*kʰaʔši''}} || khaːs (i) || khoːs (i) || khaːs (i) || koːs (i)
|-
| kʰɔːseɜ̃ || kʰɔːseɜ̃- || n || grove || {{gray|''*kʰaʔšiγẽ'' ‘tree-place’}} || khaːsɜ̃ː || khoːsja || khaːsja || koːsiâ
|-
| kʰɔe || kʰɔjɔ- || n || fire || ''*kʰaya'' || khiː (jɛ) || khai || khai || kwai
|-
| kʰɔekɛːx || kʰɔekɛːxɔ- || n || slag brick || ''*kʰayakʰełka'' ‘fire-stone’ || khiːkɛː (jɛ) || khaikeːx (o) || khaikeːx (o) || kwaikag (o)
|-
| kʰɔeteɜ̃ || kʰɔeteɜ̃- || n || gold || {{gray|''*kʰayatayũ'' ‘fire-mineral’}} || khiːtɜ̃ː || khaidja || khaitja || kwaitiâ
|-
| kʰɔjɔm || kʰɔjɔmɔ- || n || furnace, smelting oven || ''*kʰayama'' ‘fire-place’ || khajɛm (a) || khojom (o) || khaːjam (o) || kojom (a)
|-
| kʰɔrɔzɜ̃ || kʰɔrɔzɜ̃- || n || rope || ''*kʰaludzũ'' ‘tool for tying’ || kharazɜ̃ || khoːroza || khaːroz (a) || koròzâ
|-
| kʰur || kʰuru- || n || buttocks || ''*kʰulu'' ‘anus’ || khuru || khuːr (u) || khuːr (u) || kur (u)
|-
| kʰus || kʰusu- || n || oil || {{gray|''*kʰusu''}} || khus (u) || khus (u) || khus (u) || kus (u)
|-
| kʰusram || kʰusrami- || n || olive || {{gray|''*kʰusułẽmi'' ‘oil-fruit’}} || khusrom (i) || khusram (i) || khusram (i) || kusaram (i)
|-
| lɔːjɔe || lɔːjɔe- || n || god || || laːjeː || loːjai || loːjai || loːjai
|-
| luzakʰ || luzakʰɔ- || n || loot, booty || {{gray|''*γludžẽkʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''leńę'' ‘seize’)}} || luzɛkh (a) || luzakh (o) || luːzakh (a) || luzâk (o)
|-
| mam || mamu- || n || sheep || ''*mẽγu'' || momu || maːm (u) || maːm (u) || mam (u)
|-
| mamɔtsɔm || mamɔtsɔmɔ- || n || meadow, pasture || {{gray|''*mẽγucʰama'' ‘sheep-land’}} || momatsam (a) || maːntsom (o) || maːntham (o) || mamotsom (a)
|-
| mamrɔu || mamruː- || n || shepherd || ''*mẽγulawu'' ‘sheep-person’ || momroː || mamroː || mamrau || mârau
|-
| meːsɔɜ̃ || meːsɔɜ̃- || n || needle || ''*meʔšudzũ'' ‘tool for sewing’ || meːsɜ̃ː || meːsau || meːsau || meːsâu
|-
| mer || meri- || n || tongue || ''*mełi'' || meri || miːr (i) || meːr (i) || mer (i)
|-
| mez || mezɔ- || n || dog || ''*medza'' || meza || mez (o) || maiz (o) || mes (zo)
|-
| mɜ̃r || mɜ̃ri- || n || wind || {{gray|''*mĩłi'' (cf. Tm. ''mińi'')}} || moni || miːr (i) || maːr (i) || men (^ri)
|-
| mɜ̃seak || mɜ̃seaki- || n || the Aiwa river || ''*mãsuyãki'' ‘wide river’ || mɜ̃sɛːk (i) || mesaːg (i) || mesjak (i) || mêsiak (i)
|-
| mɜ̃za || mɜ̃zɜ̃- || n || nose || ''*mãdzã'' || mɜ̃zɜ̃ || meza || maːz (a) || mêzâ
|-
| min || minɔ- || n || mother || ''*mina'' || mina || miːn (o) || miːn (o) || min (o)
|-
| mɔːpa || mɔːpɜ̃- || n || hip || {{gray|''*maγpĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''mapę'')}} || maːpɜ̃ || moːba || moːp (a) || moːpâ
|-
| mɔːri || mɔːri- || n || bear || ''*madłi'' || maːri || moːri || moːr (i) || moːri
|-
| mɔːxazɜ̃ || mɔːxazɜ̃- || n || knife || ''*małkadzũ'' ‘sharp tool’ || maːwozɜ̃ || moːxaza || moːxaz (a) || mogàzâ
|-
| mɔk || mɔki- || n || room (in a house) || ''*makʷi'' ‘place-{{sc|dim}}’ || mak (i) || mog (i) || mok (i) || mak (i)
|-
| mɔkuː || mɔkuː- || n || armor || {{gray|''*ʔũγʷukuʔu'' ‘solid shell’}} || makuː || moguː || mokuː || maku
|-
| mɔkʰɔːrɔu || mɔkʰɔːruː- || n || smith || {{gray|''*ʔũγʷukʰadulawu'' ‘metal-person’}} || makhaːroː || mokhoːroː || mokhaːrau || mokòːrau
|-
| mɔkʰɔd || mɔkʰɔdu- || n || bronze; metal || {{gray|''*ʔũγʷukʰadu'' ‘solid thing’ (honorific))}} || makhad (u) || mokhod (u) || mokhad (u) || makod (u)
|-
| nam || namu- || n || foot || ''*nãγu'' || nomu || naːm (u) || naːm (u) || nam (u)
|-
| namuk || namuki- || n || toe || ''*nãγukʷi'' ‘foot-{{sc|dim}}’ || nomuk (i) || naːnkhi || naːnkhi || namuk
|-
| neikad || neikadu- || n || deer || ''*neγlakʷadu'' ‘white tail’ || neːkɛd (u) || niːgad (u) || niːkad (u) || naikad (u)
|-
| neixɔm || neixɔmɔ- || n || mushroom || ''*neγlakłama'' ‘white berry’ || neːjɛm (a) || niːxom (o) || niːxam (o) || naigom (a)
|-
| nɜ̃pʰ || nɜ̃pʰi- || n || belt || {{gray|''*nĩpʰi'' (cf. Tm. ''nęhi'')}} || nomphi || nemphi || namphi || nêp (i)
|-
| nɜ̃u || nɜ̃wi- || n || brooch, fibula || {{gray|''*nẽwi'' brooch, fibula}} || nomi || nau || nau || nâu
|-
| niːrɔː || niːrɔː- || n || silver || ''*neγlałaγa'' ‘white eye’ || niːraː || niːroː || niːroː || niːro
|-
| nintʰa || nintʰɜ̃- || n || bread || {{gray|''*ninitʰã''}} || ninthɜ̃ || nintha || nintha || nîtâ
|-
| nipʰ || nipʰɔ- || n || cloud || ''*nipʰa'' ‘fog’ || niph (a) || niph (o) || niph (a) || nip (o)
|-
| nɔːtsa || nɔːtsɜ̃- || n || bridge || ''*natadzũ'' ‘that which is above’ || naːtsɜ̃ || noːtsa || naːth (a) || noːtsâ
|-
| nɔda || nɔdɜ̃- || n || left side || ''*nadũ'' || nadɜ̃ || noda || naud (a) || nadâ
|-
| nɔdadeɜ̃ || nɔdadeɜ̃- || n || left-handed person || ''*nadũdayũ'' ‘left-person’ || nadɛdɜ̃ː || nodadja || naudadja || nadâdiâ
|-
| nɔlɛxepʰa || nɔlɛxepʰɜ̃- || n || domestic animal || ''*načekłepʰã'' ‘tame animal’ || nalɛːphɜ̃ || nalaxepha || nolaxeph (a) || nolegèpâ
|-
| nɔlrɜ̃l || nɔlrɜ̃li- || n || horse || ''*načełãši'' ‘tame horse’ || naloron (i) || niːral (i) || noloral (i) || nalaròr (li)
|-
| nɔrɔːla || nɔrɔːlɜ̃- || n || girl, daughter || ''*nałaʔašẽ'' ‘young woman’ || naraːlɜ̃ || neroːla || noroːl (a) || noroːlâ
|-
| nɔrɔk || nɔrɔki- || n || baby, toddler || ''*nałakʷi'' ‘young-{{sc|dim}}’ || narak (i) || noːrog (i) || noːrok (i) || narki
|-
| nuː || nuː- || n || flame || {{gray|''*nuwa''}} || nuː || nuː || nuː || nuː
|-
| numliː || numliː- || n || beard || {{gray|''*numẽčiγli'' ‘face-beard’}} || numliː || numliː || numliː || nûli
|-
| ñelekʰ || ñelekʰɔ- || n || jewel || ''*ñešikʰa'' ‘smooth thing’ || ñelekh (a) || njeːlekh (o) || neːlkha || ŋerko
|-
| ñepɜ̃d || ñepɜ̃du- || n || main gate (of a city or castle) || {{gray|''*ñipãdu'' ‘door’ (honorific)}} || ñepɜ̃d (u) || njebed (u) || neped (u) || ŋepêd (u)
|-
| ñipa || ñipɜ̃- || n || door || {{gray|''*ñipã'' (cf. Tm. ''ńipą'')}} || ñipɜ̃ || njeba || nip (a) || ŋipâ
|-
| ɔːña || ɔːñɜ̃- || n || color || {{gray|''*ʔałñũ'' (cf. Tm. ''ahńǫ'')}} || aːñɜ̃ || oːnja || oːn (ja) || oːŋâ
|-
| ɔdeakʰ || ɔdeakʰɔ- || n || danger, risk || ''*ʔadyakʰa'' ‘fear-thing’ || adɛːkh (a) || odjakh (o) || odeːkh (a) || odiak (o)
|-
| ɔla || ɔlɜ̃- || n || woman, wife || ''*ʔašẽ'' || alɜ̃ || ola || ol (a) || olâ
|-
| pam || pami- || n || word || {{gray|''*pũγʷi'' (cf. Tm. ''pomi'')}} || pomi || paːm (i) || paːm (i) || pam (i)
|-
| pɜ̃k || pɜ̃ki- || n || bowl, mug || {{gray|''*pũki'' (cf. Tm. ''pǫki'')}} || ponkhi || penkhi || pankhi || pêk (i)
|-
| pɜ̃z || pɜ̃zi- || n || basket || {{gray|''*pãdži'' (cf. Tm. ''peńi'')}} || pɜ̃zi || pez (i) || paːz (i) || pês (zi)
|-
| pɜ̃zim || pɜ̃zmɔ- || n || storehouse || {{gray|''*pãdžima'' ‘basket-place’ || pɜ̃zim (i) || pezim (o) || paːmo || pêzim (a)
|-
| plɔm || plɔmɔ- || n || flower, blossom || ''*plama'' || plam (a) || ploːm (o) || plaum (o) || palòm (a)
|-
| plɔukʰ || plɔukʰɔ- || n || shoe || ''*pławakʰa'' ‘walk-thing’ || ploːkh (a) || pluːkh (o) || pluːkh (a) || palàuk (o)
|-
| pluːm || pluːmɔ- || n || road, path || ''*pławama'' ‘walk-place’ || pluːm (a) || pluːm (o) || pluːm (o) || palùːm (a)
|-
| puːkʰɛd || puːkʰɛdɔ- || n || flute || ''*pʰiwakʰeda'' ‘blow-thing’ || puːkhod (a) || puːkhed (o) || puːkhad (o) || puːkad (o)
|-
| pʰɔːrɔu || pʰɔːruː- || n || penis || ''*pʰalalawa'' ‘grow-person’ || phaːroː || phuːruː || phoːrau || poːrau
|-
| pʰɔːzɜ̃ || pʰɔːzɜ̃- || n || pump, bellows || ''*pʰiwadzũ'' ‘blow-tool’ || phaːzɜ̃ || phoːza || phaːz (a) || poːzâ
|-
| pʰɔdɔːrɔ || pʰɔdɔːrɔ- || n || alliance || ''*pʰudala'' ‘collection of chiefs’ || phadaːra || phodoːro || phadoːr (o) || podòːro
|-
| pʰɔlɜ̃ || pʰɔlɜ̃- || n || lowlands; the Aiwa valley || ''*pʰalaγẽ'' ‘far place’ || phalɜ̃ || phoːla || phaːl (a) || polâ
|-
| pʰudeɜ̃ || pʰudeɜ̃- || n || country, territory || ''*pʰudaγẽ'' ‘chief-place’ || phudɜ̃ː || phudja || phuːdja || pudiâ
|-
| ram || rami- || n || fruit || {{gray|''*łẽmi''}} || romi || raːm (i) || raːm (i) || ram (i)
|-
| ramiːru || ramiːru- || n || jam, jelly, stewed fruit || {{gray|''*łẽmisłu'' ‘made from fruit’}} || romiːru || ramiːru || ramiːr (u) || ramìːru
|-
| ramɔg || ramɔgɔ- || n || flour || ''*lũmaγ'' ‘grind-{{sc|edible}}’ || romag (a) || raːmoː || raːmog (o) || ramog (o)
|-
| rañɔd || rañɔdu- || n || ancestor || ''*łãγadu'' ‘spirit’ (honorific) || roñad (u) || raːnjod (u) || raːndu || raŋod (u)
|-
| reːsɔ || reːsɔ- || n || fox || {{gray|''*łeʔsa''}} || reːsa || reːso || reːs (a) || reːso
|-
| reːtsɔm || reːtsɔmɔ- || n || highland; the Rathedān || {{gray|''*leʔecʰama'' (cf. Tm. ''leʔcahma'')}} || reːtsam (a) || reːtsom (o) || reːtham (o) || reːtsom (a)
|-
| rɜ̃ːsurɔu || rɜ̃ːsuruː- || n || enemy || {{gray|''*łĩʔsulawu'' ‘hate-person’}} || rɜ̃ːsuroː || reːsuroː || raːsurau || rêsurau
|-
| rɜ̃s || rɜ̃su- || n || body, torso || ''*lãsu'' ‘back’ || rɜ̃s (u) || res (u) || res (u) || rês (u)
|-
| rɜ̃ts || rɜ̃tsɔ- || n || egg || ''*lãca'' || rɜ̃ts (a) || rets (o) || reth (a) || rêts (o)
|-
| rɜ̃xadei || rɜ̃xadiː- || n || merchant, trader || {{gray|''*lũkladaya'' ‘trade-person’}} || rɜ̃ːdeː || rexadiː || rexadai || rêgadài
|-
| riːgaːx || riːgaːxɔ- || n || acid, poison || ''*łiyaγʷałka'' ‘snake-spit’ || riːgɛː (jɛ) || riːgaːx (o) || riːgaːx (o) || riːgag (o)
|-
| riːnɔ || riːnɔ- || n || valley || {{gray|''*łiʔna'' (cf. Tm. ''hiʔna'')}} || riːna || riːno || riːn (o) || riːno
|-
| riːpa || riːpɜ̃- || n || shoulder; side || {{gray|''*łiγpĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''hipę'')}} || riːpɜ̃ || riːba || riːp (a) || riːpâ
|-
| rimɔd || rimɔdu- || n || elderly person || {{gray|''*łimadu'' ‘old’ (honorific)}} || rimad (u) || riːndu || riːndu || rimod (u)
|-
| rin || rinɔ- || n || lake || ''*łina'' || rina || riːn (o) || riːn (o) || rin (o)
|-
| rɔː || rɔː- || n || man, husband || ''*la'' || roː || roː || rau || roː
|-
| rɔːjɜ̃u || rɔːjɜ̃u- || n || chimney || ''*laγʷayãbu'' ‘smoke-mouth’ || raːjɜ̃ː || roːjau || roːjau || roːjâu
|-
| rɔːx || rɔːxɔ- || n || ear || ''*lałka'' || raː (wo-) || roːx (o) || roːx (o) || roːg (o)
|-
| rɔg || rɔgɔ- || n || eye || ''*łaγa'' || raga || roː || raug (o) || rog (o)
|-
| rɔjɔu || rɔjuː- || n || scout, diplomat || ''*łaγlawa'' ‘eye-person’ || rajoː || rojuː || roːjau || rojau
|-
| rɔk || rɔki- || n || boy, son || ''*lakʷi'' ‘man-{{sc|dim}}’ || rak (i) || rog (i) || rok (i) || rok (i)
|-
| rɔkeɜ̃ || rɔkeɜ̃- || n || vicinity, surroundings || ''*łakʷaγẽ'' ‘near-place’ || rakɜ̃ː || rogja || rokja || rokiâ
|-
| rɔñeɜ̃ || rɔñeɜ̃- || n || field || ''*lañaγẽ'' ‘dig-place’ || rañɜ̃ː || roːnja || raːnja || roŋiâ
|-
| rɔug || rɔugu- || n || spices || {{gray|''*łaʔuγ'' (cf. Tm. ''hoʔ'' ‘delicious, tasty’)}} || roːg (u) || ruː || raug (u) || raug (u)
|-
| ruːmɜ̃ || ruːmɜ̃- || n || method, manner || {{gray|''*luγũγʷĩ'' ‘action, activity’}} || ruːmɜ̃ || ruːma || ruːm (a) || ruːmâ
|-
| rukeɔm || rukeɔmɔ- || n || south || {{gray|''*łukyama'' (cf. Tm. ''hoća'' ‘summer’)}} || rukɛːm (a) || rukoim (o) || rukjam (o) || rukaum (a)
|-
| rum || rume- || n || signal call || {{gray|''*łume'' (cf. Tm. ''home'' ‘song, tune’)}} || rume || ruːm (i) || ruːm (e) || rum (e)
|-
| ruma || rumɜ̃- || n || right side || ''*lumẽ'' || rumɜ̃ || ruːma || ruːm (a) || rumâ
|-
| saːnedeɜ̃ || saːnedeɜ̃- || n || village || {{gray|''*sãkneduγẽ'' ‘place to dwell in’}} || soːnedɜ̃ː || saːnedja || saːnedja || sanediâ
|-
| sabeɔr || sabeɔrɔ- || n || warrior || ''*sabayala'' ‘fight-man’ || sɛbɛːra || sabaːr (o) || sabaːr (o) || sabàur (o)
|-
| sakits || sakitsi- || n || garlic || || sɛkits (i) || sagits (i) || sakith (i) || sakits (i)
|-
| sarɔk || sarɔki- || n || ring || ''*sũlakʷi'' ‘round-{{sc|dim}}’ || sɛrak (i) || saːrog (i) || saːrki || sarok (i)
|-
| seːtakʰiː || seːtakʰiː- || n || slag || ''*šeʔtakʰeya'' ‘flow-soil’ || seːtɛkhiː || seːdakhiː || seːtakhiː || setakìː
|-
| seːtɔm || seːtɔmɔ- || n || river || ''*šeʔtama'' ‘flow-place’ || seːtam (a) || seːdom (o) || seːtam (o) || seːtom (a)
|-
| seːzɔ || -leːzɔ- || n || heart || ''*čełdza'' || seːza || seːzo || seːz (o) || seːzo
|-
| sei || sei- || n || night || ''*sayi'' || seː || siː || siː || sai
|-
| sepa || -lepɜ̃- || n || younger brother || {{gray|''*šepã'' (cf. Tm. ''śepą'' ‘son, heir, descendant’)}} || sepɜ̃ || seba || sep (a) || sepâ
|-
| sɛkʰuːru || sɛkʰuːru- || n || forest || {{gray|''*čekʰusłu'' (cf. Emp. ''tsékhullú'' ‘thicket, grove’)}} || sokhuːru || sekhuːru || sakhuːr (u) || sakùːru
|-
| sɛsañ || sɛsañɜ̃- || n || beer || {{gray|''*sayšĩγ'' ‘drink-{{sc|edible}}’}} || sɛsoñ (ɜ̃) || sesan (a) || sasan (ja) || sesaŋ (â)
|-
| sɛsɔɜ̃ || sɛsɔɜ̃- || n || cup, drinking-horn || {{gray|''*sayšĩdzũ'' ‘drink-tool’}} || sɛsɜ̃ː || sesau || sasau || sesâu
|-
| sɜ̃riːz || sɜ̃riːzɔ- || n || fist || ''*sũlaʔilsa'' ‘round hand’ || soniːz (a) || seriːz (o) || seriːz (o) || sêris (zo)
|-
| sinɔzɜ̃ || sinɔzɜ̃- || n || bucket || ''*činudzũ'' ‘full tool’ || sinazɜ̃ || siːnoza || siːnoz (a) || sinòzâ
|-
| sleu || sleu- || n || star || ''*šešewa'' || sluː || sloi || sloː || salau
|-
| sɔɜ̃ːru || sɔɜ̃ːru- || n || idea, plan, concept || {{gray|''*šaʔẽsłu'' ‘made from the mind’}} || soːnu || suːru || soːr (u) || sêːru
|-
| suːrat || suːratɔ- || n || the future || ''*sudłatu'' ‘tomorrow-ness’ || suːrɛt (a) || suːrad (o) || suːrat (o) || suːrat (o)
|-
| takɔːre || takɔːre- || n || the Tjakori plateau || ''*takadłe'' ‘grassland’ || tɛkaːre || dakoːri || takoːr (e) || takòːre
|-
| teɔd || teɔdu- || n || religious duty || {{gray|''*tãyadu'' ‘must’ (honorific)}} || tɛːd (u) || toid (u) || taːd (u) || taud (u)
|-
| teɔl || teɔlɔ- || n || hair, fur || ''*tyaša'' || tɛːla || taːl (o) || taːl (o) || taur (lo)
|-
| tɜ̃jakʰ || tɜ̃jakʰɔ- || n || task || {{gray|''*tãyakʰa'' ‘must-thing’}} || toñɛkh (a) || tejakh (o) || taːjakh (a) || têjak (o)
|-
| tɜ̃k || tɜ̃ku- || n || dried meat || {{gray|''*tẽku'' (cf. Emp. ''teŋú'' ‘jerky’)}} || tonkhu || tenkhu || tek (u) || têk (u)
|-
| tisa || tisɜ̃- || n || snow || {{gray|''*tuysũ'' (cf. Tm. ''twisǫ'')}} || tisɜ̃ || tisa || tis (a) || tisâ
|-
| tɔːmu || tɔːmu- || n || time, period, era, generation || {{gray|''*taγmu'' (cf. Tm. ''tomo'')}} || taːmu || toːmu || toːm (u) || toːmu
|-
| tɔk || tɔkɔ- || n || grass || ''*taka'' || tak (a) || tog (o) || tok (o) || tok (o)
|-
| trɔːt || trɔːtu- || n || courage, energy || ''*tłuwatu'' ‘blood-ness’ || traːt (u) || troːd (u) || troːt (u) || taròːt (u)
|-
| truː || truː- || n || blood || ''*tłuwa'' || truː || truː || truː || tarùː
|-
| truːrɔu || truːruː- || n || relative, kinsperson || ''*tłuwalawa'' ‘blood-person’ || truːroː || truːroː || truːrau || tarùːrau
|-
| tsam || tsame- || n || axe || {{gray|''*cũme'' (cf. Tm. ''come'')}} || tsɛme || tsaːm (i) || thaːm (e) || tsam (e)
|-
| tseːtɔr || tseːtɔrɔ- || n || skill, knowledge || ''*čʰiłtała'' ‘result of teaching’ || tseːtar (a) || tseːdor (o) || theːtor (o) || tseːtor (o)
|-
| tseginig || tseginigɔ- || n || chain || (''tsegi-'' + ''ginig'': ‘tie-iron’) || tseginig (a) || tseːniː || thegiːngo || tseginig (o)
|-
| tsekʰa || tsekʰɜ̃- || n || ground, soil || ''*čʰekʰã'' ‘earth’ || tsekhɜ̃ || tsekha || tekh (a) || tsekâ
|-
| tsirpu || tsirpu- || n || arm || ''*čʰilpu'' || tsirpu || tsoibu || thirpu || tsirpu
|-
| tsɔːras || tsɔːrasɔ- || n || dawn, sunrise || {{gray|''*cadłasa''}} || tsaːrɛs (a) || tsoːras (o) || thaːras (a) || tsoːras (o)
|-
| tsɔːrɔm || tsɔːrɔmɔ- || n || east || {{gray|''*cadłama'' ‘dawn-place’}} || tsaːram (a) || tsoːrom (o) || thaːram (o) || tsoːrom (a)
|-
| tsɔkakʰ || tsɔkakʰɔ- || n || problem, issue || {{gray|''*cakũkʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''ckǫ-'' ‘grave, severe, serious’)}} || tsɛkɛkh (a) || tsogakh (o) || thakakh (a) || tsokâk (o)
|-
| tsuːra || tsuːrɜ̃- || n || mountain range || {{gray|''*čʰiwdłĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''ćohcę'' ‘ridge’)}} || tsuːrɜ̃ || tsuːra || thuːr (a) || tsuːrâ
|-
| tsub || tsubɔ- || n || apple || ''*cuba'' ‘fruit’ || tsuba || tsub (o) || thuːb (o) || tsub (o)
|-
| tuts || tutsɔ- || n || house, home || ''*tuca'' || tuts (a) || tuts (o) || tuth (a) || tuts (o)
|-
| tutsɔm || tutsɔmɔ- || n || city || ''*tucama'' ‘house-place’ || tutsam (a) || tutsom (o) || tutham (a) || tutsom (o)
|-
| tʰɜ̃ːp || tʰɜ̃ːpi- || n || sister || ''*tʰẽʔpi'' ‘daughter’ || toːmphi || theːb (i) || thaːp (i) || tsêːp (i)
|-
| tʰɜ̃deɜ̃ || tʰɜ̃deɜ̃- || n || brothel || ''*tʰũduγẽ'' ‘sex-place’ || thɜ̃dɜ̃ː || thedja || thaːdja || tsêdiâ
|-
| tʰɔe || tʰɔjɔ- || n || milk || ''*tʰaya'' || thiː (jɛ) || thai || thai || tai
|-
| tʰɔesleu || tʰɔesleu- || n || moon || ''*tʰayaʔu šešewa'' ‘milk star’ || thiːsluː || thaisloi || thaisloː || taisalàu
|-
| tʰɔga || tʰɔgɜ̃- || n || work, labor || ''*tʰaγʷĩ'' ‘doing, making’ || thagɜ̃ || thoː || thaːg (a) || togâ
|-
| tʰɔjɔːru || tʰɔjɔːru- || n || yoghurt || ''*tʰayasłu'' ‘made from milk’ || thajaːru || thejuːru || thajoːr (u) || tojòːru
|-
| tʰɔuza || tʰɔuzɜ̃- || n || knee, elbow || ''*tʰawdzũ'' || thoːzɜ̃ || thuːza || thauz (a) || tauzâ
|-
| tʰuːru || tʰuːru- || n || coat, tunic || ''*tʰulasłu'' ‘made from wool’ || thuːru || thuːru || thuːr (u) || tuːru
|-
| tʰuna || tʰunɜ̃- || n || father || ''*tʰunã'' || thunɜ̃ || thuːna || thuːn (a) || tunâ
|-
| tʰuneɜ̃ː || tʰuneɜ̃ː- || n || elder brother || ''*tʰunyaʔã'' || thunejɜ̃ː || thunoi || thunoi || tunâː
|-
| tʰur || tʰurɔ- || n || wool || ''*tʰula'' || thura || thuːr (o) || thuːr (o) || tur (o)
|-
| uːjɜ̃ || uːjɜ̃- || n || wound, injury || ''*ʔuyaγẽ'' ‘place of pain’ || uːjɜ̃ || uːja || uːja || uːjâ
|-
| uːlakʰ || uːlakʰɔ- || n || gift, present || {{gray|''*bliwlakʰa'' ‘give-thing’}} || uːlɛkh (a) || uːlakh (o) || uːlakh (a) || uːlak (o)
|-
| upakʰ || upakʰɔ- || n || detail, characteristic feature || {{gray|''*ʔupãkʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''opą'' ‘distinguish’)}} || upɛkh (a) || ubakh (o) || upakh (a) || upak (o)
|-
| upɜ̃i || upɜ̃i- || n || name || {{gray|''*ʔupãʔĩye'' ‘distinguish-name’}} || upɜ̃ː || ubai || upai || upâi
|-
| upʰɛt || upʰɛtu- || n || the past || {{gray|''*ʔupʰetu'' ‘former-ness’ (cf. Tm. ''ohe-'' ‘former, ex-’)}} || uphot (u) || uphed (u) || uphat (u) || upat (u)
|-
| waːzɔr || waːzɔrɔ- || n || death || ''*wadžedzała'' ‘result of killing’ || oːzar (a) || waːzor (o) || waːzor (o) || waːzor (o)
|-
| wakʰeːrɔu || wakʰeːruː- || n || priest || ''*bakʰelawe'' ‘holiness-person’ || okheːroː || wakheːroː || wakheːrau || wakèːrau
|-
| weːna || weːnɜ̃- || n || year || ''*weʔnã'' || weːnɜ̃ || weːna || wain (a) || weːnâ
|-
| wel || wele- || n || sum, amount, mass, quantity || {{gray|''*beče'' (cf. Tm. ''heće'')}} || wele || wiːl (i) || weːl (e) || wer (le)
|-
| wesɔɜ̃ || wesɔɜ̃- || n || sword || ''*besadzũ'' ‘knife’ || osɜ̃ː || wesau || wesau || wesâu
|-
| wetru || wetru- || n || liver || ''*wetłu'' || otru || wetru || wetru || wetaru
|-
| wetsur || wetsurɔ- || n || vegetable food || ''*wecuła'' || otsur (a) || wetsur (o) || wethur (o) || wetsur (o)
|-
| wɜ̃rɔk || -ːlɜ̃rɔki- || n || bellybutton || ''*blũłakʷi'' ‘belly-{{sc|dim}}’ || onak (i) || weːrog (i) || waːrok (i) || wârok (i)
|-
| wɜ̃rtʰam || wɜ̃rtʰami- || n || pig || {{gray|''*blũłatʰãγʷi'' ‘belly-animal’}} || onthom (i) || wautham (i) || wantham (i) || wartam (i)
|-
| wiː || wiː- || n || pain || ''*ʔuya'' || wiː || wiː || wiː || wiː
|-
| woliː || wɔliː- || n || cliff || ''*wačiyaʔi'' ‘steep thing’ || oliː || woːliː || woːliː || woli
|-
| wɔpʰ || wɔpʰɔ- || n || bean || ''*wapʰa'' || oph (a) || woph (o) || woph (a) || wop (o)
|-
| xeːzɜ̃ || xeːzɜ̃- || n || hammer || {{gray|''*kłeʔedzũ'' ‘strike-tool’}} || eːzɜ̃ || xeːzo || xeːz (a) || geːzê
|-
| xɛpʰɜ̃ːrɔ || xɛpʰɜ̃ːrɔ- || n || herd (of animals) || ''*kłepʰãla'' ‘collection of animals’ || ɛphoːna || xepheːro || xaphaːr (o) || gapêːro
|-
| xɜ̃k || -ːrɜ̃ke- || n || skin, surface || ''*kłãke'' || onkhe || xeg (i) || xek (e) || gêk (e)
|-
| xɜ̃prɔu || xɜ̃pruː- || n || carpenter || {{gray|''*klĩpelawe'' ‘wood-person’}} || ɜ̃proː || xeproː || xeprau || gêparau
|-
| xipam || xipamɔ- || n || north || {{gray|''*kłuypĩma'' (cf. Tm. ''ćwipę'' ‘winter’)}} || ipom (a) || xibam (o) || xipam (o) || gipam (a)
|-
| xits || xitsɔ- || n || smoke || {{gray|''*kłicʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''ceca'')}} || its (a) || xits (o) || xith (a) || gits (o)
|-
| xɔe || xɔje- || n || gorge, canyon, ravine || {{gray|''*kłaγle''}} || iː || xai || xai || gwai
|-
| xɔleg || xɔlege- || n || stew || ''*kłačeγ'' ‘mix-{{sc|edible}}’ || aleg (e) || xoːleː || xoːleg (e) || goleg (e)
|-
| xɔut || xɔutɔ- || n || pot || {{gray|''*kławta'' (cf. Tm. ''ćotwa'')}} || oːt (a) || xuːd (o) || xuːt (o) || gwaut (o)
|-
| xuː || -ːruː- || n || leg || ''*kluwa'' || uː || xuː || xuː || guː
|-
| xur || xurɔ- || n || knot || ''*kʰaluła'' ‘result of tying’ || ura || xuːr (o) || xuːr (o) || gur (o)
|-
| ziːñ || ziːñɔ- || n || fingernail, claw || ''*džiña'' || ziːñ (a) || ziːn (o) || ziːn (jo) || ziːŋ (o)
|-
| zɔlgɜ̃ || zɔlgɜ̃- || n || language || ''*dzačiγʷĩ'' ‘speaking’ || zɛlgɜ̃ || zaiga || zolga || zorgâ
|-
| zɔmatʰub || zɔmatʰubɔ- || n || carrot || ''*dzamatʰuba'' ‘red root’ || zɛmɛthub (a) || zoːnthub (o) || zaumathub (o) || zomatùb (o)
|-
| zɔmaxap || zɔmaxape- || n || cedar tree || {{gray|''*dzamakłĩpe'' ‘red wood’}} || zamɛːp (e) || zoːmaxab (i) || zaumaxap (e) || zomagâp (e)
|-
| zɔmrɔː || zɔmrɔː- || n || copper || ''*dzamałaγa'' ‘red eye’ || zɛmraː || zomroː || zamroː || zâro
|-
| zɔpʰug || zɔpʰugu- || n || game, prey || ''*dzupʰuγ'' ‘hunt-{{sc|edible}}’ || zɛphug (u) || zophuː || zophug (u) || zopug (u)
|-
| zɔrdeaña || zɔrdeañɜ̃- || n || bird's nest || ''*dzaldayãγẽ'' ‘bird-place’ || zardɛːña || zuːdaːnja || zordeːn (ja) || zordàːŋâ
|-
| zɔrdeɜ̃ || zɔrdeɜ̃- || n || bird || ''*dzaldayã'' || zardɜ̃ː || zuːdoi || zordoi || zordâi
|-
| zupʰɔdei || zupʰɔdiː- || n || hunter || ''*dzupʰudayu'' ‘hunt-person’ || zuphadeː || zuphodiː || zuphadai || zupodài
|-
| dɔ || || pp || for || ''*dła'' || da || do || do || do
|-
| gɔu || || pp || near || ''*γaw'' || goː || guː || gau || gwau
|-
| gɔwaz || || pp || away from || ''*γawʔadzu'' ‘outside-away’ || gawoz || gowaz || goːwaz || gowaz
|-
| iːmɔ || || pp || without, except for || ''*ʔiłma'' || iːma || iːmo || iːm || iːmo
|-
| iːzu || || pp || of, belonging to (genitive) || ''*ʔilsaʔu'' ‘at the hand of’ || iːzu || iːzu || iːz || iːzu
|-
| kɜ̃ːts || || pp || towards || ''*kãʔči'' || kɜ̃ːts || keːts || kaːth || kêːts
|-
| lɜ̃d || || pp || as, like || {{gray|''*γlẽda'' (cf. Tm. ''lena'')}} || lɜ̃da || led || laːd || lêd
|-
| mek || || pp || by means of || ''*mek'' || mek || meg || mek || mek
|-
| mera || || pp || along || ''*melã'' || mera || meːra || meːr || merâ
|-
| merɜ̃i || || pp || between, through || ''*melãye'' ‘along-through’ || merɜ̃ː || meːrai || meːrai || merâi
|-
| mɔ || || pp || with, at the time of || ''*ʔama'' || ma || mo || mo || ma
|-
| nɔnat || || pp || over, above || ''*naʔu nat'' ‘up above’ || nanɛt || noːnad || naunat || nanat
|-
| numu || || pp || before, in front of || ''*numẽʔu'' ‘at the face of’ || numu || nuːmu || nuːm || numu
|-
| peu || || pp || against, in contrast to || {{gray|''*pyu'' (cf. Tm. ''po'')}} || puː || poi || poː || pau
|-
| riːm || || pp || on top of || {{gray|''*łiγimaʔu'' (cf. Tm. ''hihmoʔ'' ‘upward’)}} || riːm || riːm || riːm || riːm
|-
| serat || || pp || under, below || ''*šeʔu lat'' ‘down under’ || serɛt || seːrad || seːrat || serat
|-
| suː || || pp || inside || ''*šuwaʔu'' ‘in the guts of’ || suː || suː || suː || suː
|-
| tʰeu || || pp || after, behind, beyond || {{gray|''*tʰewi'' (cf. Tm. ''tewi'')}} || thuː || thoi || thoː || tau
|-
| tɔb || || pp || at, on || ''*tabe'' || taba || tob || toːb || tob
|-
| weːnɜ̃u || || pp || with, by, using || ''*wekʷĩγʷĩʔu'' ~ ‘with the carrying of’ || weːnɜ̃ː || weːnau || wainau || weːnâu
|-
| wɜ̃ru || || pp || in the middle of || ''*blũłaʔu'' ‘at the belly of’ || onu || weːru || waːr || wâru
|-
| gipɔ- || || qu || some, a few || ''*γipa-'' || gipa || gib (o) || gip (o) || gip (o)
|-
| je- || || qu || no, none || ''*ye'' ‘not’ || e || je || je || je
|-
| rɜ̃tsɔ- || || qu || many || ''*lãca-'' || rɜ̃ts (a) || rets (o) || reth (a) || rêts (o)
|-
| mupʰɔ- || || qu || all, every || ''*mu pʰa-'' ‘completely all’ || muph (a) || muph (o) || muph (o) || mup
|-
| tɔk || tɔkɔ- || qu || one || ''*takʷa-'' || tak (a) || tog (o) || tok (o) || tok (o)
|-
| sil || sili- || qu || two || ''*šiši-'' || sili || siːl (i) || siːl (i) || sir (li)
|-
| nɔːt || nɔːtu- || qu || three || ''*nałtu-'' || naːt (u) || noːd (u) || noːt (u) || noːt (u)
|-
| mɜ̃ts || mɜ̃tsɔ- || qu || four || ''*mẽca-'' || mɜ̃ts (a) || mets (o) || meth (a) || mêts (o)
|-
| uz || uzɔ- || qu || five || ''*ʔudza-'' || uza || uz (o) || uz (o) || us (zo)
|-
| mɜ̃l || mɜ̃li- || qu || six || ''*mẽči-'' || moni || miːl (i) || maːl (i) || men (^li)
|-
| nɔːz || nɔːzi- || qu || seven || ''*nalši-'' || naːz (i) || noːz (i) || nauz (i) || noːs (zi)
|-
| ñɔg || ñɔgɔ- || qu || eight || ''*ñaγʷa-'' || ñaga || njoː || naug (o) || ŋag (o)
|-
| dɜ̃umɔ || dɜ̃umɔ- || qu || sixty-four || ''*dãbũγʷa-'' < ''*dãbuñaγʷa-'' ‘fat eight’ || doːma || daumo || daum (o) || daumo
|-
| takɔd || takɔdu- || qu.ord || first || ''*takʷadu'' || tɛkad (u) || tagod (u) || takod (u) || takod (u)
|-
| silid || silidu- || qu.ord || second || ''*šišidu'' || silid (u) || siːlid (u) || siːlid (u) || silid (u)
|-
| naːtud || naːtudu- || qu.ord || third || ''*nałtudu'' || nɛːtud (u) || naːdud (u) || naːtud (u) || naːtud (u)
|-
| matsɔd || matsɔdu- || qu.ord || fourth || ''*mẽcadu'' || mɛtsad (u) || matsod (u) || mathad (u) || mâtsod (u)
|-
| ɔzɔd || ɔzɔdu- || qu.ord || fifth || ''*ʔudzadu'' || azad (u) || ozod (u) || ozod (u) || ozod (u)
|-
| mɜ̃lid || mɜ̃lidu- || qu.ord || sixth || ''*mẽčidu'' || monid (u) || miːlid (u) || maːlid (u) || mêlid (u)
|-
| nɔːzid || nɔːzidu- || qu.ord || seventh || ''*nalšidu'' || naːzid (u) || noːzid (u) || nauzid (u) || noːzid (u)
|-
| ñugɔd || ñugɔdu- || qu.ord || eighth || ''*ñaγʷadu'' || ñugad (u) || njuːd (u) || nuːgod (u) || ŋugod (u)
|-
| dɜ̃umad || dɜ̃umadu- || qu.ord || sixty-fourth || ''*dãbũγʷadu'' < ''*dãbuñaγʷadu'' || doːmɛd (u) || daumad (u) || daumad (u) || daumad (u)
|-
| dadɔgɔ- || || v.it || scream || ''*dadaγa'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}~shout’ || dɛdaga- || dadoː- || daːdogo- || dadogo-
|-
| dɜ̃zɔ- || || v.it || burn, be on fire || {{gray|''*dłãdza'' (cf. Tm. ''cana'' ‘glow’)}} || dɜ̃za- || dezo- || daːzo- || dêzo-
|-
| dɔgɔ- || || v.it || shout || ''*daγa'' || daga- || doː- || daugo- || dogo-
|-
| duzɛːrɜ̃- || || v.it || fly || ''*dudžedalã'' ‘sky-swim’ || duzɛːrɜ̃- || duzeːra- || duzeːra- || duzàːrâ-
|-
| ɜ̃twɛkɜ̃- || || v.it || chew || {{gray|''*ʔũtawekʷĩ'' ‘use the teeth’}} || ɜ̃tokɜ̃- || edaiga- || etaika- || êtùːkâ-
|-
| geze- || || v.it || travel || ''*γedže'' ‘run’ || geze- || gezi- || gaize- || geze-
|-
| giːlɛkɔ- || || v.it || listen, pay attention || ''*γiyačeka'' ‘hear-sit’ || giːloka- || giːlego- || giːlko- || giːrko-
|-
| guː- || || v.it || breathe, be alive || ''*γʷiwa'' ‘live’ || guː- || guː- || guː- || guː-
|-
| gwiːtsiːmɜ̃- || || v.it || be polite, be humble || {{gray|''*γʷiłčinumẽ'' ‘face-reduce’}} || giːtsiːmɜ̃- || gwiːtsiːma- || gaithiːma- || gwitsìːmâ-
|-
| jabutʰɔ- || || v.it || talk, chat || ''*yãbutʰa'' ‘do with the mouth’ || ɛbutha- || jabutho- || jaːbutha- || jâbuto-
|-
| jazɜ̃pe- || || v.it || dream || {{gray|''*džẽdžẽpe'' (cf. Tm. ''ńępe'' ‘sleep’)}} || ɛzomphe- || jazemphi- || jaːzamphe- || jâzêpe-
|-
| jetsɜ̃- || || v.it || be surprised, be shocked || {{gray|''*džecã'' (cf. Tm. ''śecą'')}} || etsɜ̃- || jetsa- || jetha- || jetsâ-
|-
| jɜ̃bi- || || v.it || sit || ''*yãbi'' ‘rest’ || jɜ̃bi- || jebi- || jaːbi- || jâbi-
|-
| jɜ̃keːrɜ̃- || || v.it || swim || ''*yãkidalã'' ‘river-swim’ || enkheːrɜ̃- || jenkheːrai- || jankheːra- || jâkèːrâ-
|-
| jɜ̃suːmɜ̃- || || v.it || be popular, be respected || {{gray|''*yẽsunumẽ'' ‘face-love’}} || jɜ̃suːmɜ̃- || jesuːma- || jesuːma- || jâsùːmâ-
|-
| jɔkɔ- || || v.it || dance || ''*yaka'' ‘play’ || jaka- || jogo- || joko- || joko-
|-
| jujupʰɔ- || || v.it || survive, be resilient || {{gray|''*yuyupʰa'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}-remain’}} || jujupha- || jujupho- || juːjupha- || jujupo-
|-
| jupʰɔ- || || v.it || stay, remain || {{gray|''*yupʰa''}} || jupha- || jupho- || jupha- || jupo-
|-
| kekuːju- || || v.it || boil || ''*kʷekʷuʔayu'' ‘cook-{{sc|stative}}’ || kekuːju- || gekuːju- || kekuːju- || kekùːju-
|-
| kelɜ̃- || || v.it || jump, leap || {{gray|''*kʷečĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''kwećę'')}} || kelɜ̃- || keːla- || keːla- || kelâ-
|-
| keɔgi- || || v.it || laugh || {{gray|''*kyaγʷi'' (cf. Tm. ''ćawi'' ‘smile, be happy, enjoy oneself’)}} || kɛːgi- || koi- || kaːgi- || kaugi-
|-
| keɔñaːpɔ- || || v.it || cry, weep || {{gray|''*kyañĩłpa'' (cf. Tm. ''ćeńęhpa'')}} || kɛːñɛːpa- || genjaːbo- || kaːnjaːpo- || kauŋâːpo-
|-
| keupʰlukɔ- || || v.it || quench, cool down in water (said of freshly-forged metal) || ''*kyupʰešiwka'' ‘water-float’ || kuːpluka- || koiblugo- || koːpluko- || kaupalùko-
|-
| kɜ̃i- || || v.it || succeed || {{gray|''*kʷĩγi'' (cf. Tm. ''kwińi'' ‘shine, be impressive, be famous’)}} || kɜ̃ː- || kai- || kai- || kâi-
|-
| kɜ̃xɔ- || || v.it || be exhausted, be tired || {{gray|''*kʷẽkła'' (cf. Tm. ''kmęća'' ‘gasp’)}} || kɜ̃- || kexo- || kexo- || kêgo-
|-
| kudɔ- || || v.it || sleep || ''*kuda'' || kuda- || kudo- || kuːdo- || kudo-
|-
| kunɜ̃- || || v.it || lie, recline || {{gray|''*kʷunã'' (cf. Tm. ''kwoną'')}} || kunɜ̃- || kuːna- || kuːna- || kunâ-
|-
| kuruːju- || || v.it || take the initiative, show courage || ''*kʷułuʔayu'' ‘be like a wolf’ || kuruːju- || guruːju- || kuruːju- || kurùːju-
|-
| kʰesaːpɔ- || || v.it || defecate || ''*kʰesałpa'' || khesɛːpa- || khesaːbo- || khesaːpo- || kesapo-
|-
| kʰurpɔːzu- || || v.it || campaign, go on a quest || ''*kʰulpaʔadzu'' ‘hunt away’ || khurpaːzu- || khuːpoːzu- || khurpoːzu- || kurpozu-
|-
| meːseki- || || v.it || be curious || {{gray|''*meʔšikʷi'' ‘taste things’}} || meːseki- || meːsegi- || meːseki- || meːseki-
|-
| mɛːtʰeɔ- || || v.it || rot, decay || ''*mayetʰuya'' ‘become rotten’ || mɛːthɛː- || meːthjo- || meːthja- || maːtau-
|-
| mibiːtsɔ- || || v.it || fan, kindle (a fire) || {{gray|''*mibuʔiłca'' ‘breathe towards’}} || mibiːtsa- || mibiːtso- || mibiːtha- || mibitso-
|-
| miliːtsɔ- || || v.it || get distracted || {{gray|''*mičĩʔiłca'' (cf. Tm. ''mićę'' ‘trifle’)}} || miliːtsa- || miliːtso- || miliːtha- || militso-
|-
| mire- || || v.it || be absent || {{gray|''*miłe'' (cf. Tm. ''mihe'')}} || mire- || miːri- || miːre- || mire-
|-
| mɔle- || || v.it || shine, glow || ''*maše'' || mala- || moːli- || moːle- || male-
|-
| muː- || || v.it || whisper || {{gray|''*mibu'' (cf. Tm. ''miwo'' ‘breathe’)}} || muː- || muː- || muː- || muː-
|-
| nedugɔːpe- || || v.it || settle down || {{gray|''*neduγuʔpe'' ‘begin to dwell’}} || nedugaːpe- || nedugoːbi- || nedugoːpe- || nedugòːpe-
|-
| nɜ̃pʰeapɜ̃- || || v.it || undress || {{gray|''*nĩpʰiγlapẽ'' ‘belt-remove’}} || nomphɛːpɜ̃- || nemphaːba- || nampheːpa- || nêpiàpâ-
|-
| nɜ̃u- || || v.it || think, believe || ''*nãbu'' || nɜ̃ː- || nau- || nau- || nâu-
|-
| ñɔːdɔtʰeɔ- || || v.it || fray, wear down || ''*ñałdutʰuya'' ‘become dull / blunt’ || ñaːdathɛː- || njoːdothjo- || naudothja- || ŋodotàu-
|-
| pɜ̃tɔ- || || v.it || run || ''*pãta'' ‘find one's way’ || pontha- || pentho- || pantha- || pêto-
|-
| piːxɔ- || || v.it || be, exist || {{gray|''*piłka'' (cf. Tm. ''pihka'')}} || piːjɛ- || piːxo- || piːxo- || piːgo-
|-
| plɔu- || || v.it || go, walk || ''*pława'' || ploː- || pluː- || plau- || palau-
|-
| plɔwɔːzu- || || v.it || leave, go away || ''*pławaʔadzu'' || plawoːzu- || plowoːzu- || plowauzu- || palowòːzu-
|-
| pʰuː- || || v.it || blow || ''*pʰiwa'' || phuː- || phuː- || phuː- || puː-
|-
| rɜ̃ːrɔ- || || v.it || rest, relax, be idle || {{gray|''*lĩdła'' (cf. Tm. ''lińa'' ‘be lazy’)}} || roːna- || reːro- || raːro- || rêːro-
|-
| ripʰɔːmɜ̃- || || v.it || be clean, be tidy || {{gray|''*leypʰanumẽ'' ‘face-wipe’}} || riphaːmɜ̃- || riphoːma- || riphaːma- || ripòːmâ-
|-
| ritsɜ̃- || || v.it || stop, finish || {{gray|''*łičʰĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''hićę'')}} || ritsɜ̃- || ritsa- || ritha- || ritsâ-
|-
| rɔgɔːjɔ- || || v.it || be hidden, be invisible || ''*laγʷaʔaya'' ‘smoke-{{sc|stative}}’ || ragaːja- || regoːjo- || rogoːjo- || rogòːjo-
|-
| sɛːzɔli- || || v.it || tell lies || {{gray|''*sayʔadzači'' ‘wrong-say’ (cf. Tm. ''siʔ-'' ‘wrong, bad’)}} || sɛːzali- || seːzoli- || seːzoli- || saːzoli-
|-
| sɜ̃u- || || v.it || confirm, approve, agree || {{gray|''*sũbu'' (cf. Tm. ''somo'')}} || sɜ̃ː- || sau- || sau- || sâu-
|-
| siːlapɜ̃- || || v.it || shave || {{gray|''*čiγliγlapẽ'' ‘beard-remove’}} || siːlɛpɜ̃- || siːlaba- || siːlpa- || siːrpâ-
|-
| sikɜ̃- || || v.it || stand || ''*šikã'' || sikɜ̃- || siga- || sika- || sikâ-
|-
| sirɜ̃- || || v.it || hesitate, linger, hang around || {{gray|''*čiłĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''cehę'' ‘stay’)}} || sirɜ̃- || siːra- || siːra- || sirâ-
|-
| suːnɔːmɜ̃- || || v.it || grow || {{gray|''*suʔnanumẽ'' ‘face-enlarge’}} || suːnaːmɜ̃- || suːnoːma- || suːnauma- || sunòːmâ-
|-
| sukɔ- || || v.it || float || ''*šiwka'' || suka- || sugo- || suko- || suko-
|-
| tatʰɜ̃u- || || v.it || fall || ''*tʰãtʰãbu'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}~fall’ || tɛthɜ̃ː- || tathau- || tathau- || tâtâu-
|-
| tʰɜ̃u- || || v.it || stumble || ''*tʰãbu'' ‘fall’ || thɜ̃ː- || thau- || thau- || tâu-
|-
| tʰitu- || || v.it || die || {{gray|''*tʰuytu'' (cf. Tm. ''twihto'' ‘grow pale’)}} || thitu- || thidu- || thitu- || tsitu-
|-
| tʰɔruːju- || || v.it || be happy, be content || {{gray|''*tʰałuʔayu'' (cf. Tm. ''taho'' ‘joy, fun, happiness’)}} || tharuːju- || theruːju- || tharuːju- || torùːju-
|-
| uːñɜ̃- || || v.it || roll || {{gray|''*ʔułñũ'' (cf. Tm. ''ohńǫ'')}} || uːñɜ̃- || uːnja- || uːnja- || uːŋâ-
|-
| ujɔːjɔ- || || v.it || feel pain || ''*ʔuyaʔaya'' || ujaːja- || ujoːjo- || ujoːjo- || ujòːjo-
|-
| wɜ̃zaki- || || v.it || be knowledgeable, be an expert, have experience || ''*bẽdzakʷi'' ‘know things’ || wɜ̃zɛki- || wezagi- || waːzaki- || wâzaki-
|-
| wɔmɔ- || || v.it || wait || ''*błama'' ‘fart’ || wama- || woːmo- || waumo- || woma-
|-
| xeːsu- || || v.it || come, arrive || {{gray|''*kleʔšu'' (cf. Tm. ''ćeʔśo'' ‘appear’)}} || eːsu- || xeːsu- || xeːsu- || geːsu-
|-
| xɜ̃ːkeɔː- || || v.it || masturbate || {{gray|''*kłãkekyaγʷi'' ‘skin-enjoy’}} || oːnkhaː- || xoːnkhoi- || xaːnkhaː- || gêːko-
|-
| zɛnɜ̃- || || v.it || freeze || {{gray|''*dzaynã'' (cf. Tm. ''seną'')}} || zɛnɜ̃- || zeːna- || zeːna- || zenâ-
|-
| zukɔ- || || v.it || be silent, be calm || {{gray|''*dzukʷa'' (cf. Tm. ''sokwa'')}} || zuka- || zugo- || zuko- || zuko-
|-
| dɜ̃zɔli- || || v.mt || promise, swear, vow || ''*dłũdzači'' ‘long-say’ || dɜ̃zali- || dezoli- || daːzoli- || dêzoli-
|-
| dɔːreːsu- || || v.mt || visit, spend time with || ''*dłakleʔšu'' ‘come for’ || daːreːsu- || doːreːsu- || doːreːsu- || doːresu-
|-
| dɔːrɔkɜ̃- || || v.mt || be friends with || ''*dłakłãke'' ‘distribute for’ (via ‘share with’) || daːrakɜ̃- || doːroga- || doːrka- || doːrkâ-
|-
| dɔjeku- || || v.mt || worship || ''*dłayeku'' ‘eat meat for’ || diːku- || dojegu- || doːjeku- || daiku-
|-
| eːzi- || || v.mt || shape, sculpt, form, knead, mold || {{gray|''*ʔeʔdži''}} || eːzi- || eːzi- || eːzi- || eːzi-
|-
| ɜ̃taːpɔ- || || v.mt || bite || ''*ʔũtałpa'' || onthɛːpa- || enthaːbo- || anthaːpo- || êtapo-
|-
| ɜ̃tɔːru- || || v.mt || cook || ''*ʔũtaʔału'' ‘tooth-smell’ (via ‘savor’) || onthaːru- || enthuːru- || anthoːru- || êtoru-
|-
| gañɜ̃pu- || || v.mt || spy on || {{gray|''*γĩγĩpu'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}~watch’}} || goñomphu- || ganjemphu- || ganjamphu- || gaŋêpu-
|-
| gɜ̃li- || || v.mt || get, receive || {{gray|''*γãši'' (cf. Tm. ''ńąse'')}} || goni- || giːli- || gaːli- || gêli-
|-
| gɜ̃pu- || || v.mt || watch, observe || {{gray|''*γĩpu'' (cf. Tm. ''ńępo'')}} || gomphu- || gemphu- || gamphu- || gêpu-
|-
| gitrɜ̃- || || v.mt || resist, oppose, ward off || {{gray|''*γitłã'' (cf. Tm. ''yecą'' ‘stop, hold up, impede’)}} || gitrɜ̃- || gitra- || gitra- || gitarâ-
|-
| gɔːxe- || || v.mt || have, hold || {{gray|''*γałke'' (cf. Tm. ''yahke'' ‘keep, guard, foster’)}} || gaːwe- || goːxi- || goːxe- || goːge-
|-
| guːpe- || || v.mt || start, tackle, establish, found || {{gray|''*γuʔpe'' ‘begin’}} || guːpe- || guːbi- || guːpe- || guːpe-
|-
| guːzɔ- || || v.mt || give birth to || ''*γʷiwadza'' || guːza- || guːzo- || guːzo- || guːzo-
|-
| gweulɜ̃- || || v.mt || pass by || {{gray|''*γawʔewłĩ'' ‘outside-hurry’}} || guːlɜ̃- || gwoːla- || guːla- || gwaulâ-
|-
| gwibe- || || v.mt || swallow || ''*γʷibe'' ‘drink’ || gibe- || gwibi- || gaibe- || gwibe-
|-
| gwɔːxi- || || v.mt || wash, clean, repair || ''*γʷałki'' || gaːwi- || gwoːxi- || goːxi- || gwoːgi-
|-
| gwɔrazɔ- || || v.mt || count, calculate || {{gray|''*γʷałĩdza'' (cf. Tm. ''ohę-'' ‘frequent’)}} || garɛza- || gwoːrazo- || goːrazo- || gworâzo-
|-
| iːgaːxe- || || v.mt || store, keep, protect || {{gray|''*yiʔeγałke'' ‘safe-keep’}} || iːgɛː- || iːgaːxi- || iːgaːxe- || iːgage-
|-
| iːmɔːjɔ- || || v.mt || lack || ''*ʔiłmaʔaya'' ‘be without’ || iːmaːja- || iːmoːjo- || iːmoːjo- || imòːjo-
|-
| iːtsazɔ- || || v.mt || pull || ''*ʔiłcadza'' ‘cause to move towards’ || iːtsɛza- || iːtsazo- || iːthazo- || iːtsazo-
|-
| iːzaːpɔ- || || v.mt || touch, use || ''*ʔilsałpa'' ‘do with the hands’ || iːzɛːpa- || iːzaːbo- || iːzaːpo- || iːzapo-
|-
| iseːzi- || || v.mt || forge || {{gray|''*ʔisaʔeʔdži'' ‘hot-sculpt’}} || iseːzi- || iseːzi- || iseːzi- || isèːzi-
|-
| jaːne- || || v.mt || draw, paint || {{gray|''*yẽʔne'' (cf. Tm. ''yęʔne'' ‘spread’)}} || ɛːne- || jaːni- || jaːne- || jaːne-
|-
| jasɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || kill, slaughter (said of animals) || ''*yãsatʰa'' ‘meat-make’ || ɛsatha- || jasotho- || jasatha- || jâsoto-
|-
| jetʰɔ- || || v.mt || try, attempt (said of actions) || ''*yetʰa'' ‘go-do’ || etha- || jetho- || jetha- || jeto-
|-
| jezɔ- || || v.mt || fight, attack || ''*yedza'' ‘push’ || eza- || jezo- || jaizo- || jezo-
|-
| jɜ̃ːkʰɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || flirt with || ''*džĩʔĩkʰaʔẽda'' ‘honey-give’ || eːnkhɜ̃da- || joːnkhedo- || jaːnkhedo- || jâːkêdo-
|-
| jɜ̃pɔ- || || v.mt || be capable of || {{gray|''*yãpa'' (cf. Tm. ''yąpa'')}} || empha- || jempho- || jampha- || jâpo-
|-
| jɜ̃saːpɔ- || || v.mt || eat meat || ''*yãsałpa'' ‘do with meat’ || jɜ̃sɛːpa- || jesaːbo- || jesaːpo- || jâsapo-
|-
| jɜ̃su- || || v.mt || love, like || {{gray|''*yẽsu'' (cf. Tm. ''yęso'')}} || jɜ̃su- || jesu- || jesu- || jâsu-
|-
| jɜ̃wɔːpɔ- || || v.mt || suck || ''*yãbułpa'' || emaːpa- || jewoːbo- || jewoːpo- || jâupo-
|-
| jɜ̃zwɛkɜ̃- || || v.mt || gather, collect || {{gray|''*yãdzuwekʷĩ'' ‘bag-use’}} || jɜ̃zokɜ̃- || jezaiga- || jezaika- || jâzùːkâ-
|-
| jɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || take care of || ''*yatʰa'' ‘tend, garden’ || jatha- || jotho- || jotha- || joto-
|-
| kakɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || show, point at || {{gray|''*kẽkʰatʰa'' ‘do with the finger’}} || kɛkatha- || kagotho- || kakotha- || kâkoto-
|-
| katsitʰɔ- || || v.mt || stain, spoil, mess up || ''*kačʰitʰa'' ‘make dirty’ || kɛtsitha- || katsitho- || katitha- || katsito-
|-
| keːjɔkɜ̃- || || v.mt || eavesdrop, listen in on sb. || {{gray|''*keγlakʷũ'' ‘hear towards’}} || keːjɛkɜ̃- || keːjoga- || keːjoka- || kejòkâ-
|-
| keleːpɔ- || || v.mt || support, hold up (physically) || {{gray|''*kʷečiłpa'' ‘do with the backbone’}} || keleːpa- || gileːbo- || keleːpo- || kelepo-
|-
| kemire- || || v.mt || abandon, let down || {{gray|''*kemiłe'' ‘be absent on’}} || kemire- || gimiːri- || kamiːre- || kemire-
|-
| kɛsɛːzɔli- || || v.mt || betray, deceive || {{gray|''*kesayʔadzači'' ‘tell lies to’}} || kosɛːzali- || geseːzoli- || kaseːzoli- || kasàːzoli-
|-
| kɜ̃tsɔ- || || v.mt || guess, predict || {{gray|''*kʷãcʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''kmąca'' ‘estimate’)}} || kɜ̃tsa- || ketso- || ketha- || kêtso-
|-
| kirnɜ̃- || || v.mt || provide, supply || {{gray|''*kilnũ'' (cf. Tm. ''kilnǫ'' ‘add’)}} || kirnɜ̃- || koina- || kiːna- || kiranâ-
|-
| kisɔ- || || v.mt || push || ''*kʷisa'' ‘squeeze, press’ || kisa- || kiso- || kisa- || kiso-
|-
| kɔkʰazɔ- || || v.mt || insult || ''*kʰakʷʰadza'' ‘mock’ || kakhɛza- || kokhazo- || kokhazo- || kokazo-
|-
| kɔmɜ̃- || || v.mt || fear, be afraid || ''*kamã'' || kamɜ̃- || koːma- || koːma- || komâ-
|-
| kɔniːtsɔ- || || v.mt || join (a group) || ''*kanaʔiłca'' ‘towards the circle’ || kaniːtsa- || geniːtso- || kaniːtha- || konitso-
|-
| kʰejaːpɔ- || || v.mt || bury || ''*kʰeyałpa'' ‘do with soil’ || khejɛːpa- || khijaːbo- || khejaːpo- || kejapo-
|-
| kʰɛːzɔ- || || v.mt || destroy, defeat || {{gray|''*kʷʰayidza'' (cf. Tm. ''kwahi'' ‘be gone, be unrecoverable’)}} || khɛːza- || kheːzo- || kheːzo- || kaːzo-
|-
| kʰigɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || pour || {{gray|''*kʰiγʷaʔẽda'' ‘give a drop of liquid’}} || khigɜ̃da- || kheːdo- || khiːgedo- || kigêdo-
|-
| kʰiñɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || build, construct || ''*kʰiñatʰa'' || khiñatha- || khiːnjotho- || kiːntha- || kiŋoto-
|-
| kʰɔjaːpɔ- || || v.mt || burn, set on fire || ''*kʰayałpa'' || khajɛːpa- || khejaːbo- || khajaːpo- || kojapo-
|-
| lɜ̃piːtsɔ- || || v.mt || beg, demand || {{gray|''*γlĩpuʔiłca'' ‘lift towards’}} || lomphiːtsa- || lemphiːtso- || lampiːtha- || lêpitso-
|-
| lɜ̃pu- || || v.mt || lift, carry || {{gray|''*γlĩpu'' (cf. Tm. ''lępo'')}} || lomphu- || lemphu- || lamphu- || lêpu-
|-
| lɔːtɔ- || || v.mt || squeeze, press || ''*γlaʔta'' ‘milk (said of animals)’ || laːta- || loːdo- || loːto- || loːto-
|-
| lɔkɜ̃- || || v.mt || hear || {{gray|''*γlakʷũ'' (cf. Tm. ''lakmǫ'' ‘perceive’)}} || lakɜ̃- || loga- || loka- || lokâ-
|-
| luzɔːzu- || || v.mt || remove || {{gray|''*γludžẽʔadzu'' ‘seize away’}} || luzaːzu- || luzoːzu- || luzauzu- || luzozu-
|-
| meːsi- || || v.mt || try (said of new things) || {{gray|''*meʔši'' (cf. Tm. ''meʔse'' ‘taste’)}} || meːsi- || meːsi- || meːsi- || meːsi-
|-
| memeːsu- || || v.mt || sew || ''*memeʔšu'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}~sew’ || memeːsu- || mimeːsu- || mameːsu- || memesu-
|-
| mɛːliː- || || v.mt || catch sb's attention || ''*mekčiye'' ‘be wanted by’ || mɛːliː- || miːliː- || miːliː- || maːli-
|-
| mɛːritsɜ̃- || || v.mt || be interrupted by || {{gray|''*mekłičʰĩ'' ‘be stopped by’}} || mɛːritsɜ̃- || miːritsa- || miːrtha- || maːrtsâ-
|-
| mɜ̃rilezɔ- || || v.mt || offend, anger || {{gray|''*mĩłišidza'' ‘cause to be like wind’}} || monileza- || miːrilezo- || maːrilezo- || mêrilèzo-
|-
| milɔzu- || || v.mt || concentrate on || {{gray|''*mičĩʔadzu'' ‘trifle-away’}} || milazu- || miːlozu- || miːlozu- || milozu-
|-
| mɔliːtsɔ- || || v.mt || light up, illuminate || ''*mašeʔiłca'' ‘shine towards’ || maliːtsa- || moliːtso- || moliːtha- || molitso-
|-
| mutʰɔ- || || v.mt || repeat, continue || {{gray|''*ʔũγʷutʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''ońota'' ‘insist on, be determined about’)}} || mutha- || mutho- || mutha- || muto-
|-
| naːmi- || || v.mt || say || {{gray|''*nẽγmi'' (cf. Tm. ''nęmi'' ‘express’)}} || noːmi- || naːmi- || naːmi- || naːmi-
|-
| naketʰɔ- || || v.mt || check, test || {{gray|''*nĩkʰetʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''nęke'' ‘step’)}} || nɛketha- || nagetho- || naketha- || nâketo-
|-
| nuːki- || || v.mt || change, turn around || {{gray|''*nuγki'' (cf. Tm. ''noki'')}} || nuːki- || nuːgi- || nuːki- || nuːki-
|-
| nupi- || || v.mt || rely on, depend on || {{gray|''*nupi'' (cf. Tm. ''nopi'' ‘lean on’)}} || nupi- || nubi- || nupi- || nupi-
|-
| ɔːrɜ̃- || || v.mt || smell || ''*ʔałułuʔã'' ‘smell-smell’ || aːrɜ̃- || oːra- || oːra- || oːrâ-
|-
| ɔdigɔːpe- || || v.mt || be worried about || {{gray|''*ʔadyaγuʔpe'' ‘begin to fear’}} || adigaːpe- || odigoːbi- || odigoːpe- || odigòːpe-
|-
| ɔuzɔːjɔ- || || v.mt || be similar to, be comparable to || {{gray|''*ʔawdzaʔaya'' ‘similar-{{sc|stative}}’}} || oːzaːja- || uːzoːjo- || uːzoːjo- || auzòːjo-
|-
| papʰɔːtɔ- || || v.mt || shoot, throw || ''*pʰapʰaʔta'' || pɛphaːta- || baphoːdo- || paphaːto- || papoto-
|-
| pazitʰɔ- || || v.mt || braid, plait || {{gray|''*pãdžitʰa'' ‘basket-make’}} || pɛzitha- || pazitho- || paːzitha- || pazito-
|-
| pɜ̃i- || || v.mt || notify, tell, inform || {{gray|''*pẽγe'' (cf. Tm. ''peńe'')}} || pɜ̃ː- || pai- || pai- || pâi-
|-
| pɜ̃tiːtsɔ- || || v.mt || reach, arrive at || ''*pãtaʔiłca'' ‘find one's way towards’ || ponthiːtsa- || benthiːtso- || pantiːtha- || pêtitso-
|-
| pɜ̃tɔːzu- || || v.mt || escape, flee || ''*pãtaʔadzu'' ‘find one's way away from’ || ponthaːzu- || benthoːzu- || panthaːzu- || pêtozu-
|-
| plɜ̃i- || || v.mt || lose, forget || {{gray|''*płẽyi'' (cf. Tm. ''pińi'')}} || plɜ̃ː- || plai- || plai- || palâi-
|-
| pɔunazɔ- || || v.mt || delay || {{gray|''*pawnĩdza'' (cf. Tm. ''pomę-'' ‘late’)}} || poːnɛza- || puːnazo- || puːnazo- || kwaunazo-
|-
| pʰɜ̃ri- || || v.mt || answer, reply || {{gray|''*pʰãli'' (cf. Tm. ''hani'')}} || phoni- || phiːri- || phaːri- || pêri-
|-
| pʰudaːpɔ- || || v.mt || rule, govern || ''*pʰudałpa'' ‘do like a chief’ || phudɛːpa- || phudaːbo- || phudaːpo- || pudapo-
|-
| ramɔ- || || v.mt || grind, mill || ''*lũma'' || roma- || raːmo- || raːmo- || ramo-
|-
| ramɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || heat up || ''*lãmatʰa'' ‘make warm’ || romatha- || raːntho- || raːntha- || ramato-
|-
| rɜ̃ːlɛkɔ- || || v.mt || ride || ''*łãšičeka'' ‘horse-sit’ || roːnoka- || reːlego- || raːlko- || rêːleko-
|-
| rɜ̃ːsu- || || v.mt || hate, punish || {{gray|''*łĩʔsu'' (cf. Tm. ''hęʔso'')}} || rɜ̃ːsu- || reːsu- || raːsu- || rêːsu-
|-
| rɜ̃xɔ- || || v.mt || trade, exchange || {{gray|''*lũkla'' (cf. Tm. ''lǫća'')}} || rɜ̃ː- || rexo- || rexo- || rêgo-
|-
| riːjaːpɔ- || || v.mt || heal, cure || ''*łiyałpa'' || riːjɛːpa- || riːjaːbo- || riːjaːpo- || riːjapo-
|-
| ripʰɔ- || || v.mt || rub, scrub, polish || ''*leypʰa'' ‘wipe’ || ripha- || ripho- || ripha- || ripo-
|-
| rɔːpɔ- || || v.mt || take, grab, seize, catch || ''*laʔpa'' ‘steal’ || raːpa- || roːbo- || roːpo- || roːpo-
|-
| rɔñɔ- || || v.mt || dig || ''*laña'' ‘scratch’ || raña- || roːno- || raːnjo- || roŋo-
|-
| rɔrɔñɔ- || || v.mt || cultivate, farm || ''*lalaña'' ‘dig’ || raraña- || roːrono- || roːranjo- || roroŋo-
|-
| rɔune- || || v.mt || own, possess || {{gray|''*lawne''}} || roːne- || ruːni- || raune- || raune-
|-
| rugazɔ- || || v.mt || cause, make, bring about || {{gray|''*luγũdza'' (cf. Tm. ''lońǫ'' ‘act’)}} || rugɛza- || ruːzo- || ruːgazo- || rugâzo-
|-
| rurubɜ̃- || || v.mt || rescue || {{gray|''*łułubẽ'' (cf. Tm. ''homę'' ‘help’)}} || rurubɜ̃- || ruːruba- || ruːrba- || rurbâ-
|-
| ruxu- || || v.mt || argue, dispute, negotiate || {{gray|''*lukʰiw'' (cf. Tm. ''loćo'' ‘charm, court, persuade’)}} || ruː- || ruxu- || ruxu- || rugu-
|-
| saːnedu- || || v.mt || dwell (at) || {{gray|''*sãknedu'' ‘in-dwell’}} || soːnedu- || saːndu- || saːndu- || sanedu-
|-
| saːtsekɔ- || || v.mt || hold (militarily), control, occupy || ''*sãkčeka'' ‘in-sit’ || sɛːtseka- || saːtsego- || saːtheko- || sâːtseko-
|-
| sekazɔ- || || v.mt || put, place || ''*čekadza'' ‘cause to sit’ || sekɛza- || segazo- || sekazo- || sekazo-
|-
| serdɔ- || || v.mt || see, look at || ''*čelda'' || serda- || soido- || serdo- || serdo-
|-
| sɛsɜ̃- || || v.mt || drink || {{gray|''*sayšĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''siśę'')}} || sɛsɜ̃- || sesa- || sasa- || sesâ-
|-
| sɜ̃daːpɔ- || || v.mt || manage, organise || ''*šĩdałpa'' ‘count’ || sɜ̃dɛːpa- || sedaːbo- || sedaːpo- || sêdapo-
|-
| sɜ̃tɔ- || || v.mt || call, summon || ''*šẽta'' ‘sing’ || sontha- || sentho- || santha- || sêto-
|-
| siː- || || v.mt || want || ''*čiye'' || siː- || siː- || siː- || siː-
|-
| sikiːtsɔ- || || v.mt || help, support, agree with, stand beside || ''*šikãʔiłca'' ‘stand towards’ || sikiːtsa- || sikiːtso- || sikiːtha- || sikitso-
|-
| sinɔzɔ- || || v.mt || fill, load with || ''*činudza'' ‘cause to be full’ || sinaza- || siːnozo- || siːnozo- || sinozo-
|-
| siwazɔ- || || v.mt || melt, smelt || {{gray|''*čiwãdza'' ‘cause to be soft’ (cf. Tm. ''ćmą-'' ‘soft, fluid’)}} || siwoza- || siwazo- || siːwazo- || siwâzo-
|-
| sɔñeːzi- || || v.mt || invent, come up with || {{gray|''*šaʔẽʔeʔdži'' ‘mind-sculpt’}} || sañeːzi- || senjeːzi- || sanjaizi- || soŋezi-
|-
| supɜ̃- || || v.mt || cut || {{gray|''*supã'' (cf. Tm. ''sopą'' ‘dig’)}} || supɜ̃- || suba- || supa- || supâ-
|-
| tatʰɜ̃uzɔ- || || v.mt || fell, chop down || ''*thãthãbudza'' ‘cause to fall’ (intensive) || tɛthɜ̃ːza- || tathauzo- || tathauzo- || tâtâuzo-
|-
| tɜ̃i- || || v.mt || must, should || {{gray|''*tãya'' (cf. Tm. ''tańa'')}} || tɜ̃ː- || tai- || tai- || tâi-
|-
| tɔulikɜ̃- || || v.mt || be located at || ''*tabešikã'' ‘stand at’ || toːlikɜ̃- || tuːliga- || tuːlka- || taulikâ-
|-
| trɜ̃bazɔ- || || v.mt || remember || ''*tłãbẽdza'' ‘again-know’ || trɜ̃bɛza- || trebazo- || traːbazo- || tarêbâzo-
|-
| trupʰe- || || v.mt || find, discover || ''*tłupʰe'' || truphe- || truphi- || truphe- || tarùpe-
|-
| tsegi- || || v.mt || tie, fasten, attach || {{gray|''*čʰeγʷi''}} || tsegi- || tseː- || theːgi- || tsegi-
|-
| tsiːtɔ- || || v.mt || teach || ''*čʰiłta'' || tsiːta- || tsiːdo- || thiːto- || tsiːto-
|-
| tsɔrkɔtʰɔ- || || v.mt || stack, pile up || {{gray|''*calkʷatʰa'' (cf. Tm. ''calkwa'' ‘pile, heap’)}} || tsɛrkatha- || tsuːgotho- || tharkotha- || tsorkoto-
|-
| tumɜ̃- || || v.mt || participate, engage oneself || {{gray|''*tumã'' (cf. Tm. ''tomą'')}} || tumɜ̃- || tuːma- || tuːma- || tumâ-
|-
| tʰɜ̃du- || || v.mt || have sex with || ''*tʰũdu'' || thɜ̃du- || thedu- || thaːdu- || tsêdu-
|-
| tʰiː- || || v.mt || become, change into || ''*tʰuya'' || thiː- || thiː- || thiː- || tsiː-
|-
| tʰɔːjaːtɔ- || || v.mt || milk (said of livestock) || ''*tʰayaγlaʔta'' ‘milk-squeeze’ || thaːjɛːta- || thoːjaːdo- || thoːjaːto- || toːjato-
|-
| tʰɔmu- || || v.mt || finish, complete || ''*tʰamu'' ‘do completely’ || thamu- || thoːmu- || thaːmu- || tomu-
|-
| tʰɔrɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || please, delight, cheer up (sb.) || {{gray|''*tʰałuʔẽda'' ‘joy-give’}} || tharɜ̃da- || thoːredo- || thaːrdo- || tordo-
|-
| tʰɔu- || || v.mt || create, make, do || ''*tʰawa'' ‘bend’ || thoː- || thuː- || thau- || tau-
|-
| tʰuraːpɔ- || || v.mt || knit || ''*tʰulałpa'' ‘do with wool’ || thurɛːpa- || thuraːbo- || thuraːpo- || turapo-
|-
| tʰurbɛsɔ- || || v.mt || shear (said of sheep) || ''*tʰulabesa'' ‘wool-cut’ || thurbosa- || thuːbeso- || thurbasa- || turbaso-
|-
| uːlɔ- || || v.mt || give || {{gray|''*bliwla'' (cf. Tm. ''pola'' ‘donate’)}} || uːla- || uːlo- || uːlo- || uːlo-
|-
| ujɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || annoy, harrass, provoke || ''*ʔuyaʔẽda'' ‘give pain’ || ujɜ̃da- || ujedo- || ujedo- || ujâdo-
|-
| wabɜ̃zɔ- || || v.mt || understand || {{gray|''*bẽbẽdza'' ‘{{sc|intensive}}~know’}} || obɜ̃za- || wabezo- || waːbezo- || wâbêzo-
|-
| weːzɔ- || || v.mt || hurt, injure || ''*ʔuyadza'' || oːza- || weːzo- || waizo- || weːzo-
|-
| wetiːtsɔ- || || v.mt || meet, greet, welcome || ''*wetaʔiłca'' ‘turn towards’ || wetiːtsa- || wetiːtso- || wetiːtha- || wetitso-
|-
| wetsu- || || v.mt || eat vegetables || ''*wecu'' || otsu- || wetsu- || wethu- || wetsu-
|-
| wɛbesɔ- || || v.mt || split, divide, separate || ''*bebesa'' || obesa- || webeso- || weːbesa- || webeso-
|-
| wɜ̃keɔ- || || v.mt || hide, cover || {{gray|''*wẽkya-'' (cf. Tm. ''węća'' ‘withhold, deprive’)}} || onkhɛː- || wenkhoi- || wankhaː- || wâkau-
|-
| wɜ̃zɔ- || || v.mt || know, be familiar with || ''*bẽdza'' || wɜ̃za- || wezo- || waːzo- || wâzo-
|-
| wɜ̃zugɔːpe- || || v.mt || learn, study || {{gray|''*bẽdzaγuʔpe'' ‘begin to know’}} || wɜ̃zugaːpe- || wezugoːbi- || wezugoːpe- || wâzugòːpe-
|-
| wɔːzɔ- || || v.mt || kill || ''*wadžedza'' || oːza- || woːzo- || wauzo- || woːzo-
|-
| wɔkʰeapɜ̃- || || v.mt || disgrace, abuse, mistreat, defile || {{gray|''*bakʰeγlapẽ'' ‘holiness-remove’}} || okhɛːpɜ̃- || wokhaːba- || wokheːpa- || wokiàpâ-
|-
| wɔkʰɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || devote, consecrate, sanctify || ''*bakʰeʔẽda'' ‘holiness-give’ || wakhɜ̃da- || wokhedo- || wokhedo- || wokêdo-
|-
| xeːsɔzɔ- || || v.mt || send || {{gray|''*kleʔšudza'' ‘cause to arrive’}} || eːsaza- || xeːsozo- || xeːsazo- || geːsozo-
|-
| xeːtʰɔ- || || v.mt || hit, strike || {{gray|''*kłeʔetʰa'' ‘strike-do’}} || eːtha- || xeːtho- || xeːtha- || geːto-
|-
| xeːzɔli- || || v.mt || scold, blame, accuse || {{gray|''*kłeʔedzači'' ‘strike-say’}} || eːzali- || xeːzoli- || xeːzoli- || geːzori-
|-
| xɔkɜ̃- || || v.mt || share || {{gray|''*kłakĩ'' (cf. Tm. ''ćakę'' ‘distribute’)}} || akɜ̃- || xoga- || xoka- || gokâ-
|-
| xɔlɜ̃dɔ- || || v.mt || alloy, weld, join together || ''*kłačeʔẽda'' ‘mix-give’ || alɜ̃da- || xoːledo- || xoːldo- || gordo-
|-
| xuːnɔ- || || v.mt || expect, anticipate || {{gray|''*kłuʔna'' (cf. Tm. ''ćoʔna'' ‘wait for’)}} || uːna- || xuːno- || xuːno- || guːno-
|-
| ziːñaːpɔ- || || v.mt || scratch || ''*džiñałpa'' ‘do with the fingernail’ || ziːñɛːpa- || ziːnjaːbo- || ziːnjaːpo- || ziːŋapo-
|-
| zɔlɔːzu- || || v.mt || announce, declare || ''*dzačiʔadzu'' ‘say away’ || zalaːzu- || zoloːzu- || zolauzu- || zolozu-
|-
| zɔrɜ̃- || || v.mt || stab, pierce || ''*dzalã'' || zɛrɜ̃- || zoːra- || zoːra- || zorâ-
|-
| zukazɔ- || || v.mt || calm, soothe, console || {{gray|''*dzukʷadza'' ‘make silent’}} || zukɛza- || zugazo- || zukazo- || zukazo-
|-
| zupʰu- || || v.mt || hunt || ''*dzupʰu'' || zuphu- || zuphu- || zuphu- || zupu-
|-
|}

''645 words.''

[[Category:Western languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Doayâu/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:43:36Z

Cedh: +5

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
|-
! class="l"| word !! morphology !! stem !! PoS !! meaning !! etymology
|-
| abu- || || || v.dt || pass on (as an inheritance) || {{Ile|abu}}
|-
| afa || || ə || n.i.IV || anger, rage || ''ʔahpa-''
|-
| afu- || || || v.mt || be annoyed by, dislike || ''ʔoxu-'' "smell" (influenced by ''afuri-'')
|-
| afuisi || || i || n.i.VI || air || {{KpL|afuwisi}} "wind-substance"
|-
| afùmai || || ai || n.i.IV || shelter, safety; harbor || {{KpL|afumãi}} "out of the wind"
|-
| afùnêa || || ea || n.i.IV || yoghurt || {{KpL|afunẽa}} < {{PL|*apul-i-ganam}} "bad milk"
|-
| afuri- || || ə || v.mt || annoy, confront || ''ʔahpadza-''
|-
| ai || || || cj || because || ''ʔeľ''
|-
| aigisa || || || n.i.IV || glory, fame || {{Ile|aixisab}} "power, greatness"
|-
| alopu || || || n.i.IV || carrot || {{KpL|alop}}
|-
| àrè || || e/a || n.a.I || wife || ''ʔàzè-''
|-
| ápe || || e || n.i.VI || fog || {{KpL|ape}}
|-
| ápekì || || i || v.it || be unknown, be peculiar || {{KpL|apekĩ}} "obscure" < "foggy"
|-
| àta || || ə || n.i.V || feather || ''ʔèta-''
|-
| áteama || || || n.a.I || elder || {{KpL|atẽam}} "old person"
|-
| atì- || || || adj || old, ancient || {{KpL|atĩ}}
|-
| atùgàru || || || n.i.III || animal farm; breed (of horses) || {{Ing|otaboz{{IPA|ɯ́}}}} "farm"
|-
| àtsa || || ə || n.a.I || lover, spouse || ''gatsa-'' (back-formed from the possessed stem)
|-
| àtsatá- || || a || v.mt || like very much, be in love with || (''àtsa-'' "lover, spouse" + {{sc|dyn.3}})
|-
| aufayaba || || || n.a.I || albatross || {{KpL|aufayab}} < {{PL|*ahupadab}} "the one above the wind"
|-
| augàri- || || ə || v.mt || steal || ''[zedze-]ʔogùbèdza-''
|-
| ausiti- || || ə || v.mt || take hostage || {{Ing|éiusata}} "pull"
|-
| àyà- || || || adj || colorful, painted; splendid || {{KpL|ãyã}} < {{PL|*aniəm}} < {{Tm|ahńǫ}} "color, dye"
|-
| àyau- || || || v.mt+ || give (away from the 1st person) || ''*ʔèdogu-'' < ''ʔèdoʔogu-'' "give away"
|-
| bága || ({{sc|len}} -gága-) || || n.i.VI || snow || {{KpL|bawa}}
|-
| bàgàri- || {{sc|len}} -gàgàrə- || ə || v.mt || suggest, propose || {{gray|''bèbèdza-'' < PW ''*bẽbẽdza-'' (cf. {{Gez|wabɜ̃zɔ-}} "understand")}}
|-
| bagasi- || {{sc|len}} -gagasə- || ə || v.mt || split, divide || ''bebesa-''
|-
| bagasíkè || ({{sc|len}} -gagasíkè-) || e || n.a.I || stubborn person, troublemaker || {{KpL|bawasikeb}} "one who has no ears"
|-
| bagù || {{sc|len}} -gagù- || u || n.i.III || pot || ''gogùgù-'' "tool for cooking"
|-
| bagù || || || prep || behind, later than || ''goguʔu'' "at the tail of"
|-
| baibai || ({{sc|len}} -gaibai-) || ai || n.i.IV || disagreement, conflict, rivalry, feud || {{KpL|baibai}} < {{PL|*gbaigbai}} "confrontation"
|-
| bàká- || {{sc|len}} -gàká- || a || v.mt || believe, assume || {{gray|''gòkha-'' < PW ''*kʷãcʰa-'' (cf. {{Tm|kmąca}} "estimate")}}
|-
| bapo || {{sc|len}} -gapu- || u || n.a.I || blood; strength || {{gray|''goku-'' < PW ''*kʷacu''}}
|-
| bàri- || {{sc|len}} -gàrə- || ə || v.mt || have, possess || ''bèdza-''
|-
| bàridi- || {{sc|len}} -gàridə- || ə || v.mt || acquire || ''bèdzadza-''
|-
| bàrìnáfoaya || {{sc|len}} -gàrìnáfoaya- || || n.a.I || relative, kinsman {{sc|(hon)}} || ''bèdzànoʔxuwogaja-''
|-
| basau || {{sc|len}} -gasau- || || n.a.I || edge; cliff || ''besògù-'' "sharp edge, blade"
|-
| bau- || {{sc|len}} -gau- || || v.mt || cook || ''gogu-''
|-
| bàyu || || || prep || at, on || ''gòdu'' "on top of"
|-
| beabayo || ({{sc|len}} -geabayo-) || u || n.a.I || mason, carpenter, architect || {{KpL|beab}} "one who builds" + {{sc|aug}}
|-
| biusi- || ({{sc|len}} -giusi-) || i || v.mt || build || {{KpL|biusi}}
|-
| boa- || {{sc|len}} -goa- || oa || v.it || sleep || ''guga-''
|-
| boarè || {{sc|len}} -goarè- || e/a || n.i.V || bed || ''gugàzè-'' "sleeping-place"
|-
| bohá || {{sc|obl}} bofó-, {{sc|len}} -uhá- || a || n.i.VI || sweat || {{gray|''guhkha'' < PW ''*kułtʰa'' (cf. {{Gez|kuːtʰɔ}})}}
|-
| bufo || {{sc|len}} -ufu- || u || n.a.II || wolf || ''guxu-''
|-
| bula- || {{sc|len}} -ula- || || v.it || gesture || {{Ish|bula}}
|-
| bùnù- || {{sc|len}} -ùnù- || || v.dt || connect, append, attach || {{gray|''gùľnù-'' < PW ''*kilnũ-'' (cf. {{Gez|kirnɜ̃-}} "provide, supply")}}
|-
| bupoayu- || {{sc|len}} -upoayu- || || v.it+ || follow || ''guku-'' "behind" + {{sc|stat}}
|-
| buri- || {{sc|len}} -uri- || i || v.it || ask, pose a question || {{gray|''gudzi-'' < PW ''*kukya'' (cf. {{Tm|koća}})}}
|-
| búsaba || ({{sc|len}} -úsaba-) || || n.a.I || lunatic, fool || {{KpL|busab}}
|-
| bùsaiba- || ({{sc|len}} -ùsaiba-) || || v.it || be weird, be crazy || {{KpL|busaiba}} < {{PL|busaigba}}
|-
| bútu || ({{sc|len}} -útu-) || || n.i.IV || mead || {{KpL|butu}} "honey"
|-
| butsé- || || e || adj || holy, sacred, divine || ''batshe'' "holiness"
|-
| da- || || a || pron || (proximate demonstrative) || ''dze-'' "this (near me)" & ''da-'' "that (near you)"
|-
| dà || {{sc|len}} -nd{{IPA|ə̀}}- || ə || n.i.V || nose || ''màdzà-'' (back-formed from the possessed stem)
|-
| dába || ({{sc|len}} -yába-) || || n.i.IV || insult; blasphemy || {{Ish|dába}} "insult, offend"
|-
| dadi- || {{sc|len}} -radi-, {{sc|asp}} -tsadi- || i || v.mt+ || say sth. (to so.) || ''dzedzi-''
|-
| dàfa || {{sc|len}} -làfə-|| ə || n.a.II || animal || ''*głèphà-'' (cf. ''głèʔhà-'')
|-
| dafêa || ({{sc|len}} -yafêa-) || ea || n.i.V || paintbrush || {{KpL|dafẽa}} "tuft" < {{PL|*daəpiŋa}} "little tail"
|-
| dága || {{sc|obl}} dábə-, {{sc|len}} -lágə- || ə || n.a.I || tribe, ethnicity (of Westerners only) || ''dłeʔga-''
|-
| dàhèneo- || ({{sc|len}} -yàhèneo-, {{sc|asp}} -tàhèneo-) || ea || v.mt || govern (a city); command (a ship) || {{Ile|dàxè}} "give orders" + {{sc|dur}}
|-
| dàhetsè- || ({{sc|len}} -yàhetsè-, {{sc|asp}} -tàhetsè-) || e || v.mt || warn || {{Ile|dàxecè}}
|-
| daida- || {{sc|len}} -raidə-, {{sc|asp}} -tsaidə- || ə || v.mt || see; become aware of || ''dzeľda-''
|-
| dàká || {{sc|obl}} dàpó-, {{sc|len}} -ràká- || a || n.a.II || finger || {{gray|''dzèkha'' < PW ''*kẽkʰa'' (cf. {{Tm|kęka}})}}
|-
| dàma || ({{sc|len}} -yàmə-) || ə || n.i.III || there, that place || [''dze-'' "this (near me)" & ''da-'' "that (near you)"] + ''ma-'' "place"
|-
| dàra- || {{sc|len}} -yàrə-, {{sc|asp}} -tàrə- || ə || v.it+ || shout || ''dağadza-''
|-
| dapú || {{sc|len}} -rapú- || || n.i.V || sheet (of cloth), blanket || {{gray|''dzokhu'' < PW ''*čekʰu'' "leaf" (cf. {{Emp|tsoʔ}} "tea leaf")}}
|-
| dàsi- || {{sc|len}} -ràsə-, {{sc|asp}} -tsàsə- || ə || v.it || jump, leap || ''dzèsa-'' "dance"
|-
| dausa || ({{sc|len}} -yausə-) || ə || n.i.VI || purpose, diplomatic errand || {{Šet|dawaz}} "want"
|-
| dausi- || ({{sc|len}} -yausi-, {{sc|asp}} -tausi-) || i || v.it || swim || {{KpL|dausi}}
|-
| dea- || {{sc|len}} -rea-, {{sc|asp}} -tsea- || ea || v.it+ || sit || ''dzega-''
|-
| dêa || {{sc|len}} -lêa- || ea || n.i.IV || land, area || ''dłeʔa-''
|-
| deari- || {{sc|len}} -rearə-, {{sc|asp}} -tsearə- || ə || v.mt || put, place || ''dzegadza-'' "cause to sit"
|-
| deasa || {{sc|obl}} deafə-, {{sc|len}} -reasə- || ə || n.i.IV || wish; goal; plan || ''dzijeła'' "wish, desire"
|-
| débu || ({{sc|len}} -yébu-) || || n.i.VI || ebb || {{KpL|deb}}
|-
| débugau || ({{sc|len}} -yébugau-) || au || n.a.I || winter solstice || {{KpL|debuwau}} < {{PL|*deab u uəl}} "low tide of the sun"
|-
| deorù || {{sc|len}} -reorù- || || n.i.VII || stool, chair || ''dzega-'' "sit" + {{sc|instr}}
|-
| detsa || {{sc|len}} -retsə- || ə || n.a.I || heart || ''dzehdza-''
|-
| detsau || || || prep || from out of || ''dzehdzoʔu'' "at the heart of"
|-
| dì- || ({{sc|u}} dîu-) || i || pron || (emphatic proximate demonstrative) || ''dze-'' "this (near me)" + ''gi-'' (cataphoric)
|-
| dì || {{sc|obl}} diu-, {{sc|len}} -rì- || i || n.a.II || bee || ''dzìʔì-''
|-
| difé || {{sc|len}} -rifé- || e || n.i.VI || water || ''dziphe-''
|-
| díga || || || adv || on and on; still || ''dziʔga'' "continuously, repetitively"
|-
| dìhè- || || || adj || dangerous; forbidden || {{Ile|dìxè-}}
|-
| dìlau || {{sc|len}} -rìlau- || || n.i.VII || spear, harpoon || ''dzàlà'' "stab" + {{sc|instr}}
|-
| díle || ({{sc|len}} -yéle-) || e/a || n.i.III || here || ''daʔle-''
|-
| dìlì- || {{sc|len}} -yèl{{IPA|ə̀}}-, {{sc|asp}} -tìl{{IPA|ə̀}}- || ə || v.it || fly || ''dàlà-''
|-
| dína || {{sc|len}} -rínə- || ə || n.a.II || goat || {{gray|''dziʔna'' < PW ''*kyuʔna'' (cf. {{Tm|ćoʔna}})}}
|-
| dìnèfu- || {{sc|len}} -rìnèfə-, {{sc|asp}} -tsìnèfə- || ə || v.it || wake up, rise || {{gray|''dzìnèhpa-'' < PW ''*kyanẽ-łpa-'' (cf. {{Tm|ćanę}} "morning")}}
|-
| dìngea || {{sc|len}} -rìngea- || ea || n.i.VII || fingertip || ''dzìňa-'' "fingernail"
|-
| doa- || || || adj || good || ''duğa-''
|-
| doasá || {{sc|len}} -yoasá- || || n.a.I || good spirit, guardian || ''duğa-łàğa''
|-
| dú || || || cj || so, thus, therefore, in this way || ''duʔ''
|-
| dù- || || || adj || long || ''dłù-''
|-
| dudìya || {{sc|len}} -rudìya- || o/a || n.a.I || bird || ''dzaldàjà-''
|-
| dufoayo || {{sc|len}} -rufoayu- || u || n.a.I || fisherman || ''dzuphugoju-''
|-
| dùha || {{sc|obl}} dùfə-, {{sc|len}} -luhə- || ə || n.i.IV || roasted meat || ''bľùxa-'' "meat"
|-
| duká- || || || adj || short, small || ''głukha-''
|-
| duli || {{sc|len}} -ruli- || i || n.i.V || breast (female body part) || ''dzùʔli-''
|-
| dùma || {{sc|len}} -lùmə- || ə || n.i.IV || berries || ''głàma-''
|-
| dùmu- || || N || adj || red || ''dzàma-''
|-
| dúni- || {{sc|len}} -lúnə-, {{sc|asp}} -tsúnə- || ə || v.mt || wait for, expect, anticipate || {{gray|''głuʔna-'' < PW ''*kłuʔna-'' (cf. {{Tm|ćoʔna}})}}
|-
| dùnu- || || || adj || full || ''dzùnu-''
|-
| dùngafá || {{sc|len}} -rùngafá- || a || n.i.IV || red beans || ''dzàmawopha-''
|-
| dùpígai || {{sc|len}} -rùpígai- || ai || n.a.I || Lukpanic person || early {{Ile|*dzỳp{{IPA|ɨ́ɡʷɑjɨ}}}} "fisherman"
|-
| dùpuka || {{sc|obl}} dùpupə-, {{sc|len}} -lùpukə- || ə || n.i.III || house, building (made of wood) || ''dłũkuka'' "longhouse"
|-
| dure || {{sc|len}} -yure- || e/a || n.i.IV || sky || ''dudze-''
|-
| duta || {{sc|len}} -luta- || ə || n.i.III || pan || {{gray|''głuta'' < PW ''*kławta'' (cf. {{Tm|ćotwa}} "pot")}}
|-
| dùtsù || || || prep || over, above || {{gray|''dzùtsu-ʔu'' < PW ''*čĩcu'' (cf. {{Tm|ćęco}} "cloud")}}
|-
| êa- || || ea || v.mt+ || give [cannot be used with 1st person participants] || ''ʔèda-''
|-
| êagili || || i || n.i.IV || number, amount || {{KpL|eawili}} "count"-{{sc|vn-acc}}
|-
| eama- || || ə || n.a.I || honest person || {{KpL|ẽam}} "straight person"
|-
| efàya- || || || v.it+ || miss, lack || ''ʔihmaʔaja-'' "be without"
|-
| efôa || || oa || n.i.VII || tip (of an arrow or spear) || {{KpL|efõa}} < {{PL|*eahoana}} < {{Emp|ʔéʔóná}} "its tooth"
|-
| ekâike || || e || n.i.IV || game; competition || {{KpL|ekaike}} < {{PL|*eakaikea}} < {{Emp|ékayé}}
|-
| êogôeya- || || || v.mt+ || bestow a name on; praise || ''ʔìjoʔu ʔèda-'' "give a name"
|-
| êogùma || || ə || n.a.I || hero, protagonist || ''ʔìjoʔu ʔàma'' "with a name"
|-
| êoso- || || o || v.mt || spoil, sabotage || {{KpL|euso}} < {{PL|*eavusoa}} < {{Emp|éwodzó}} "ruin a party"
|-
| eta || || ə || n.a.I || captain (of a ship) || {{gray|''ʔehda'' < PW ''*ʔełda'' (cf. {{Gez|eːdɔ}} "lord")}}
|-
| étu || || || n.i.VII || brick || {{KpL|etu}}
|-
| eyai || || ai || n.i.IV || death || {{KpL|eyãi}}
|-
| fà || || || cj || also, and then, next, afterwards || ''phà''
|-
| fá- || || a || qu || all, every || ''pha-''
|-
| fáfáti- || || ə || v.mt+ || shoot, hurl (as a weapon) || ''phaphaʔta-''
|-
| fagi || || i || n.i.III || door, gate || {{KpL|fawi}}
|-
| fagíba- || || || v.it || be surprised || {{KpL|fawiba}}
|-
| fâi || || ai || n.i.III || box, case, basket || {{KpL|fãi}} < {{PL|*peani}} < {{Tm|peńi}} "basket"
|-
| fainiba- || || || v.mt || recognize, be familiar with || {{KpL|fãiniba}} < {{PL|*pamiligba}} "see and know"
|-
| faingi- || || i || v.mt || sail, navigate to || {{KpL|fãiki}}
|-
| fala || || ə || n.i.VI || cloud || ''phèľa-''
|-
| fáli- || || ə || adj || far, distant; unlikely || ''phala-''
|-
| fàmá || || || n.i.VII || nail || {{KpL|fãmap}}
|-
| fári- || || ə || v.mt || collect, gather || ''pha-'' "all, every" + {{sc|caus}}
|-
| fásai || || ai || n.i.VII || coin || {{KpL|fasai}} < {{PL|*pasagai}}
|-
| fásautù || || || n.i.IV || money || (''fásai'' "coin" + {{sc|abstr}})
|-
| fátàyè || || i || n.i.IV || effort, attempt || ''phaʔtèğì-'' "throw-{{sc|vn}}"
|-
| fáti- || || ə || v.mt || throw || ''phaʔta-''
|-
| faukì- || || i || adj || loud || {{KpL|faukĩ}} < {{PL|*pau}} "cry out (of animals)" + ''*-kim'' (adjectivizer)
|-
| fêa || || ea || n.i.VII || laurel tree || {{KpL|fẽa}}
|-
| fésafu || || || n.i.VI || language || {{KpL|fesafu}} "tongue-speech"
|-
| fì || {{sc|obl}} fiu- || i || n.i.VII || beginning, origin || ''phiji-'' "seed"
|-
| fífutsu || || || adv || seemingly, superficially || ''phiłutsu'' "like tree-bark"
|-
| fíga- || || || v.it || breathe, blow; sigh || ''phiwo-''
|-
| figai- || || ai || adj || true, real, typical || {{KpL|fiwai}} "correct"
|-
| figautù || || || n.i.IV || truth, reality || (''figai-'' "true" + {{sc|abstr}})
|-
| fíli- || || ə || adj || hidden, invisible || {{gray|''phìʔla-'' < PW ''*pʰĩbła-'' (cf. {{Tm|pehńa}} "disappear")}}
|-
| fìmàyù || || || n.i.IV || fact, hint, good advice || {{KpL|fimãyũ}} "that which is correct"
|-
| físi || {{sc|obl}} fífu- || i || n.i.VII || tree bark || ''phiłi-''
|-
| fíti- || || ə || adj || weak; timid || ''phita-'' "small"
|-
| fôa || || oa || n.a.I || military leader, general || ''phuga-'' "chief"
|-
| foaká || || a || n.a.I || power, dominion, authority || ''phugakha-'' "chief-thing"
|-
| fobu || || || n.a.I || concubine || {{Ish|hobu}}
|-
| fôe || || || n.i.IV || spring || {{KpL|fõi}} < {{PL|*pumai}} "the growing"
|-
| Fólu || || || n.a.I || the sea goddess Fólu (Poalu) || {{KpL|Folu}}
|-
| Fólùmù || || || n.i.III || the city of Poalugbum || {{KpL|Folumũ}}
|-
| fósi || || || n.i.V || mouth || {{KpL|fohi}}
|-
| fosíki- || || i || v.mt || safeguard, hide sth. || {{KpL|fosiki}} "be silent" < {{PL|*poahisiki}} "not having a mouth"
|-
| fufù || || || n.i.V || fur || {{KpL|fufũ}} < {{PL|*huəb u hum}} "hair of animals"
|-
| fulaha || || || n.i.VII || gift || {{KpL|fulaha}} < {{PL|*pulaha}} < {{Tm|polaha}}
|-
| fulugu || || || n.a.I || translator; polyglot || ({{KpL|fu}} + ''-lugV-'': "language person")
|-
| fùmbàma || || || n.a.I || stock breeder || {{KpL|fũpãm}} "person facing towards animals"
|-
| fùmu || || || n.a.I || rebel, dissident || {{KpL|fũmu}} "leader"
|-
| furá || || || cj || however, by contrast || ''phà dzeʔ'' "then however"
|-
| fúru- || || || adj || great, important || {{gray|''phuldzu-'' < PW ''*pʰuldzu'' (cf. {{Gez|pʰuːzu}} "famous, heroic")}}
|-
| fusau || || || n.i.VI || song || {{KpL|fusãu}}
|-
| fusàyàma || || || n.a.I || singer || {{KpL|fusãyãm}} "one who sings (regularly)"
|-
| ga || || || cj || but, yet || ''ge''
|-
| gàfo || || u || n.a.I || tool || ''ğòxu-''
|-
| gàfulugu || || || n.a.I || smith || (''gàfo'' + ''-lugV-'': "toolmaker")
|-
| gagai- || || ai || v.it || smell, emit scent || {{KpL|wawai}}
|-
| gagù || {{sc|obl}} gau- || || n.a.I || eagle || ''ğogugu-''
|-
| gaire || || i || n.a.I || neck; back (of the body) || ''ğeľzi-''
|-
| gáku || || || n.i.III || house, building (made of brick or stone) || {{KpL|waku}}
|-
| gala || {{sc|len}} -yalə- || ə || n.a.I || child || ''geľa-''
|-
| galàrì || {{sc|len}} -yalàrì- || ə || n.a.I || girl || ''geľèdzì-''
|-
| gálo || || u || n.a.II || liver || ''woʔlu-''
|-
| galuyu || {{sc|len}} -yaluyu- || || n.i.IV || mountain || ''ğeľudu-''
|-
| ganà || || ə || n.i.IV || year || ''wèʔnà-''
|-
| ganelilâu || || || n.a.I || the Wañelinlawag nation || {{Šet|wañelinlau}}
|-
| ganelíni || || i || n.i.IV || the Wañelín lake || {{Šet|wañelín}}
|-
| ganeofú || || || n.a.I || the Wañelinlawag emperor || {{Šet|wañeu hú}}
|-
| garadi- || {{sc|asp}} -faradə- || ə || v.mt || kill || ''wodzedza-''
|-
| gari- || || || adj || steep, sloped; difficult || ''wedzi-''
|-
| gataiba- || {{sc|asp}} -fataiba- || || v.dt || answer sth. to so., reply || ''weta-'' "turn" + {{sc|loq}}
|-
| gatáyesi- || {{sc|asp}} -fatáyesə- || ə || v.mt || meet, visit, spend time with || ''weteʔihtsa-''
|-
| gatunà || || || adv || in the future || ''wetùʔnà'' "next year"
|-
| gatsu- || {{sc|asp}} -fatsu- || || v.mt || eat (of herbivorous animals) || ''wotsu-''
|-
| gauga || {{sc|obl}} gaubə- || ə || n.i.VI || spit || ''ğolga-''
|-
| gaugafáyesi- || || ə || v.mt || condemn, curse || ''ğolgahpaʔihtsa-'' "spit on"
|-
| gauki- || {{sc|asp}} -faukə- || ə || v.mt || hit || ''wolka-''
|-
| gaupu || || || n.i.IV || speed, quickness || ''ğoguku-''
|-
| gáyo || || u || n.a.I || councillor || {{Ish|gá}} "elder, official" + {{sc|aug}}
|-
| gea- || || ea || pron || (interrogative pronoun) || ''ği'' (interrogative particle) + ''ja-'' (anaphoric pronoun)
|-
| géka || || || n.i.IV || duty, task || {{KpL|weka}} < {{PL|*veaka}} < {{Emp|wékhá}} "weight; burden"
|-
| gelai || || ai || n.a.I || the Wellawi nation; Wellawi people || {{KpL|welai}}
|-
| gesù || || || n.i.VI || liquor || {{KpL|wesũ}} < {{PL|*vuveasum}} < {{Emp|wuwédzum}} "alcohol"
|-
| getsi- || {{sc|len}} -yetsi- || i || v.mt || wash || ''ğehdzi-''
|-
| gi- || || i || pron || (relative pronoun; topic marker) || ''gi-'' (cataphoric pronoun)
|-
| gifoa- || || || adj || easy, simple || {{KpL|wifõa}}
|-
| giga- || {{sc|len}} -iga- || o/a || v.it || breathe, be alive; stir || ''ğiwo-''
|-
| giga- || {{sc|len}} -iga- || e/a || v.mt || drink (water) || ''ğibe-'' "drink"
|-
| gigàrù || {{sc|len}} -igàrù- || u || n.i.VII || bowl, horn (used for drinking) || ''ğibòdzù-'' "drink-tool"
|-
| gigoa- || {{sc|len}} -igoa- || oa || v.mt || give birth to; beget || ''ğiwoga-''
|-
| gìma- || || ə || pron || where (interrogative/relative) || ''ği ma-'' "which place" & ''gìma-'' "the place where"
|-
| gìnà || || || adv || actually, indeed || {{gray|''gìnà'' < PW ''*kʷaynã'' (cf. {{Gez|kɛna}} "even, in fact")}}
|-
| gìra- || || || adj || big || ''ğàdze-''
|-
| gitá- || || || adj || correct; appropriate || ''gatha-''
|-
| gìta || {{sc|len}} -yètə- || ə || n.i.VI || wind || ''ğìta-''
|-
| gítiu || || || n.a.II || whale || {{DL|gitiw}}
|-
| gitù || || || pron || why, what for || ''ği thuboʔu'' "with which root?"
|-
| gitsátûi- || || e/a || v.it || change for the worse || ''gatshathuja-'' "become like dirt"
|-
| goafúpu- || || || v.it || fish (in the sea) || (''goe'' + ''púpu-'': "hunt saltwater fish")
|-
| goe || || oa || n.a.II || saltwater fish || {{KpL|woi}}
|-
| goleba || || || n.i.III || tattoo || {{KpL|goleb}} < {{PL|*gboaleab}} "that which is under the skin"
|-
| gònù || || || v.it || be flawed || {{KpL|gonũ}} < {{PL|*guəlum}} "stain"
|-
| gópu || || || n.a.II || cow; cattle || {{KpL|gop}}
|-
| gósí || || || adv || today, now, currently, recently || {{KpL|go}} "day" + PCW ''sàʔ'' "during"
|-
| guga || {{sc|len}} -uga- || ə || n.a.I || slave; serf || {{PL|*gbagba}} "people, tribe" (very early loanword)
|-
| gúlàrì- || {{sc|len}} -úlàrì- || i || v.mt || share, distribute || {{gray|''ğuʔlèdzì-'' < PW ''*γaw-kłakĩ-'' (cf. {{Tm|yoćkę}} "scatter, disperse")}}
|-
| gulù- || || || adj || young || {{gray|''ğùʔlù-'' < PW ''*γudłũ-'' (cf. {{Gez|guːra}})}}
|-
| gùmu || {{sc|len}} -ùmu- || || n.i.III || city || {{PL|*gbum}} (very early loanword)
|-
| gùmù- || {{sc|asp}} -kùm{{IPA|ə̀}}- || ə || v.mt || fear || ''gàmà-''
|-
| gùmufôa || || {{sc|len}} -ùmufôa- || n.a.I || the king of Pítau || {{PL|*gbum}} "city" + PCW ''phuga-'' "chief"
|-
| gúpa- || || e/a || v.mt || start, begin, initiate || {{gray|''ğuʔpe-'' < PW ''*γuʔpe-'' (cf. {{Tm|yoʔpe}})}}
|-
| gure || {{sc|len}} -uri- || i || n.a.II || freshwater fish || ''ğudzi-'' "fish"
|-
| gùsu- || {{sc|len}} -ùsu- || || v.mt || pull || {{gray|''ğùsu-'' < PW ''*γʷĩsu-'' (cf. {{Tm|męso}} "stretch")}}
|-
| hafìma || || || v.mt || hope || {{KpL|hafĩma}} < {{PL|*haəpinigba}} "hold on to a dream"
|-
| hagalù || || || n.i.III || market || {{Ile|xagalùl}}
|-
| hálau || || || n.i.IV || confusion, chaos, disorder || {{KpL|halau}} < {{PL|*haəlal}} "mass of small objects"
|-
| hàmo- || || o || v.mt || betray || {{KpL|hãmo}} "stab"
|-
| haru- || || || v.mt || prepare || {{Šet|har}}
|-
| hau || || || n.i.IV || beans || {{KpL|hau}}
|-
| hèmbai || || ai || n.i.IV || west || {{KpL|hãipãi}} < {{PL|*haimikpani}} "facing towards the night"
|-
| hípu || || || n.i.VII || crab || {{Ile|xikpu}}
|-
| hoageye || || e/a || n.a.I || ally; partner || {{Ile|xuwageye}} "friend"
|-
| i || || || cj || if || ''ʔi''
|-
| ídi- || || i || v.mt || make, create || {{gray|''ʔiʔdzi-'' < PW ''*ʔeʔdži-'' (cf. {{Gez|eːzi-}} "form, sculpt, knead")}}
|-
| ígiyai- || || ai || v.it || float || {{KpL|iwiyai}}
|-
| ìke || || e/a || n.i.VII || weapon || {{Ile|ìke}}
|-
| ílai || || ai || n.a.II || foot, leg || {{KpL|ilai}}
|-
| ílaimá- || || a || v.mt || kick || (''ílai'' + ''-má-'': "do with the foot")
|-
| íle || || e/a || n.i.IV || salt || ''ğaʔle-''
|-
| ìngea || || ea || n.i.V || leaf || ''ğàňa-''
|-
| ìrè || || e/a || n.a.I || woman, wife || ''ʔàzè-''
|-
| iri || || i || n.i.VII || arrow || ''jidzi-''
|-
| iriya || || o/a || n.a.I || enemy; menace; marauder || ''ʔadidaja-'' "one who causes fear"
|-
| isa || || ə || n.a.II || hand || ''ʔiľsa-''
|-
| Isi || || i || n.i.III || the city of Isi || {{KpL|Isi}}
|-
| itîu || || || n.i.III || canoe || {{KpL|itĩu}}
|-
| itsá- || || a || v.mt || strive for || ''ʔitsha-'' "fish"
|-
| ìye || || e/a || n.i.IV || name || ''ʔìje-''
|-
| íyesi- || || ə || v.it+ || come, get to, arrive, achieve || ''jiʔihtsa-''
|-
| kà- || || || adj || dark || ''khàʔa-'' "black"
|-
| kafifayaba || || || n.i.III || meat skewer || {{KpL|kafiufayab}} "thing above the fire"
|-
| kafiutu || || || n.i.III || hearth, oven || {{KpL|kafiutu}}
|-
| kágo- || || || adj || narrow || ''khawo-''
|-
| káka- || || || v.mt || drink (alcohol) || {{KpL|kaka}} "drink"
|-
| kápa || || ə || n.i.VII || tree || ''khapa-''
|-
| kápágè- || || e || v.mt || mock, scorn || {{Ile|kákpágè}} "curse" (preserving an old meaning)
|-
| kápàpù || || || n.i.IV || forest || ''khapòkù-''
|-
| kápó- || || o || v.it || laugh || ''khakho-''
|-
| karayùká || || a || n.a.I || raven, crow || {{Ing|kaojauduká}} "black bird"
|-
| kárì- || || ə || v.mt || shake || {{gray|''khadza-'' < PW ''*kʰadza-'' (cf. {{Tm|kahca}})}}
|-
| kâu || || || prep || as, like, similar to || {{gray|''khòbu'' < PW ''*kʰãbu-'' (cf. {{Tm|kahmo}} "almost")}}
|-
| kâugayu- || || || v.mt || resemble || ''khòbuʔaju-'' "be like"
|-
| káya || || || n.i.VI || fire || ''khaja-''
|-
| káyafu- || || ə || v.mt || burn; pillage || ''khajahpa-''
|-
| káyufàpù || || || n.i.IV || ashes; ruins || ''khajałòkù-''
|-
| kea || || ea || n.a.I || man, husband || {{KpL|kea}}
|-
| kêayà- || || || v.it || dance || {{KpL|kẽayã}} < {{PL|*kimadam}} "turn repeatedly"
|-
| kénu || || || n.i.IV || face; front side, facade (of a building), bow (of a ship) || {{Ç|kʷenu}} "head"
|-
| kéri || || i || n.i.VII || bush, shrub || {{gray|''kheʔzi'' < PW ''*kʰaʔši'' (cf. {{Gez|kʰɔːs}} "tree")}}
|-
| késaba || || || n.a.I || knife, dagger (for everyday use) || {{KpL|kesa}} "sharp" + {{sc|agt.1}}
|-
| kífise || || e || n.i.IV || desert || {{KpL|kifise}} < {{PL|*kipisea}} < {{Tm|kipceʔ}}
|-
| kísí || || || n.a.II || side; cheek || {{KpL|kisip}} "cheek"
|-
| kíta || || ə || n.i.III || vagina || {{gray|''khita'' < PW ''*kʷʰeyta'' (cf. {{Tm|kwihca}})}}
|-
| kôato || || o || n.i.IV || celebration (non-religious) || {{KpL|kowato}} < {{PL|*koabatoa}} < {{Emp|khampató}} "night"
|-
| kùfùmu || || || n.i.III || temple || {{KpL|kũfũm}}
|-
| Kùnai || || || n.a.I || the wind god Kùnai || {{KpL|Kunãi}} < {{PL|*Kulami}}
|-
| la || || ə || n.a.I || man [archaic] || ''ľa-''
|-
| làfu || || || n.i.IV || side effect, corollary || ''ľoxu-'' "backside"
|-
| lagasúnu || || || n.i.IV || empire || {{Šet|tlagazún}} "throne"
|-
| lai || || ai || n.a.I || boy || ''ľegi-''
|-
| laka || {{sc|obl}} lapə- || ə || n.a.I || ear || ''ľahga-''
|-
| larago || || o/a || n.i.IV || star || ''zezewo-''
|-
| lároa- || || oa || v.mt || invent, come up with, develop || {{gray|''gloʔzuga-'' < PW ''*kleʔšu-dza-'' "cause to appear" (cf. {{Tm|ćeʔśo}})}}
|-
| làya- || || || v.it+ || be under, be covered by, be hidden || ''ľaʔaja-''
|-
| leari- || || ə || v.mt || stick in the ground || ''zìgàdza-''
|-
| lehi- || || ə || adj || beautiful, attractive || {{gray|''glihka-'' < PW ''*kliγka-'' (cf. {{Tm|cek-}})}}
|-
| lídea || || ea || n.a.I || thief || {{Ish|lídea}} "crook, villain"
|-
| lifá- || || a || v.mt || wipe || ''ľipha-''
|-
| likémi || || i || n.a.I || small person; (fig.) child || {{Ile|kliké-nmi}} "short"-{{sc|dim}}
|-
| likésai || || ai || n.a.I || statue, figurine, idol || {{Ile|kliké-saip}} "short god"
|-
| lìlìngea- || || ea || v.mt || bury || ''ľàlàňa-'' "dig"
|-
| lìngea- || || ea || v.mt || wound; weaken || ''ľàňa-''
|-
| lìngeasa || {{sc|obl}} lìngeafə- || ə || n.i.VII || crack; notch || ''ľàňała-''
|-
| lìpe || || e/a || n.i.VII || wood (the material) || {{gray|''glìpe-'' < PW ''*klĩpe-'' (cf. {{Tm|ćępe}})}}
|-
| lire || || e/a || n.i.IV || day || ''zize-''
|-
| liri || || i || n.i.VI || fat, grease || ''ziľzi-''
|-
| líta- || || ə || v.mt || milk (of animals) || ''ğlaʔta-''
|-
| lìtsa || || ə || n.a.I || egg || ''ľàtsa-''
|-
| lìtsi- || || ə || qu || many || ''ľàtsa-''
|-
| lìtsiya || || a || n.a.I || chick (young bird) || ''ľatsajaʔa-'' "egg-child"
|-
| lìtsòfù || || || n.i.III || omelette || ''ľàtsòhxù'' "made from eggs"
|-
| loagù || || || prep || towards, in the direction of || ''gluwoʔu'' "at the leg of"
|-
| loatá- || || e/a || v.it || run || ''gluwo-'' "leg" + {{sc|dyn.3}}
|-
| lósa- || || || v.mt || trade || {{KpL|losa}} < {{PL|*loasa}} < {{Tm|lǫća}} "exchange"
|-
| lugapu || || || adv || publicly, openly || ''ľağoku'' "like smoke"
|-
| lugo || || o/a || n.i.VI || smoke || ''ľağo-''
|-
| lùha || {{sc|obl}} lùfə- || ə || n.a.II || meat, flesh || ''bľùxa-'' (back-formed from the possessed stem)
|-
| lùmau || || || prep || to the right of || ''ľùmòʔu'' "east of"
|-
| lùmè || || e/a || n.i.IV || east || ''ľùmè-''
|-
| lùmu- || || N || adj || green; warm || ''ğłùŋa-'' "green" & ''ľàma-'' "warm"
|-
| lùmu- || || ə || v.mt || grind, mill || ''ľùma-''
|-
| lùne- || || e/a || v.mt || carry || {{gray|''ľùne-'' < PW ''*lawne-'' (cf. {{Gez|rɔune-}} "own, possess")}}
|-
| lùnga- || || e/a || v.it || be valuable, be precious || {{gray|''ğlùňe-'' < PW ''*γluñe-'' (cf. {{Tm|leńe}} "be rare")}}
|-
| lúpu- || || ə || v.mt || conquer || ''ľaʔpa-'' "win, take by raiding"
|-
| lùrà- || || e/a || v.mt || lift, raise || {{gray|''ğlùdzè-'' < PW ''*γludžẽ-'' (cf. {{Tm|leńę}} "seize")}}
|-
| lutsú- || || || v.mt || push || {{gray|''ľutshu-'' < PW ''*lukʰiw-'' "urge, persuade" (cf. {{Gez|ruxu-}} "argue, negotiate")}}
|-
| màfu- || || || adj || wide, broad, large || ''mòxu-''
|-
| mai- || || || adj || bad, evil || ''maje-'' "rotten"
|-
| maisá || || || n.a.I || evil spirit, demon || ''maje-łàğa''
|-
| maki- || || ə || adj || sharp || ''mahga-''
|-
| mále || || i || n.a.II || bear || ''meʔli-''
|-
| máluyo || || u || n.a.I || warrior || ''meʔludu-''
|-
| màmu || || || n.i.III || beach || {{KpL|mãm}} "sand"
|-
| máru- || || || v.mt || sew || ''moʔzu-''
|-
| márupa || || || n.i.III || robe || ''moʔzu-'' "sew" + {{sc|fact}}
|-
| masi || {{sc|obl}} mafu- || i || n.i.VI || shadow || {{gray|''mełi'' < PW ''*małi'' (cf. {{Tm|mahi}})}}
|-
| mâu || || || n.a.II || sheep || ''mòğu-''
|-
| mâukuma || || ə || n.i.III || meadow, pasture || {{gray|''mòğùkhàma'' < PW ''*mẽγu-cʰama'' "sheep-land" (cf. {{Tm|męcahma}})}}
|-
| mâulugu || || || n.a.I || shepherd || (''mâu'' + ''-lugV'': "sheep-person")
|-
| máyaga || || ə || n.a.I || person dying from an illness || {{Ile|máye-}} "seriously ill" + classifier
|-
| mayai || || || adv || always, forever || {{KpL|mayãi}} < {{PL|*madami}} "over and over"
|-
| meanì- || || i || v.it || be determined to do sth. || {{KpL|mẽanĩ}} < {{PL|*viŋaliŋi}} "gather insects" ({{sc|hab}})
|-
| meanìté || || e || n.a.I || strong-willed person; leader || (''meanì-'' + ''-té'': "one who is highly determined")
|-
| mèfì || || i || n.a.II || hip || {{gray|''mèhpì'' < PW ''*maγpĩ'' (cf. {{Tm|mapę}})}}
|-
| mìga- || || || adj || wet; unlucky || ''mìgo-''
|-
| Milànea || || || n.a.I || the fire goddess Milànea (Milalena) || {{KpL|Milanẽa}}
|-
| mìmaitaba || || || n.i.VI || embers || {{KpL|mĩmãitab}} < {{PL|*mimivaŋi tab}} "the hot red one"
|-
| mìna || || ə || n.a.I || mother || ''mìna-''
|-
| mìnda || || ə || n.i.VII || ceremony || {{KpL|mĩta}}
|-
| mírì- || || i || v.mt || check, test || {{gray|''miʔzi-'' < PW ''meʔši-'' (cf. {{Tm|meʔse}} "taste", {{Gez|meːsi-}} "try")}}
|-
| mise || {{sc|obl}} mifu- || i || n.a.I || tongue || ''miłi-''
|-
| misitá- || || a || v.it+ || speak, talk || ''miłi-'' "tongue" + {{sc|dyn.3}}
|-
| mìsù || || || n.i.VI || herbal tea || {{KpL|mĩsũ}} "hot leaves"
|-
| mítàmau || || || n.i.IV || the world || {{KpL|mitãmau}}
|-
| mítànì- || || i || v.it || move, go (of people and animals); flow (of rivers) || {{KpL|mitanĩ}} "run, flow" ({{sc|hab}})
|-
| mópa || || ə || n.i.VII || tower || {{KpL|mopa}} < {{PL|*moakpa}} < {{Tm|mǫʔpa}} "summit, peak"
|-
| mùgofu- || || ə || v.mt || be worried about || {{gray|''màgohpa-'' < PW ''*mãkʷa-łpa'' (cf. {{Tm|mąkwa}} "sorrow")}}
|-
| mûi || || || n.i.VI || high tide || {{KpL|mũi}}
|-
| muimàmau || || || v.it || persist, press on || {{KpL|mũimãmau}} < {{PL|*buimigbaŋmau}} "intend to continue"
|-
| mulàrè || || e/a || n.i.IV || moon || ''mazèzè-''
|-
| mulu || || || n.i.IV || buckwheat || {{KpL|mulu}}
|-
| mùndui || || ui || n.i.III || surroundings, vicinity || {{KpL|mũtui}} "surroundings (of a city)"
|-
| mùnduyù || || || prep || all around, throughout || (''mùndui''-{{sc|obl.sg}})
|-
| mùrà || || ə || n.a.II || hunting dog, hound || ''màdzà-'' "nose"
|-
| murayu || || || n.i.IV || sea, ocean || ''madze-'' + {{sc|aug}}
|-
| muri- || || ə || v.it || shine || ''maze-''
|-
| mùrùmá- || || a || v.mt || smell; sense intuitively || ''màdzà-'' "nose" + {{sc|dyn.2}}
|-
| mutìnge || || e || n.a.I || the king of Naəgbum || {{Ile|mutìnge}}
|-
| mútu || || || n.a.VII || head || {{KpL|mutu}}
|-
| mùyàmau || || || n.i.IV || countryside || {{KpL|mũyãmau}} "land outside of the city"
|-
| mùyugau || || au || n.a.I || summer solstice || {{KpL|mũyuwau}} < {{PL|*buimi u uəl}} "high tide of the sun"
|-
| mùyùsi- || || i || v.it+ || return, continue || {{KpL|mũyũsi}}
|-
| na || || ə || pron || ({{sc|1sg}} pronoun) || ''na''
|-
| nà || {{sc|erg}} nasi, {{sc|obl}} nafu || || pron || ({{sc|1pl}} pronoun) || ''nah''
|-
| náfau || || || n.a.I || baby, toddler || {{KpL|nafau}}
|-
| náfìnù || || || n.i.V || knot || {{KpL|nafinũ}} "that which is tied"
|-
| nàgù || || || prep || under; right beside, next to || ''nòğuʔu'' "at the foot of"
|-
| nâi || || || n.i.V || leather || {{KpL|nãe}} < {{PL|*laŋea}} < {{Emp|tlaŋe}} "animal skin"
|-
| nâibi || || i || n.i.III || roof, terrace, platform || {{KpL|naib}}
|-
| nàmâu || || || n.i.IV || knowledge, wisdom, experience || {{KpL|namãu}} < {{PL|*navoanu}} < {{Emp|nawonu}} "intelligence"
|-
| Namù || || || n.i.III || the city of Naəgbum || {{KpL|Namũ}}
|-
| nàsè || || e || n.i.IV || concern; obstacle || {{KpL|nãsẽ}} < {{PL|*lanaseam}} < {{Emp|lánádzém}} "my worries"
|-
| natá || || a || n.i.III || mast, pole, pillar || {{Ish|nata}} "beam"
|-
| natâi || || ai || n.i.VII || chest (male body part) || {{KpL|natãe}} "all the ribs"
|-
| natáyetsi- || || i || v.it || bathe oneself || (''natâi'' + ''getsi-'': "wash the body")
|-
| nâu- || {{sc|asp}} -fâu- || || v.mt || think, consider || ''nòbu-''
|-
| naufù || || || n.i.V || tail || {{KpL|nãufũ}} < {{PL|*daəŋa u hum}} "tail of animal"
|-
| naunà || || || n.a.I || army, phalanx || {{KpL|nãunã}} "many spears"
|-
| naunàtélì || || i || n.i.IV || battle, combat || (''naunà'' "army" + {{sc|dyn.3}} + {{sc|vn}})
|-
| nàyu || || || n.i.III || field; arable land || {{KpL|nãyu}} < {{PL|*lamil}} "earth, soil"
|-
| nàyùrè || || e/a || n.i.III || farm for grain or vegetables; rural estate || {{gray|''nodùzè'' "village" < PW ''*nedu-γẽ'' (influenced by ''nàyu'')}}
|-
| nayúsi- || || i || v.it || be courageous || {{KpL|nayusi}} "strong, sturdy"
|-
| nêa || || ea || n.i.III || boat, ship || {{KpL|nẽa}}
|-
| nèfi- || {{sc|asp}} -fèfi- || i || v.mt || explain, justify, apologize for || ''nìhmi-'' < PW ''*nẽγmi-'' (cf. {{Gez|naːmi-}} "say")}}
|-
| néhi || {{sc|obl}} néfə- || i || n.i.VII || belt || {{KpL|nehi}} < {{PL|*neahi}} < {{Tm|nęhi}}
|-
| neomo || || o || n.i.IV || dune || {{Ish|nyòamo}}
|-
| nésànù || || || n.i.IV || thought, idea, notion, opinion || {{KpL|nesanũ}} < {{PL|*neasalum}}
|-
| nì- || || || adj || sour; sad || {{KpL|nĩ}}
|-
| nifá || || a || n.i.VI || fog, mist || ''nipha-''
|-
| nifuiba- || || || v.tr || concentrate, focus on || {{KpL|nifuiba}} < {{PL|*nipuigba}} "chew (mentally)"
|-
| nìgi || || i || n.i.VII || necklace || {{gray|''nìwi'' < PW ''*nẽwi'' (cf. {{Gez|nɜ̃u}} "brooch, fibula")}}
|-
| nìmi || || i || n.i.III || wall || {{KpL|nĩmi}}
|-
| nípaba || || || n.a.I || coward || {{KpL|nipab}} "one who fears"
|-
| nira- || || || adj || tame (of animals); cautious (of people); reliable || ''nadze-'' "tame"
|-
| niraita || || ə || n.a.II || domestic animal || ''nadze-'' "tame" + {{sc|nom.II}}
|-
| nire || || || adv || rarely, unexpectedly, surprisingly || ''nadze'' "rarely"
|-
| niunù || || || prep || to the left of || ''*nàdùnuʔu'' < {{Ç|nadun}} "left, west"
|-
| nóbu || || || n.i.III || letter, glyph || {{KpL|nob}}
|-
| nóbulugu || || || n.a.I || scholar || (''nóbu'' + ''-lugV-'': "letter-person")
|-
| nófùyà || || || n.i.VII || anchor || {{KpL|nofũyã}} < {{PL|*nuəp u neama}} "root of the boat"
|-
| nogea- || ({{sc|asp}} -fogea-) || ea || v.mt || read || {{KpL|noweab}}
|-
| nôe || || oa || n.i.III || sail (of a ship), wing (of a bird) || {{KpL|nũe}}
|-
| notsi- || {{sc|asp}} -fotsi- || i || v.mt || turn around, flip over || {{gray|''nuhdzi-'' < PW ''*nuγki-'' (cf. {{Tm|noki}})}}
|-
| nûi || || ui || n.i.III || island || {{KpL|nũi}} < {{PL|*lumi}}
|-
| nûibi- || || i || v.it || be visible; be obvious || {{KpL|nuibi}} "touching the eyes"
|-
| nùmè || || e/a || n.a.I || honor || {{gray|''nùmè'' < PW ''*numẽ'' (cf. {{Tm|nomę}} "face")}}
|-
| nùtsé || || e/a || n.i.VI || sunset || {{gray|''nùtshe'' < PW ''*nũčʰe'' (cf. {{Tm|nǫće}} "evening")}}
|-
| nùyèmi || || i || n.a.I || guest, visitor || {{KpL|nũyẽm}} < {{PL|*duiŋeab}} "one who comes"
|-
| ngafúyú || || || n.i.IV || pistachio || {{KpL|ŋafuyub}} < {{PL|*ŋap u iub}} "shell-seed"
|-
| ngaima || || || adv || (quotative particle) || {{KpL|ŋãima}} "[someone] is saying that..."
|-
| ngâupu- || || || v.it || bark, bellow, roar || {{KpL|ŋaup}}
|-
| ngeali- || || ə || adj || bright || ''ňeğla-'' "white"
|-
| ngealìlùma || || ə || n.i.IV || mushrooms || ''ňeğlàgłàma-''
|-
| ngeobu- || || || adj || dull, blunt || ''ňolgu-''
|-
| ngéseka || || || n.i.VII || gem, jewel || {{KpL|ŋeseka}} < {{PL|*ŋeaseaka}} < {{Emp|ŋésékhá}}
|-
| ngìmbi || || i || n.i.IV || autumn || {{KpL|ŋĩp}} < {{PL|*ginip}} "the harvest"
|-
| ngìmi || || i || n.i.III || village || {{KpL|ŋĩm}}
|-
| ngìpà || || ə || n.i.III || hole || {{gray|''ňìpà'' < PW ''*ñipã'' (cf. {{Gez|ñipa}} "door")}}
|-
| ngiri- || || || adj || fine, soft; luxurious || ''ňizi-'' "smooth"
|-
| ngiriutsú || || || n.i.V || fine cloth || ''ňizi-'' "smooth" + {{sc|nom.V}}
|-
| ngulu || || || n.i.IV || onion || {{KpL|ŋulu}}
|-
| ôago || || u || n.a.I || rich person || ''ğùgogu-''
|-
| oagupu- || || ə || v.it || be sick || ''ʔuwolpa-'' "vomit"
|-
| oayu- || || || v.it+ || be outside of || ''ğuʔaju-''
|-
| oayuri- || || ə || v.mt || ban, exile || ''ğuʔaju-'' "be outside of" + {{sc|caus}}
|-
| òmokaba || || || n.a.I || killer, assassin || {{Ish|òamokaba}}
|-
| pádòtsù || || u || n.i.III || catapult || {{Ish|pádòzù}}
|-
| pàlau || || || n.a.I || giant; fat or large person || ''pèľogu-''
|-
| pàra- || || e/a || v.dt || say towards, tell, notify || {{gray|''pèze-'' < PW ''*pẽγe-'' (cf. {{Tm|peńe}})}}
|-
| pautu- || || || adj || busy, lively, chaotic || {{KpL|pautu}} "beehive"
|-
| pàyù- || || || v.it || be modest, be polite, be generous, be mild || {{gray|''pòdù-'' < PW ''*padũ-'' (cf. {{Tm|pnǫ-}} "a little, somewhat")}}
|-
| pêa- || || || adj || new || ''pľàga-''
|-
| peama || || ə || n.i.V || flower || ''pľàma-''
|-
| pehi- || {{sc|u}} pefə- || ə || v.it || exist, be present, remain, survive || {{gray|''pihka-'' < PW ''*piłka-'' (cf. {{Tm|pihka}})}}
|-
| peosìní || || i || n.a.II || foal || {{Ing|pydosànhí}}
|-
| pèyogú || || || n.a.I || lord, duke || {{Ish|pèdogú}}
|-
| pígagè- || || e || v.it || be necessary || {{Ile|píwagè}} "become more important"
|-
| pígagìba- || || || v.mt || emphasize || {{Ile|píwagè}} "become more important" + {{sc|loq}})
|-
| Pítau || || || n.i.III || the city of Kpitamoa || {{KpL|Pitão}}
|-
| pólu- || || || v.mt || tie, fasten || ''kholu-''
|-
| púga || {{sc|obl}} púbə- || ə || n.i.III || raft; primitive rowboat || ''khulga-'' "boat"
|-
| pùgi || || i || n.i.IV || word, statement, utterance || {{gray|''pùği'' < PW ''*pũγʷi'' (cf. {{Tm|pomi}})}}
|-
| púlu || || || n.i.V || anus || ''khulu-''
|-
| pùlùtseo- || || ea || v.mt || scout || {{Ing|palucéudo}}
|-
| pùneayè- || || e || v.it || be late, be delayed || {{gray|''pùnìʔèjì-'' < PW ''*pawnĩ-ʔayĩ-'' (cf. {{Tm|pomę-}} "late")}}
|-
| púpau || || || n.i.VII || trace; leftover; consequence || ''khulpogu-'' "that which is useful for tracking"
|-
| púpu- || || ə || v.mt || hunt; track down || ''khulpa-''
|-
| pùtau || || || n.i.III || road || ''pàtògù-''
|-
| pùti- || || ə || v.mt || find one's way to sth. || ''pàta-''
|-
| pùtité || || e || n.a.I || scout, guide || ''pàta-'' + {{sc|agt.2}}
|-
| rada- || || || adj || quick || ''zedze-'' "run"
|-
| radeogu- || || || v.it+ || run away, escape || ''zedzeʔogu-''
|-
| ràmu- || || N || adj || bad; unwanted; unfortunate || ''zèma-''
|-
| ràpàfu- || || ə || v.mt || inherit || {{gray|''zèpàhpa-'' < PW ''*šepã-łpa-'' (cf. {{Tm|śepą}} "son, heir")}}
|-
| rátáyesi- || || ə || v.it+ || flow (of rivers) || ''zeʔteʔihtsa-'' "flow towards"
|-
| rátàri- || || ə || v.it || fade, decline || ''zeʔtaʔadza-'' "flow away"
|-
| ràti- || || ə || v.mt || sing || ''zèta-''
|-
| rau || || || adv || only, merely || {{gray|''zògù'' < PW ''*šekʷũ'' (cf. {{Tm|śekmǫ}})}}
|-
| rêa || || ea || n.i.III || palm (of the hand) || ''zìda-'' "webbing between the fingers"
|-
| rea- || || ea || v.mt || hear || ''zija-''
|-
| reaya- || || e/a || v.it+ || be on the way towards || ''zeʔaje-''
|-
| rêayesi- || || ə || v.mt || listen || ''zijaʔihtsa-'' "hear towards"
|-
| rìgàya- || || || v.it || stand || ''zìgà-'' + {{sc|stat}}
|-
| rìgo || || o/a || n.i.VII || pine || ''zìwo-''
|-
| ripu- || || ə || qu || an average number of || ''zipa-'' "some"
|-
| rìyafu- || || ə || v.mt || calculate || ''zìdahpa-'' "count"
|-
| rìyau || || || prep || among, between, within || ''zìdoʔu'' "at the finger-webbing of"
|-
| rò || || || prep || into || ''zuwo'' "through; into the middle of"
|-
| roa- || || oa || v.it || float, drift || ''zuga-''
|-
| rùsutá- || || a || v.it+ || finish || {{gray|''zùsutha-'' < PW ''*γĩsu-tʰa-'' (cf. {{Gez|gɜ̃s}} "finally")}}
|-
| sa || || ə || pron || ({{sc|1pl}} distributive pronoun) || ''sa''
|-
| sà || || a || n.i.V || eye || ''łağa-''
|-
| sá || {{sc|erg}} sìgə-, {{sc|obl}} sùgə- || irr. || n.a.I || soul; spirit || ''łàğa-''
|-
| sai || || ai || n.i.IV || night || ''seji-''
|-
| sâipi || || i || n.a.I || god || {{KpL|saip}} "spirit, god"
|-
| sáki || || i || n.i.V || lavender || {{KpL|saki}}
|-
| sápa- || || || v.mt+ || bring || {{KpL|sapa}} < {{PL|*saəkpa}} < {{Tm|calkwa}} "pile, heap" (n.)
|-
| sàre || || i || n.a.II || horse || ''łèzi-''
|-
| sasageo || || || n.a.I || orphan || {{KpL|sasawiob}} "person with no father"
|-
| sautu || || u || n.i.IV || darkness || ''sejutu-'' "night-thing"
|-
| sea || || ea || n.a.II || snake || ''łija-''
|-
| seafu- || || ə || v.mt || heal || ''łijahpa-''
|-
| seahá || || a || n.a.I || guard || {{Ish|shaha}}
|-
| seaká || || a || n.i.VI || venom, poison || ''łijakha-'' "snake-thing"
|-
| sèfì || || i || n.a.II || shoulder || {{gray|''łìhpì'' < PW ''*łiγpĩ'' (cf. {{Tm|hipę}})}}
|-
| seonu || || || n.i.IV || legend; rumour || {{KpL|sẽanu}} < {{PL|*seanalu}} < {{Emp|senállú}} "song"
|-
| seonulugu || || || n.a.I || gossipmonger || (''seonu'' + ''-lugV-'': "person associated with legends and rumours")
|-
| sìgetsè- || || e || v.mt || announce, declare, insist || {{Ile|shìgecè}}
|-
| sìgìba- || || || v.mt || consider, keep in mind, pay attention to || {{Ile|sìgè}} + {{sc|loq}}
|-
| sìlugo || || o/a || n.a.I || priest || ''łàğlawo-''
|-
| silùmù || || || n.a.I || city-dweller || {{KpL|hilumũ}} "child of the city"
|-
| Sìmésita || || ə || n.i.III || the city of Siŋmeasita || {{KpL|Sĩmesita}}
|-
| sìna || || ə || n.i.IV || lake || ''łìna-''
|-
| sìnatsoama || || || n.a.I || a serene and sober-minded person || {{Ish|sìnyàzu}} "thoughtfully" + {{sc|person}}; influenced by ''sìna'' "lake"
|-
| sìnupo- || || o || v.mt || ride || {{Ing|sánhupo}}
|-
| sìrì- || || i || v.mt || gulp, swallow || {{gray|''sìzì'' < PW ''*sayšĩ'' (cf. {{Tm|siśę}} "drink")}}
|-
| síta || || a || n.i.III || shore, coastline, riverbank || {{KpL|sita}} "beach"
|-
| sitàmólu || || || n.i.IV || the [[Šetâmol]] language || {{Šet|šetâmol}}
|-
| sôa || || oa || n.i.IV || possessions || {{KpL|sũo}} < {{PL|*sumoa}} < {{Tm|comǫ}} "content (of a bag)"
|-
| sòmau || || || prep || near, close, adjacent to || ''łagòmoʔu'' "in the vicinity of"
|-
| su || || || cj || or || ''su''
|-
| suga- || || || adj || near || ''łago-''
|-
| sùgapu || || || adv || wisely; heroically || ''łàğa-'' "soul" + {{sc|adv}}
|-
| sùgaugadi || || i || n.a.I || high priest || ''łàğoʔu gèʔdzi'' "facing towards the spirits"
|-
| suguya- || || || v.mt || fight || ''sabaja-''
|-
| súha || {{sc|obl}} súfə- || ə || n.i.IV || tomorrow || ''suʔxa-''
|-
| sùli- || || ə || adj || round || ''sùla-''
|-
| sùlìtsa || || ə || n.i.VII || ball, sphere || (''sùli-'' + ''-ìtsa-'': "round thing")
|-
| sùpù- || || ə || v.mt || cut || {{gray|''sùpà-'' < PW ''*supã-'' (cf. {{Gez|supɜ̃-}})}}
|-
| súsà- || || || v.mt || be interested in; investigate || {{KpL|susã}} < {{PL|*susam}} < {{Tm|ćosą}} "be curious about"
|-
| ta || || ə || pron || ({{sc|2sg}} pronoun) || ''ta''
|-
| tà || {{sc|erg}} tasi, {{sc|obl}} tafu || || pron || ({{sc|2pl}} pronoun) || ''tah''
|-
| tà || {{sc|obl}} tugə- || a || n.i.V || grass || ''taga-''
|-
| tá- || || a || pron || (distal demonstrative) || ''tha-'' "that (not visible)"
|-
| tá- || {{sc|asp}} -sá- || a || v.mt || do || ''tha-''
|-
| táfai || || ai || n.i.IV || difference; distance; politeness, etiquette || {{KpL|tafai}} "otherness"
|-
| tága- || {{sc|asp}} -sága- || o/a || v.mt || change || ''thawo-'' "bend"
|-
| tágoagu- || {{sc|asp}} -ságoagu- || u || v.mt || dodge, sidestep || ''thawoʔogu-'' "bend away"
|-
| tai- || || ai || pron || (emphatic distal demonstrative) || ''tha-'' "that (not visible)" + ''gi-'' (cataphoric)
|-
| taingì- || || || adj || poisonous, harmful || {{KpL|tãikĩ}} "bitter"
|-
| tàla || || ə || n.i.V || clothes || ''tagala'' "cloth"
|-
| tále || || e/a || n.i.IV || steppe, grassland || ''tagaʔle-''
|-
| taleagiri || || || n.i.IV || equinox || ''tèʔli-ʔayi-zi'' "they are the same"
|-
| Tálitau || || || n.a.I || the earth god Tálitau (Teletel) || {{KpL|Talitau}}
|-
| tátá- || {{sc|asp}} -sátá- || a || v.mt || use || ''thatha-''
|-
| tau || || || n.i.III || hill || {{KpL|tau}} "mountain, hill"
|-
| tâu- || ({{sc|asp}} -fâu-) || || v.it || fall; die || ''thòbu-''
|-
| tâugau || || || n.i.VII || axe || ''thòbuga-'' "fell, chop down" + {{sc|instr}}
|-
| tâugi- || {{sc|asp}} -fâugə- || ə || v.mt || tear down (of buildings or trees); kill (of humans) || ''thòbuga-'' "fell, chop down"
|-
| tauhì || || i || n.i.VII || beak || {{KpL|tãuhĩ}} < {{PL|*toaŋuhim}} "bird's horn"
|-
| táya || || || n.i.VI || milk || ''thaja-''
|-
| têa- || || ea || v.mt || must, should || {{gray|''tàja-'' < PW ''*tãya-'' (cf. {{Tm|tańa}})}}
|-
| têala- || {{sc|asp}} -sêala- || e/a || v.mt || rub || ''*tľeʔle-'' (cf. ''tľetľe-'')
|-
| telu || || || n.i.VI || an alcoholic drink made from milk || {{KpL|telu}} < {{PL|*tealu}} < {{Emp|théllú}}
|-
| tèmeama || || || n.a.I || farmer, peasant || {{KpL|temẽam}} "one who sows (regularly)"
|-
| tégi- || ({{sc|asp}} -ségi-) || i || v.mt || sow || {{KpL|tewi}}
|-
| tí || {{sc|erg}} tì, {{sc|obl}} tù || || pron || ({{sc|2pl}} distributive pronoun) || ''taʔ''
|-
| tíbi- || ({{sc|asp}} -síbi-) || i || v.it || be healthy, be okay, work as expected || {{KpL|tibi}} "live"
|-
| tíbiu || || || n.a.I || nobody || {{KpL|tibiu}}
|-
| tìniti || || i || n.i.VII || bronze || {{Ile|tiniti}} "metal"
|-
| típe || || i || n.a.I || daughter || ''thìʔpi-''
|-
| tira || || ə || n.i.V || hair || ''tiza-''
|-
| tísi- || ({{sc|asp}} -sísi-) || i || v.mt || write || {{KpL|tisi}}
|-
| tíseaba || || || n.a.I || scribe || (''tísi-'' "write" + {{sc|agt.1}})
|-
| titeagi || || i || n.a.I || crowd, gathering || {{KpL|titeawi}} < {{PL|*titiəgagi}} "between the people"
|-
| títoa- || {{sc|asp}} -sítoa- || oa || v.mt || bleach || {{gray|''thituga-'' < PW ''*tʰuytudza-'' (cf. {{Tm|twihto}} "grow pale")}}
|-
| tiye- || || || adj || cold || ''thàda-''
|-
| tôa || || oa || n.i.VII || root; seed || ''thuba-'' "root"
|-
| tófuká- || {{sc|asp}} -fófuká- || a || v.it+ || be glad, be relieved || {{gray|''thoxukha-'' < PW ''*tʰału-tʰa-'' (cf. {{Tm|taho}} "joy, fun, happiness")}}
|-
| tòpè || || e/a || n.i.VII || spike, thorn || {{gray|''tùhbè'' < PW ''*tułbẽ'' (cf. {{Tm|tohmę}} "cactus")}}
|-
| tù || || || n.i.IV || porridge || {{KpL|tũ}}
|-
| tugeaya- || || e/a || v.it+ || be at || ''tabeʔaje-''
|-
| tuilu- || || || v.it || smile, smirk, grin || {{KpL|tuilu}}
|-
| tuka || {{sc|obl}} tupə- || ə || n.i.III || home; room (in a house) || ''tuka-'' "house"
|-
| túku || || || n.i.VII || stone, rock || {{KpL|tuku}}
|-
| túlòfù || || u || n.i.V || knitwear || ''thulòhxù-'' "made from wool"
|-
| túlugasa- || ({{sc|asp}} -fúlugasə-) || ə || v.mt || shear (of animals) || ''thulabesa-'' "cut wool"
|-
| tumà || || ə || n.a.I || father || ''thùŋà''
|-
| tumeagà || || ə || n.a.I || noble || ''thùňàʔà'' "uncle; eldest son of the head of the family"
|-
| tumeagìla || || ə || n.a.I || family, clan || ''thùňàʔà'' + {{sc|coll}}
|-
| tùmì || || i || n.i.IV || grape || {{KpL|tumĩ}}
|-
| tùmùtsoa || || oa || n.i.VI || wine || {{KpL|tumĩ}} + PCW ''tłuwo'': "blood of grape"
|-
| tupi- || || i || qu || some, a few || ''tupi-'' "few"
|-
| tupíba- || ({{sc|asp}} -fupíba-) || || v.mt || perform (a ceremony) || {{KpL|tupiba}}
|-
| turù || || || n.i.VII || knee; bend, corner, loop || ''thùdzù-'' "knee"
|-
| tsa || || || cj || and, with || ''tsa''
|-
| tsàbò || || || adv || again, once more, over and over || {{Ish|chàbòa}} "repeatedly"
|-
| tsagi || || || cj || also || ''tsah'' "also" + {{sc|emph}}
|-
| tsaigo || || o/a || n.i.III || storehouse, granary || {{gray|''tsaľgo'' < PW ''*calkʷa'' (cf. {{Tm|calkwa}} "pile, heap")}}
|-
| tsaka || {{sc|obl}} tsapə- || ə || n.i.VII || earth, ground || ''tshèkhà-''
|-
| tsàlè- || || e || v.mt || try || {{Ile|càlè}} "stab"
|-
| tsauru || || || n.i.III || saddle || {{Ing|cegujú}} "saddle blanket"
|-
| tsàyù- || || || v.it || act in a morally appropriate way || {{gray|''tłòjù-'' < PW ''*tleyũ-'' (cf. {{Tm|cńǫ-}} "virtuous")}}
|-
| tsé- || || e || pron || (medial demonstrative) || ''tshe-'' "that (visible over there)"
|-
| tsea || || ea || n.i.IV || garden; backyard || ''tsheja-'' "soil"
|-
| tséka || {{sc|obl}} tsépə- || ə || n.i.IV || sand || ''tshehga-''
|-
| tsèkòlu || || || n.i.III || pottery || {{Ish|cèkòlu}} "pot; ceramic"
|-
| tsésa || || ə || n.i.V || dung || ''tshesa-''
|-
| tsese || || e || n.a.I || solstice and equinox festivities (with human sacrifice) || {{Ile|chese}} "dance"
|-
| tsési- || || ə || v.dt || teach || ''tshihta-''
|-
| tséyai || || ai || n.i.IV || garbage, rubbish || ''tshejegi-'' "worthless items"
|-
| tséye- || ({{sc|u}} tseo-) || || pron || (emphatic medial demonstrative) || ''tshe-'' "that (visible over there)" + ''gi-'' (cataphoric)
|-
| tséyòfoayu- || || u || v.mt || resist, obstruct || ''tshejòhxùʔòjù-'' "be like a wall"
|-
| tséyòfù || || u || n.i.III || fortress || ''tshejòhxù-'' "wall, rampart"
|-
| tsí || || || adv || earlier || ''tshi'' "yesterday"
|-
| tsígo || || o/a || n.i.VI || rain || {{gray|''tshiğo'' < PW ''*kʰiγʷa'' (cf. {{Gez|kʰig}} "water")}}
|-
| tsìké- || || || adj || sweet || {{Ile|chiìké-}}
|-
| tsíla || || ə || n.i.VI || sunrise || {{gray|''tsaʔla'' < PW ''*cadła'' (cf. {{Gez|tsɔːras}} "dawn")}}
|-
| tsíli- || || ə || adj || dry; barren; useless || ''tshiʔla-''
|-
| tsína || || ə || n.i.VII || horn || ''tsheľna-''
|-
| tsingeatá- || || a || v.mt || assemble, collect; merge || ''tshìňatha-'' "build, put together"
|-
| tsingì- || || N || adj || small; slender || ''tshìňà-'' "thin"
|-
| tsíri || || || cj || instead || ''tshidzi''
|-
| tsìtíba- || || || v.mt || discuss, negotiate || {{SL|dzittibba}} < {{PL|*diəkuigba}} "trade, barter"
|-
| tsitsa || || || cj || because || ''tsatsa''
|-
| tsìtsì- || || || adj || straight || {{Ile|chìchì-}}
|-
| tsiu || || || n.i.V || worm || ''tshibu-''
|-
| tsiye- || || e || v.mt || want || {{Ile|chiye}}
|-
| tsoa || || oa || n.i.IV || peach, apricot || ''tsuba-'' "fruit"
|-
| tsófú || || || n.a.II || deer || ''tshophu-''
|-
| tsótoa- || || oa || v.mt || offer; sacrifice || ''tshotuga-'' "put, place"
|-
| tsótu- || || || v.it || lie down, rest, settle, stay || ''tshotu-''
|-
| tsufá- || || a || v.mt || find out; understand || ''tłuphe-'' "find, discover"
|-
| tsufú- || || || v.mt || irritate, disturb || ''tsuphu-'' "itch"
|-
| tsuga- || || o/a || v.it || go, walk || ''pławo-''
|-
| tsugofu- || || ə || v.mt || hurt, injure; defeat || {{gray|''tłuwohpa-'' < PW ''*tłuwa-łpa-'' "draw blood"}}
|-
| tsúpe || || i || n.i.III || bottle || {{Ing|c{{IPA|ɯ́}}pœː}} "flasks of water"
|-
| tsúpo || || u || n.a.II || arm; branch (of a tree); flank (of an army) || ''tshulpu-'' "arm"
|-
| tsùrè || || e/a || n.i.IV || bay, cove || {{gray|''tłùzè'' < PW ''*tłuγẽ'' (cf. {{Tm|cońę}})}}
|-
| tsusì || ({{sc|u}} tsufù-) || i || v.it || win, be successful || {{gray|''tshùłì-'' < PW ''*čʰewłĩ-'' (cf. {{Tm|ćohmę}} "be more than expected")}}
|-
| ùbù- || || || adj || intelligent, clever || {{Ile|wùgbù-}}
|-
| ufa- || || e/a || adj || former, ex- || {{gray|''ʔuphe-'' < PW ''*ʔupʰe-'' (cf. {{Tm|ohe-}})}}
|-
| úgeba || || || n.a.I || butcher || {{KpL|uweb}} "one who cuts"
|-
| ùgobatsá- || || a || v.mt+ || supply || {{Ish|ùgoabazá}} "feed"
|-
| ugùnà || || || n.a.I || crew (of a ship); group of people working together || {{KpL|ugunã}} "many hands"
|-
| ùka || {{sc|obl}} ùpə- || ə || n.i.VII || tooth || ''ʔùka-''
|-
| ùkafu- || || ə || v.mt || bite || ''ʔùka-'' "tooth" + {{sc|dyn.1}}
|-
| ùkupu- || || ə || v.mt || eat vegetables (of humans and non-herbivorous animals) || ''ʔùkalpa-''
|-
| ùmàya- || || || v.it+ || accompany; help || ''ʔàmaʔaja-'' "be with"
|-
| ùmuyo || || u || n.a.I || the king of Isi || {{Ish|ùmu}} + {{sc|aug}}
|-
| uri || || i || n.i.IV || millet || ''ğulzi-''
|-
| úsai || || ai || n.i.IV || fig || {{KpL|usai}}
|-
| ùsì- || || i || v.it || hurry || {{gray|''ʔùłì-'' < PW ''*ʔewłĩ-'' (cf. {{Tm|ohmę}})}}
|-
| utékìtse || || e/a || n.i.IV || diplomacy; foreign relations || {{Ile|wetékìce}} "visit"
|-
| uya- || || || adj || severe, painful, distressing || ''ğuje-'' "heavy" (influenced by ''uyàya-'')
|-
| uyàya- || || || v.it || be in pain, suffer || ''ʔujaʔaja-''
|-
| uyerisa || {{sc|obl}} uyerifə- || ə || n.i.VII || wound, injury || ''ʔujadzała-''
|-
| yáfà || || || n.i.IV || shortcut; tricky way of achieving sth. || {{KpL|yafã}} < {{PL|*iəpam}} < {{Tm|yepę}} "pass (in mountains)"
|-
| yaga || || || cj || but not || ''jege''
|-
| yàgène- || || e || v.mt || make friends with; seduce || {{Ile|yàwène}} "make an entrance to"
|-
| yàgi- || || i || v.it || rest, relax; be sleepy; cuddle || {{gray|''yèbi-'' < PW ''*yãbi-'' (cf. {{Tm|yomi}})}}
|-
| yagù || || u || n.a.I || knife, dagger (used for ritual sacrifice) || {{gray|''jogùgù-'' < PW ''*yeku-dzũ'' "tool for eating meat"}}
|-
| yàgupu- || || ə || v.mt || suck || ''jòbulpa-''
|-
| yâi || || || adv || in the end, eventually, as a result || {{KpL|yai}} < {{PL|*eai}} (gerund of "stop")
|-
| yairi || || || adv || maybe, possibly || ''ʔiʔayizi'' "if it is that..."
|-
| yaisi- || || ə || v.mt+ || give (towards the 1st person) || (''*àyáyesə-'' < ''ʔèdeʔihtsa-'' "give towards")
|-
| yakáyá || || || n.i.VI || stupid action; joke || {{KpL|yakayap}} "nonsense"
|-
| Yáku || || || n.i.III || the city of Iəvaku || {{KpL|Yaku}}
|-
| yaloayu- || || || v.mt || be different from || ''jolu-'' "other" + {{sc|stat}}
|-
| yalu- || || || qu || other || ''jolu-''
|-
| yàmu- || || ə || v.it || row || ''jèma-''
|-
| yana- || || e/a || v.mt || stretch, spread out, expand || {{gray|''jèʔne-'' < PW ''*yẽʔne-'' (cf. {{Tm|yęʔne}} "spread")}}
|-
| yànele || || e/a || n.i.IV || weak spot || {{Ile|yànele}} "crack, scratch"
|-
| yápe- || || e || v.mt || take (forcefully) || {{Ile|yápe}} "win, take by raiding"
|-
| yápiba- || || || v.mt || convince, win over || {{Ile|yápe}} "win, take by raiding" + {{sc|loq}}
|-
| yari- || || i || pron || (subordinating pronoun) || ''jezi-'' (anaphoric pronoun class X: intangible or abstract nominals)
|-
| yari- || || ə || v.mt || attack, challenge || ''jedza-'' "push"
|-
| yàri || || i || n.i.VI || river || ''jèdzi-''
|-
| yasu || || || cj || nor || ''jesu''
|-
| yatáfai || || ai || n.i.III || bridge || {{KpL|[fu] yatafai}} < {{PL|*[puvu] iətapadi}} "[road] above the river"
|-
| yau- || || || v.mt || drink (blood or other ceremonial beverages) || {{gray|''jogu-'' "perform rituals" < PW ''*yeku-'' "eat meat"}}
|-
| yaupu || || || n.i.IV || ritual, tradition, custom || ''joguku-'' "that which is done ritually"
|-
| yauté || || e || n.a.I || master of ceremony || ''jogu-'' "perform rituals" + {{sc|agt.2}}
|-
| yegatsa- || || e/a || v.mt || store, keep || {{gray|''jiʔeğahdze-'' < PW ''*yiʔe-γałke'' (cf. {{Tm|yeʔyahke}})}}
|-
| yeogu- || || || v.it+ || leave, depart || ''jeʔogu-''
|-
| yeràya- || || || v.it || be worthy of reverence, be adorable || ''jadaʔaja-'' "be old"
|-
| yeri- || || ə || adj || wise, venerable || ''jada-'' "old"
|-
| yèsa || || ə || n.i.IV || food, meal || ''jàsa-''
|-
| yèsafu- || || ə || v.it || eat meat || ''jàsahpa-''
|-
| yesiri- || || ə || v.mt || take, receive || ''*jihtsadza'' < ''jiʔihtsadza-'' "get"
|-
| yesirité || || e || n.a.I || host, landlord, innkeeper || (''yesiri-'' + ''-té-'': "one who receives")
|-
| yetá- || || a || v.mt || support, care for || ''jatha-'' "tend, garden"
|-
| yetáfu- || || ə || v.mt || grow vegetables || ''jathahpa-'' "make the garden grow"
|-
| yetau || || || n.i.VII || shovel || ''jatha-'' "tend, garden" + {{sc|instr}}
|-
| yétsèle || || e/a || n.i.IV || mistake, blunder || {{Ile|íyétsèle}}
|-
| yùbù || || || n.a.I || messenger || {{Ile|yùbù}}
|-
| yùfu- || || || adj || previous || {{Ile|yùxu-}}
|-
| yùgeagí || || i || n.a.II || bug, beetle || {{gray|''jàwèdàjìgi'' < PW ''*yawẽ-dayẽ-kʷi'' (cf. {{Tm|yonayękwi}})}}
|-
| yùma || || ə || n.i.IV || sun || ''jàma-''
|-
| yùmufata || || ə || n.i.IV || solstice (in general) || ''jàmah-weta'' "sun-turning"
|-
| yùmuyá || || a || n.a.I || person; human being || ''jàmajaʔa-''
|-
| yútu || || || n.i.IV || period of time between two solstices || {{KpL|yutu}}
|-
|}

674 words.

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Western languages]]

Kataputi/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:42:50Z

Cedh: +1

The ''Grades'' column gives information on stem grades:
*If one form is given, it is the weak form.
*If two forms are given, they are the intermediate and weak forms respectively.

The ''Class'' column gives information on declension class or conjugation:
*For nouns, this is empty for Declension I; otherwise the declension class (II or III) is indicated.
*For verbs, this is empty for Conjugation I; otherwise the conjugation (II or III) is indicated.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable}}
|-
!Kataputi
!Grades
!Class
!POS
!Gloss
|-
|gēnazu
|
|
|n.
|metal
|-
|Gōki
|
|
|top.
|[[Jouki]]
|-
|ha
|
|
|cj.
|but
|-
|ha
|
|
|postp.
|near
|-
|hā
|
|
|n.
|sky
|-
|hada
|
|III
|n.
|milk
|-
|hadi
|
|
|n.
|pig
|-
|haga
|
|II
|n.
|pain
|-
|hagati
|
|
|v.
|to wound
|-
|hagi
|
|
|v.
|to break
|-
|hagu
|
|
|v.
|to change
|-
|haha
|hā, ha
|
|n.
|dust
|-
|haka
|
|III
|n.
|drum
|-
|haki
|
|
|n.
|bow (weapon)
|-
|haki
|
|II
|n.
|silver
|-
|hakrita
|
|
|n.
|commerce, business
|-
|haku
|
|
|n.
|octopus
|-
|hama
|
|
|postp.
|towards; in the general direction of
|-
|hāma
|
|
|n.
|deer
|-
|hanāzira
|
|
|n.
|smith (person)
|-
|hanazu
|
|
|n.
|regalia, ceremonial ornaments
|-
|hanisa
|
|
|n.
|east
|-
|hari
|
|
|postp.
|away from
|-
|haru
|
|II
|n.
|crow
|-
|haru
|
|
|n.
|grass
|-
|hata
|
|
|n.
|flesh; meat
|-
|hata
|
|
|v.
|to be reliable, to be steadfast
|-
|hatagi
|
|II
|n.
|pin
|-
|hati
|
|
|n.
|north
|-
|hati
|
|II
|v.
|to be strong
|-
|hati
|
|
|v.
|to cause
|-
|hatikazi
|
|
|n.
|power, strength
|-
|hātugi
|
|
|n.
|shirt
|-
|hawa
|
|III
|v.
|to be wet
|-
|hawaku
|
|
|v.
|to seduce
|-
|hawi
|
|
|n.
|sash, belt
|-
|hawī
|
|
|n.
|clam, bivalve
|-
|hawimizi
|
|
|v.
|to be thin
|-
|hawīni
|
|
|n.
|pearl
|-
|Hawuhū
|
|
|n.
|Anatolionesian people (esp. Ōmishimans)
|-
|Hazāka
|
|
|top.
|the Hazāka plains
|-
|hazi
|
|
|n.
|finger
|-
|hi
|
|
|postp.
|(together) with
|-
|hi
|
|
|cj.
|if/then
|-
|hī
|
|
|#
|5
|-
|hī
|
|II
|v.
|to sing
|-
|hidi
|
|II
|v.
|to ignore, to leave
|-
|higada
|
|
|n.
|city (generally sovereign)
|-
|higi
|
|
|n.
|bread
|-
|higōzu
|higīzu
|II
|n.
|oven
|-
|hihi
|hī, hi
|
|v.
|to boil
|-
|hika
|
|
|n.
|brother
|-
|hiki
|
|II
|n.
|flour
|-
|hiku
|
|II
|v.
|to jump
|-
|himaru
|
|
|n.
|turtle
|-
|himi
|
|
|v.
|to fail; to wilt
|-
|hīmu
|
|
|v.
|to own
|-
|hini
|
|
|n.
|salt
|-
|hira
|
|
|#
|3
|-
|hira
|
|II
|n.
|bird
|-
|hirada
|
|
|v.
|to be mixed
|-
|hiri
|
|
|v.
|to think, to feel
|-
|hita
|
|III
|v.
|to be green
|-
|hitati
|
|
|v.
|to agree with (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|hiti
|
|
|n.
|hair
|-
|hiti
|
|II
|v.
|to be fat, to be thick
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to bake
|-
|hitu
|
|
|v.
|to hang
|-
|hiwa
|
|III
|v.
|to be gloomy
|-
|hiza
|
|
|n.
|middle
|-
|hizānu
|
|II
|n.
|story, legend; destiny
|-
|hizi
|hīzi
|
|v.
|to build
|-
|hizi
|
|
|v.
|to starve
|-
|hizi
|
|
|n.
|vision, prophecy
|-
|hīzira
|
|
|n.
|pot, cauldron
|-
|hō
|
|
|n.
|hand
|-
|hu
|
|II
|n.
|spirit
|-
|huda
|
|III
|n.
|hill
|-
|hudapā
|
|
|n.
|slope
|-
|hugi
|
|
|n.
|cloth
|-
|hugīni
|
|
|n.
|loom
|-
|huhu
|hu
|III
|n.
|wolf
|-
|hugzugi
|
|
|v.
|to be dressed (garment takes '''ki''')
|-
|huka
|
|
|v.
|to find, to discover
|-
|hukawi
|
|
|n.
|the spirit world
|-
|humu
|
|
|v.
|to play; to perform
|-
|huna
|
|
|v.
|to be brown
|-
|hūna
|
|
|n.
|heart
|-
|hunu
|
|
|n.
|table
|-
|huru
|
|
|v.
|to be round
|-
|huta
|
|
|v.
|to marry
|-
|hutagu
|
|
|n.
|god, deity
|-
|huzu
|
|II
|n.
|leaf
|-
|huzu
|
|
|v.
|to blow
|-
|ka
|
|II
|pron.
|he
|-
|kā
|
|
|#
|10
|-
|kā
|
|III
|n.
|raven
|-
|kada
|
|III
|n.
|animal
|-
|kadagazi
|
|
|n.
|oratory; speech
|-
|kaga
|
|III
|v.
|to wake
|-
|kagi
|
|
|n.
|blood
|-
|kagini
|
|III
|n.
|duck
|-
|kaha
|ka
|III
|v.
|to bite
|-
|kahi
|
|
|v.
|to answer
|-
|kahu
|kā, ku
|
|n.
|sheep
|-
|kaki
|
|II
|v.
|to run
|-
|kāmagu
|
|
|v.
|to mediate
|-
|kāmani
|
|
|v.
|to be wise
|-
|kami
|
|
|n.
|axe
|-
|kāmūmi
|
|
|v.
|to argue (topic takes '''ta''')
|-
|kāna
|
|
|v.
|to be tough, to be stern
|-
|Kānitagu
|
|
|top.
|the offshore islands; Trinesia
|-
|kaniwa
|
|
|n.
|lizard
|-
|kapi
|
|
|v.
|to win, to defeat
|-
|kapimi
|
|
|adv.
|more, most
|-
|kara
|
|II
|n.
|clothes
|-
|kara
|kra
|
|n.
|goose
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|n.
|stone
|-
|karu
|kru
|
|v.
|to be hard
|-
|kata
|
|III
|n.
|hall, meeting place
|-
|kata
|
|
|v.
|to be secure, to be firm
|-
|kātagi
|
|II
|n.
|leech
|-
|katagu
|
|
|v.
|to protect, to save
|-
|Katapaki
|
|
|n.
|the speakers of Kataputi
|-
|Kataputi
|
|
|n.
|the language spoken in the Hazāka
|-
|katsira
|
|
|n.
|shield
|-
|katu
|
|
|v.
|to be black
|-
|kawa
|
|
|v.
|to destroy
|-
|kaza
|
|
|#
|1
|-
|kaza
|ksa
|
|v.
|to be big
|-
|kāzugi
|ksīgi
|
|n.
|trousers
|-
|kē
|
|
|n.
|sand
|-
|kēnasa
|
|
|n.
|iron
|-
|ki
|
|
|postp.
|(instrumental)
|-
|ki
|
|III
|v.
|to come
|-
|kī
|kō
|
|v.
|to be yellow
|-
|kidi
|
|
|v.
|to slip
|-
|kidu
|
|II
|v.
|to be inferior, to be small
|-
|kiga
|
|
|n.
|day
|-
|kigadi
|
|III
|n.
|crab
|-
|kīgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|bronze, brass
|-
|kigita
|
|
|n.
|hurricane
|-
|kiha
|
|III
|n.
|earth, soil
|-
|kīma
|
|
|postp.
|under
|-
|kimi
|
|
|adv.
|in no way, not at all
|-
|kīmi
|
|
|postp.
|without
|-
|kīmikumi
|
|III
|n.
|peasant
|-
|kīmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be low
|-
|kimu
|
|II
|n.
|ring
|-
|kīmu
|
|
|v.
|to keep, to store
|-
|kīmuha
|
|
|n.
|store-room, warehouse
|-
|kimuna
|
|
|n.
|otter
|-
|kini
|
|
|v.
|to be high
|-
|kiri
|kri
|
|n.
|girl
|-
|kita
|
|
|v.
|to be sure
|-
|kiti
|
|
|postp.
|from under
|-
|kiti
|
|
|v.
|to be soft; to be ripe
|-
|kiza
|
|
|v.
|to be cold
|-
|kizi
|
|
|n.
|right (side)
|-
|kizi
|
|
|v.
|to be red
|-
|Kōsima
|
|
|top.
|Kyosshin
|-
|ksigēnazu
|
|
|n.
|copper
|-
|krugu
|kurugu
|
|v.
|to thunder
|-
|kruza
|
|
|n.
|armour
|-
|ksami
|
|
|adv.
|greatly, very
|-
|ksaza
|kīsa
|
|n.
|squirrel
|-
|ksida
|kazda
|
|n.
|pair of legs (IP)
|-
|kū
|
|II
|n.
|shadow
|-
|ku
|
|
|pron.
|we (incl.)
|-
|kuda
|kīda
|
|n.
|nail (of finger/toe)
|-
|kudi
|
|
|n.
|moon
|-
|kūdiga
|
|
|n.
|spear
|-
|kudu
|
|III
|n.
|month
|-
|kudu
|
|
|n.
|penis (IP)
|-
|kugi
|
|
|v.
|to need
|-
|kuha
|kū, ka
|II
|n.
|tree
|-
|kuhāmizi
|kāmizi
|
|v.
|to be tall
|-
|kuhi
|
|
|v.
|to be hollow
|-
|kuhu
|
|
|#
|8
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|II
|n.
|night
|-
|kuhu
|kū, ku
|
|v.
|to kill
|-
|Kukōha
|
|
|top.
|the southernmost inlet of the Tagimī
|-
|kuku
|
|III
|n.
|tide
|-
|kuma
|
|
|n.
|box
|-
|kūma
|
|
|adv.
|neither, nor
|-
|kumi
|
|III
|n.
|bodice
|-
|kūmi
|
|
|n.
|brain
|-
|kumīmu
|
|III
|n.
|dress
|-
|kumu
|
|
|v.
|to be loose
|-
|kupi
|
|
|v.
|to be blue
|-
|kura
|
|
|v.
|to live
|-
|kuri
|
|
|v.
|to be bent
|-
|kuta
|
|
|v.
|to be wrong
|-
|kuwa
|kwa
|
|n.
|wood
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|n.
|neck
|-
|kuza
|
|III
|v.
|to give birth to
|-
|kuzāmini
|
|
|n.
|necklace, pectoral jewelry
|-
|kwaza
|kawaza
|
|n.
|fox
|-
|kwinu
|kiwinu
|
|n.
|snail
|-
|ma
|
|III
|n.
|mother
|-
|ma
|
|
|pron.
|you
|-
|mada
|
|
|n.
|ear
|-
|maga
|
|II
|n.
|grain, seed
|-
|magada
|
|
|v.
|to be loud
|-
|magānu
|
|
|n.
|wheat
|-
|maha
|mā
|III
|n.
|sweat
|-
|maka
|
|
|v.
|to rest
|-
|maki
|
|
|n.
|root
|-
|mamu
|
|II
|v.
|to sow
|-
|mani
|
|III
|n.
|mountain
|-
|mara
|
|II
|n.
|south
|-
|mariru
|
|
|n.
|field
|-
|māruda
|
|III
|n.
|garden
|-
|mawa
|
|
|n.
|battle, raid
|-
|mawadagu
|
|
|n.
|war
|-
|maza
|
|II
|n.
|friend
|-
|māza
|
|
|n.
|shaman, oracle
|-
|mazi
|
|
|v.
|to be white
|-
|mē
|
|II
|v.
|to smell
|-
|mi
|
|
|postp.
|inside
|-
|mī
|
|
|n.
|sea
|-
|midi
|
|
|n.
|grace, favour (often divine)
|-
|migada
|
|
|n.
|pair of lips (IP)
|-
|migi
|
|
|#
|2
|-
|mīgi
|
|II
|n.
|lagoon, bay
|-
|mihu
|mu
|II
|v.
|to grow
|-
|miki
|
|
|v.
|to hope
|-
|miku
|
|
|n.
|urine
|-
|mīku
|muku
|
|v.
|to tend; to raise
|-
|mima
|
|
|postp.
|into
|-
|mīma
|
|
|n.
|hole
|-
|mimagi
|
|III
|v.
|to join, to enter
|-
|mimi
|
|
|n.
|dune
|-
|mini
|
|
|v.
|to hold
|-
|minūmi
|
|
|v.
|to release, to let go (of)
|-
|mira
|
|
|n.
|sun
|-
|miragawi
|
|
|n.
|the material world; Akana
|-
|miri
|
|
|postp.
|out of
|-
|miri
|
|
|v.
|to smile
|-
|mirima
|
|
|postp.
|through
|-
|miru
|
|II
|v.
|to be beautiful
|-
|mita
|
|
|n.
|group
|-
|miti
|
|
|n.
|summer
|-
|miti
|
|II
|v.
|to be worn, to be tired
|-
|miwa
|
|III
|n.
|boat
|-
|miwu
|
|
|n.
|wind
|-
|miza
|
|II
|v.
|to order, to compel
|-
|mizu
|
|II
|n.
|rain
|-
|mō
|
|II
|n.
|bean
|-
|mō
|
|
|v.
|to sit
|-
|mu
|
|
|pron.
|that (demonstrative)
|-
|mudu
|
|II
|n.
|son
|-
|mugu
|
|
|n.
|fruit
|-
|muhi
|mū, mi
|II
|n.
|toe
|-
|muhu
|
|III
|n.
|owl
|-
|mūma
|
|
|adv.
|also, too
|-
|mumi
|
|
|adv.
|thus, like that
|-
|muni
|
|
|n.
|shoe
|-
|mupa
|
|
|#
|all
|-
|mupa
|
|II
|n.
|guts, intestines (IP)
|-
|murimi
|
|
|v.
|to be fine (in quality); to be comfortable (of objects or situations)
|-
|muza
|
|II
|v.
|to stay
|-
|muzaksira
|
|
|n.
|tradesperson
|-
|muzaku
|
|
|v.
|to support, to sustain; to provide upkeep for
|-
|muzō
|
|III
|v.
|to be sacred
|-
|nā
|
|II
|v.
|to be good
|-
|nada
|
|
|n.
|tooth (IP)
|-
|nadi
|
|II
|n.
|flower
|-
|nagada
|
|
|v.
|to damage, to harm
|-
|nagi
|nāgi
|III
|n.
|custom, law
|-
|nāgiru
|nagru
|III
|n.
|lord, ruler
|-
|nagu
|
|
|n.
|skin (IP)
|-
|naka
|
|
|v.
|to be long
|-
|nākazi
|
|
|n.
|pleasure
|-
|nakizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be secret
|-
|nāku
|
|II
|v.
|to help
|-
|nāma
|
|
|v.
|to hear
|-
|nara
|
|
|n.
|fire
|-
|nara
|
|III
|v.
|to burn
|-
|nata
|
|
|v.
|to hate
|-
|nati
|
|
|n.
|vagina, vulva (IP)
|-
|natsira
|
|
|n.
|enemy; critic
|-
|nawi
|
|
|v.
|to support; to hold up
|-
|nawizu
|
|II
|v.
|to be heavy
|-
|naza
|
|II
|v.
|to be sturdy; to be fixed (in place)
|-
|nazdimi
|
|
|v.
|to freeze
|-
|nazgu
|
|
|v.
|to frighten
|-
|nazi
|
|
|n.
|land
|-
|nazi
|
|III
|v.
|to shake
|-
|nē
|
|
|v.
|to be pure; to be bright
|-
|nēgēnazu
|
|
|n.
|gold
|-
|niga
|
|II
|v.
|to care
|-
|nihi
|nī, ni
|
|v.
|to sneeze
|-
|nika
|
|II
|v.
|to dive
|-
|niki
|
|
|v.
|to have sex with
|-
|nīmi
|
|
|v.
|to be tidy
|-
|niri
|
|
|v.
|to get
|-
|nisi
|
|
|n.
|west
|-
|nita
|
|III
|n.
|daughter (IP)
|-
|niti
|
|II
|n.
|number
|-
|nitida
|
|
|n.
|present (time)
|-
|nitiri
|
|
|n.
|future
|-
|niwa
|
|II
|v.
|to wash
|-
|niza
|
|
|n.
|fat
|-
|niziri
|nizwi
|
|v.
|to be dirty
|-
|nō
|
|II
|v.
|to be full
|-
|nuduzu
|
|
|n.
|hoe, mattock
|-
|nuha
|nū, na
|
|v.
|to cook
|-
|nuka
|
|
|n.
|shore
|-
|nūna
|
|
|v.
|to eat
|-
|nūnaza
|
|
|n.
|food
|-
|nuri
|
|
|n.
|peace
|-
|nuru
|
|III
|n.
|desire, lust
|-
|nuti
|
|
|#
|9
|-
|nuti
|
|
|n.
|sister (IP)
|-
|piru
|
|II
|n.
|sailor
|-
|pōka
|
|
|n.
|waves, turbulence
|-
|pupuna
|
|
|n.
|fleet
|-
|ra
|
|
|postp.
|(dative)
|-
|ra
|
|III
|pron.
|what (interrogative)
|-
|rā
|
|
|n.
|side
|-
|rada
|
|II
|v.
|to go, to move
|-
|rādiri
|
|II
|v.
|to return
|-
|raga
|
|
|v.
|to be shut
|-
|ragagu
|
|
|v.
|to close
|-
|ragani
|
|
|v.
|to end, to finish
|-
|raha
|ra
|III
|v.
|to meet
|-
|rahi
|
|
|n.
|autumn
|-
|rakiwu
|
|
|n.
|nation (of people)
|-
|rāma
|
|II
|n.
|bridge
|-
|rāmi
|
|
|adv.
|how?
|-
|rapa
|
|
|n.
|woman
|-
|rata
|
|III
|n.
|flood (of river, valley, etc.)
|-
|rata
|
|
|n.
|leather
|-
|rawa
|
|II
|n.
|basket
|-
|razada
|razda
|
|n.
|pair of horns (IP)
|-
|razi
|
|III
|v.
|to open
|-
|razu
|
|II
|n.
|wasp
|-
|rēwu
|
|II
|n.
|scorpion
|-
|rī
|
|
|n.
|river, creek
|-
|ridi
|
|
|v.
|to be quick
|-
|riga
|
|
|v.
|to learn
|-
|rigini
|
|
|v.
|to teach
|-
|riha
|rī, ra
|
|n.
|strength, brawn
|-
|rīma
|
|
|v.
|to fulfill, to carry out
|-
|rīmu
|
|II
|n.
|lion
|-
|rīni
|
|
|v.
|to laugh
|-
|rīnizi
|
|II
|n.
|spy, informer
|-
|rinu
|
|
|v.
|to be free
|-
|riru
|
|II
|n.
|arrow (weapon)
|-
|riwa
|
|II
|v.
|to be bad
|-
|riwi
|
|
|n.
|year
|-
|riza
|
|
|n.
|powder
|-
|rizi
|
|II
|v.
|to be smooth
|-
|ru
|
|III
|n.
|man
|-
|rō
|
|
|postp.
|above, over
|-
|ru
|
|
|postp.
|on
|-
|rū
|
|II
|n.
|omen
|-
|rugu
|
|
|n.
|hook
|-
|ruhi
|rū, ri
|
|v.
|to be angry
|-
|ruma
|
|
|postp.
|onto
|-
|rūma
|
|
|n.
|bee
|-
|runi
|
|
|n.
|tail
|-
|ruri
|
|
|postp.
|from on top of
|-
|rurima
|
|
|postp.
|across, over
|-
|rutu
|
|
|n.
|fog, mist
|-
|ruwa
|
|
|n.
|ball
|-
|ruzi
|
|
|v.
|to be new
|-
|sā
|
|
|n.
|head (IP)
|-
|sadu
|
|II
|v.
|to cover
|-
|saduki
|
|III
|n.
|cloak, coat
|-
|sagu
|
|
|n.
|rat
|-
|sāna
|
|
|n.
|steam
|-
|sani
|
|II
|n.
|rice
|-
|sapa
|spa
|
|n.
|eagle
|-
|sārini
|sirini
|
|v.
|to perish; to become extinct
|-
|sati
|sti
|
|v.
|to say, to tell
|-
|satini
|
|II
|v.
|to hide
|-
|sazi
|
|II
|v.
|to sense
|-
|sēna
|
|
|v.
|to be different
|-
|si
|
|III
|n.
|shark
|-
|si
|
|
|pron.
|this (demonstrative)
|-
|sī
|
|
|v.
|to sleep
|-
|sida
|
|
|v.
|to taste
|-
|sidi
|
|
|v.
|to be sour
|-
|sidu
|stu
|III
|n.
|knot
|-
|sidu
|stu
|II
|v.
|to tie
|-
|sigu
|
|II
|v.
|to stitch
|-
|siha
|
|
|n.
|name (IP)
|-
|sihi
|
|II
|v.
|to fly
|-
|sika
|
|
|n.
|winter
|-
|siki
|
|
|n.
|snow
|-
|sima
|
|
|#
|6
|-
|simi
|
|
|cj.
|(quotative)
|-
|simu
|
|
|v.
|to climb
|-
|sina
|suzina
|
|n.
|cow
|-
|sīnada
|
|
|n.
|bosom, pair of breasts (IP)
|-
|sīni
|
|
|n.
|shrimp
|-
|sīni
|
|
|v.
|to look, to see
|-
|sinu
|
|II
|n.
|louse
|-
|sira
|
|
|n.
|snake
|-
|siri
|
|
|v.
|to be kind
|-
|sisi
|
|III
|n.
|island group, archipelago
|-
|sita
|sta
|
|v.
|to be happy
|-
|siwa
|
|
|n.
|worm
|-
|siza
|
|III
|n.
|family
|-
|sizgigi
|
|
|n.
|island
|-
|skana
|sakana
|
|n.
|edge
|-
|skīni
|sikīni
|
|n.
|flea
|-
|spīma
|sipīma
|
|n.
|hedgehog
|-
|sū
|
|II
|n.
|shame
|-
|sū
|sē
|
|v.
|to be short
|-
|sugu
|sku
|
|v.
|to fall
|-
|suka
|
|
|n.
|authority
|-
|suki
|ski
|
|n.
|fish
|-
|suksuzi
|sukāzi
|
|v.
|to conduct rituals; to intercede (with spirits)
|-
|sumi
|
|II
|n.
|spring (season)
|-
|sūmu
|
|
|n.
|dry land; rise
|-
|sura
|swa
|
|n.
|mouth (IP)
|-
|suri
|swi
|II
|n.
|brush
|-
|suru
|
|
|n.
|time
|-
|suti
|sti
|
|n.
|voice
|-
|sutiduka
|
|
|n.
|language
|-
|suwu
|swu
|II
|n.
|riverbank
|-
|suzi
|si
|II
|v.
|to give
|-
|ta
|
|
|postp.
|at
|-
|ta
|
|
|adv.
|not
|-
|tā
|
|II
|n.
|wall
|-
|tadu
|
|
|#
|7
|-
|taga
|
|II
|n.
|knife
|-
|Tagimī
|
|
|top.
|the Great Bay
|-
|tagu
|
|
|v.
|to be narrow
|-
|taha
|tā, ta
|
|v.
|to be flat
|-
|taha
|ta
|III
|v.
|to walk
|-
|tama
|tīma
|
|n.
|left (side)
|-
|tama
|
|
|postp.
|to
|-
|tama
|
|
|v.
|to be deep
|-
|tāma
|
|
|n.
|hammer
|-
|tamu
|
|
|n.
|past (time)
|-
|tānu
|
|
|n.
|fortification, palisade
|-
|tari
|
|
|postp.
|from
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to be warm
|-
|tata
|
|
|v.
|to place, to set
|-
|tatu
|
|
|v.
|to torture
|-
|tatuzi
|
|
|v.
|to cut
|-
|tawa
|
|
|n.
|bag
|-
|taza
|
|
|n.
|father (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|
|n.
|face (IP)
|-
|tē
|
|II
|v.
|to sort; to winnow
|-
|tēku
|
|
|v.
|to shock, to surprise
|-
|tēputa
|
|
|n.
|noble, elite
|-
|tētawa
|
|II
|n.
|winnowing fan
|-
|ti
|
|
|pron.
|I, we (excl.)
|-
|tīda
|
|
|n.
|pair of wings (IP); flight
|-
|tidaru
|tidru
|
|n.
|crawfish
|-
|Tidika
|
|
|top.
|the Peninsula mountains
|-
|tiga
|
|
|n.
|stick, rod
|-
|tigi
|
|
|#
|100
|-
|tigiwu
|
|
|#
|1000
|-
|tigizi
|tigzi
|
|v.
|to be sharp; to be spicy
|-
|tigu
|
|II
|n.
|frog
|-
|tigzigi
|tigizgi
|III
|n.
|sword
|-
|tiha
|
|II
|n.
|horse
|-
|tihi
|tī, ti
|II
|n.
|mouse
|-
|tika
|
|
|n.
|insect
|-
|tīma
|
|
|n.
|music
|-
|tīmi
|
|
|v.
|to fix; to make watertight
|-
|tīmizi
|timizi
|
|v.
|to be famous, to be heroic
|-
|timu
|
|II
|n.
|tick (parasitic)
|-
|tīna
|
|II
|n.
|excrement
|-
|tinaza
|
|III
|n.
|spider
|-
|tipanaha
|tipana
|
|v.
|to rule, to govern
|-
|tipaza
|tipsa
|
|v.
|to serve
|-
|tiri
|tri
|
|v.
|to pull
|-
|tiru
|tru
|II
|n.
|needle
|-
|titi
|
|
|n.
|cake
|-
|titi
|
|
|v.
|to be awake
|-
|titu
|
|
|n.
|citizen
|-
|tituniri
|
|
|n.
|social rank
|-
|tiwa
|
|
|n.
|bed
|-
|tīwu
|
|
|n.
|star
|-
|tizu
|
|
|n.
|roof
|-
|tōta
|
|
|v.
|to be dark
|-
|tragi
|tiragi
|
|v.
|to be quiet
|-
|tsata
|tizda
|
|n.
|pair of knees (IP)
|-
|tu
|
|III
|pron.
|she
|-
|tu
|
|III
|v.
|to be dead
|-
|tū
|
|
|n.
|dog
|-
|tū
|
|II
|n.
|nose (IP)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|n.
|body (esp. torso)
|-
|tudu
|
|
|v.
|to be ill, to be diseased
|-
|tugu
|
|
|n.
|question
|-
|tugū
|
|
|v.
|to be true, to be correct
|-
|tuha
|
|
|n.
|hat
|-
|tuhi
|tū, ti
|
|n.
|person
|-
|tuka
|
|
|n.
|pot
|-
|tukōzu
|
|II
|n.
|kiln, furnace
|-
|tūma
|
|
|n.
|nut
|-
|tutawu
|
|
|n.
|ancestor
|-
|tuti
|
|
|v.
|to use
|-
|tuwa
|twa
|II
|n.
|egg
|-
|tuza
|tsa
|
|n.
|cloud
|-
|tuzduka
|
|
|n.
|swarm
|-
|tuzu
|tsu
|II
|n.
|mosquito
|-
|twira
|tuwira
|
|n.
|swallow, martin
|-
|twita
|tuwita
|
|n.
|pair of testicles (IP)
|-
|twiwi
|tōwi
|
|n.
|roe; (frog)spawn
|-
|wadata
|
|
|n.
|pair of arms (IP)
|-
|waha
|wā, wa
|III
|n.
|net
|-
|waka
|
|
|n.
|ant
|-
|wāmu
|
|
|n.
|house
|-
|wāmuduka
|
|
|n.
|village, small town
|-
|wanu
|
|II
|n.
|stomach (IP)
|-
|wari
|
|
|v.
|to swim
|-
|watu
|
|III
|n.
|pumpkin
|-
|waza
|
|
|n.
|door
|-
|wazi
|
|III
|v.
|to be old
|-
|wē
|
|
|n.
|honey
|-
|Wēhata
|
|
|top.
|the Wohata coast
|-
|wēmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be sweet
|-
|wi
|
|II
|n.
|channel, strait
|-
|wi
|
|II
|pron.
|who (interrogative)
|-
|widu
|
|II
|n.
|spiderweb, cobweb
|-
|wigi
|
|
|n.
|apple
|-
|wima
|
|
|n.
|baby
|-
|wīna
|
|III
|n.
|hare
|-
|wini
|
|
|v.
|to be early
|-
|winu
|
|II
|n.
|moth
|-
|wiri
|
|
|v.
|to be weak, to be unreliable
|-
|wita
|
|
|n.
|beach
|-
|wita
|
|II
|v.
|to be strange
|-
|witida
|
|
|n.
|pair of eyes (IP)
|-
|wizi
|
|
|n.
|water
|-
|wō
|
|
|cj.
|or
|-
|Wōsima
|
|
|top.
|Ōshin
|-
|wu
|
|
|cj.
|and
|-
|wū
|
|
|n.
|bat
|-
|wuna
|
|
|n.
|rope
|-
|wuri
|
|
|n.
|ice
|-
|wuru
|wawuru
|
|n.
|bear
|-
|wuzu
|
|III
|n.
|plant
|-
|za
|
|
|v.
|to work
|-
|zada
|
|
|#
|4
|-
|zaga
|
|
|v.
|to be slow
|-
|zahi
|zi
|II
|v.
|to drink
|-
|zaka
|zga
|
|v.
|to be defeated
|-
|zāmizi
|
|
|v.
|to be drab, to be grey
|-
|zāna
|
|
|n.
|mushroom, fungus
|-
|zanu
|
|
|n.
|clay
|-
|zata
|
|
|v.
|to doubt
|-
|zazu
|zizu
|
|n.
|fool
|-
|zdagu
|
|
|v.
|to capture, to arrest; to imprison
|-
|zē
|
|
|v.
|to be small, to be slight
|-
|zē
|
|II
|v.
|to search
|-
|zgami
|
|
|adv.
|less, least
|-
|zgaza
|zaksa
|
|n.
|slave
|-
|zi
|
|
|postp.
|(genitive)
|-
|zi
|
|
|v.
|to be; to exist
|-
|zida
|
|
|v.
|to be late
|-
|zīma
|
|
|n.
|tears
|-
|zimi
|
|
|v.
|to be young
|-
|zimiza
|
|
|n.
|child
|-
|zinu
|
|
|n.
|hornet
|-
|ziti
|zdi
|
|v.
|to be broad, to be extensive
|-
|zu
|
|
|postp.
|beside
|-
|zu
|
|III
|v.
|to be the same (as)
|-
|zudu
|zdu
|
|v.
|to seem
|-
|zugu
|zgu
|
|v.
|to be healthy
|-
|zūma
|
|
|postp.
|to beside
|-
|zūma
|
|
|v.
|to carry
|-
|zupi
|
|
|postp.
|from beside
|-
|zuta
|
|
|postp.
|opposite
|-
|zuta
|zda
|
|v.
|to like; to love
|-
|zuwi
|zwi
|
|n.
|fly (insect)
|-
|zwaha
|zwā, zūwa
|
|n.
|beetle
|-
|zwūma
|
|
|n.
|street, road
|-
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Jouki Stəy/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:39:27Z

Cedh: +1

{| {{bluetable|sortable lightbluebg l}}
|-
! class="l"| word
! part of speech
! gloss
|-
| đafein || v. || drink
|-
| đaji || v. || not matter; be insignificant
|-
| đaka || v. || be slow
|-
| đan || v. || do; make
|-
| đappa || n. || mushroom
|-
| đaroun || v. || wander; amble; stumble
|-
| đata || num. || four
|-
| đatrəí || post. || across; along
|-
| đatta || v. || fear
|-
| đei || n. || person; human
|-
| đeivu || n. || fool; idiot
|-
| đi || v. || be; exist
|-
| đijan || v. || follow; chase
|-
| đimma || n. || tears
|-
| đjei || n. || child
|-
| đkaki || adj. || slow
|-
| đkasi || n. || effect; outcome
|-
| đkuki || adj. || healthy
|-
| đou || n. || mud; dirt
|-
| đoufa || n. || crawling insect
|-
| đoukein || n. || figurine; doll; statue
|-
| đpəy || n. || wasp; hornet
|-
| đsiki || n. || huge; enormous
|-
| đsou || n. || poem; story
|-
| đtəy || n. || hair
|-
| đukki || adj. || same; aforementioned
|-
| đuku || n. || be healthy
|-
| đumma || v. || take
|-
| đun || v. || be the same
|-
| đutta || n. || the same one; the aforementioned
|-
| đutu || v. || seem; appear
|-
| đviki || adj. || small
|-
| đəiki || adj. || young
|-
| đəy || n. || flying insect
|-
| jafa || n. || dust
|-
| jafan || n. || fishing net
|-
| jaji || n. || honey
|-
| jaki || n. || silver
|-
| jakka || n. || ant
|-
| jamma || n. || deer
|-
| jappu || n. || building; structure
|-
| jarein || n. || crow; raven
|-
| jari || v. || bathe
|-
| jatan || n. || tool; weapon
|-
| jatta || n. || coast; beach
|-
| jatti || v. || fashion; sculpt
|-
| jattoun || n. || pumpkin
|-
| jau || n. || door
|-
| jaun || n. || person; (poss.) self
|-
| jausu || n. || metal (esp. bronze); prestige, status
|-
| jausuta || n. || the ritual spear and axe
|-
| jausvuji || v. || be prestigious; be of high status
|-
| jausəyri || n. || gold
|-
| jei || n. || baby
|-
| jifi || v. || boil
|-
| jijein || v. || sing
|-
| jiji || n. || water
|-
| jikađa || n. || city
|-
| jiki || n. || apple
|-
| jikka || v. || reciprocate
|-
| jikki || adj. || old
|-
| jippan || n. || hare
|-
| jiri || v. || be ill
|-
| jisnitta || n. || butter
|-
| jissein || v. || block; impede; cover
|-
| jitein || v. || let; allow
|-
| jittan || v. || be strange; be unfamiliar
|-
| jittan || v. || to shoot up; spring (of plants)
|-
| jitti || n. || eye
|-
| jufoun || n. || wolf
|-
| junna || n. || heart
|-
| junna || n. || social event; gathering
|-
| juru || v. || fatten; enlarge; round out
|-
| juvein || n. || oven
|-
| jəi || v. || fail
|-
| jəi || n. || salt
|-
| jəifa || n. || river
|-
| jəiki || adj. || early
|-
| jəu || v. || amuse
|-
| jəyji || n. || bat
|-
| jəyn || n. || moth; butterfly
|-
| kafan || v. || bite
|-
| kafi || v. || retaliate; attack
|-
| kafu || n. || sheep
|-
| kakan || v. || remember; awaken
|-
| kaki || n. || blood
|-
| kakkein || v. || flow; slide; slip
|-
| kannoun || n. || opposite side
|-
| kappa || v. || agree
|-
| kara || n. || goose
|-
| kasi || n. || section; branch
|-
| kassi || v. || conquer; defeat
|-
| kata || v. || say; relate
|-
| katrəí || v. || talk; chat; converse
|-
| kattan || n. || home (land, area); native land
|-
| kau || num. || one
|-
| kau || v. || slay; kill
|-
| kauki || adj. || large
|-
| kausa || n. || fox
|-
| kavi || n. || sand
|-
| kei || n. || axe (non-ritual)
|-
| keinasa || n. || iron
|-
| kifan || n. || earth; land
|-
| kika || n. || day
|-
| kiki || adj. || red
|-
| kimmu || v. || pickle
|-
| kin || v. || come; go
|-
| kin || post. || by; with (instrumental)
|-
| kippa || n. || path; trail; corridor
|-
| kippein || conj. || without
|-
| kiri || n. || woman
|-
| kissa || v. || be correct
|-
| kitein || v. || suffer
|-
| kitjəí || v. || bleed
|-
| kitta || n. || guest; visitor
|-
| kjatta || n. || village
|-
| kjei || n. || spine; quill
|-
| kjeitsimma || n. || hedgehog
|-
| kjou || n. || sea otter
|-
| kjəy || n. || snail; shell (helical)
|-
| kjəyppi || v. || stop bleeding; clot
|-
| kmakkein || n. || seed
|-
| kmammu || n. || grain; big seeds
|-
| kmata || v. || be loud; make noise
|-
| kmeiri || n. || kiss
|-
| kməuppi || v. || throw away; dispose of
|-
| kməytta || n. || pickle (esp. pumpkin or radish)
|-
| knaki || adj. || long
|-
| knata || v. || damage; harm
|-
| kou || n. || wood; wooden container
|-
| koun || num. || ten
|-
| koun || v. || give birth [to]
|-
| kounnitta || n. || newborn infant
|-
| koutta || n. || new mother
|-
| kpakki || adj. || tall
|-
| kpei || v. || be ready
|-
| kpeitta || n. || agreement; treaty; convention
|-
| kpifa || n. || jar; vessel
|-
| kpiji || n. || right (side)
|-
| kpiki || adj. || hollow
|-
| kputa || n. || nail
|-
| kpəytta || n. || wound; injury
|-
| kratta || n. || pants; trousers
|-
| krei || v. || close
|-
| krifa || n. || bend; turn; corner
|-
| kruki || adj. || hard
|-
| kruku || n. || thunder
|-
| kruppu || n. || elbow
|-
| krəi || v. || learn; teach
|-
| krəu || n. || stone; rock
|-
| krəy || n. || people; nation
|-
| ksaki || adj. || cold
|-
| ksakoun || n. || belt
|-
| ksata || n. || two-day period
|-
| ksatjéi || n. || corpse
|-
| ksatoun || n. || crab
|-
| ksau || n. || squirrel
|-
| kseitari || adv. || later
|-
| ksiki || adj. || soft
|-
| ksita || n. || leg; the legs
|-
| ksou || n. || time; period
|-
| ksuppu || n. || high tide; overflow
|-
| ksəin || n. || duck
|-
| kteitta || n. || speech; language
|-
| ktiki || adj. || fast; nimble
|-
| ktuki || adj. || dark; black
|-
| Ku || top. || a major river
|-
| kufan || n. || tree
|-
| kufein || n. || night
|-
| kufu || num. || eight
|-
| kufu || v. || wound; injure
|-
| kuki || v. || need; want
|-
| kukkoun || n. || hour; time
|-
| kuppi || n. || brain
|-
| kupséi || n. || west
|-
| kura || v. || live; be alive; exist (of people)
|-
| kusan || n. || throat
|-
| kussa || v. || be wrong
|-
| kutan || n. || forehead
|-
| kuti || n. || moon
|-
| kutoun || n. || month
|-
| kutrəí || v. || contort; deform
|-
| kutta || v. || die (of animals; plants)
|-
| kutu || n. || beam; column; stilt
|-
| kuvein || n. || goblin; demon
|-
| kvau || v. || mean; intend
|-
| kvei || n. || lizard
|-
| kveiriki || adj. || wooden
|-
| kvouku || n. || shoal (of fish)
|-
| kvuki || adj. || yellow
|-
| kvutəí || v. || bruise
|-
| kəi || part. || negative particle
|-
| kəijunna || v. || starve
|-
| kəiki || adj. || tall
|-
| kəuki || adj. || stupid; foolish
|-
| kəutəí || v. || loosen
|-
| kəyn || n. || ring
|-
| mafan || n. || work; exertion
|-
| majein || v. || smell
|-
| maju || v. || sit
|-
| makka || v. || sleep
|-
| makki || n. || root
|-
| maktaki || adj. || loud
|-
| marəú || n. || farm
|-
| masa || n. || food
|-
| matjəí || v. || realize
|-
| mau || n. || fight; struggle
|-
| maukkan || n. || friend; neighbor
|-
| maun || n. || mother
|-
| mei || v. || be careful; be prudent
|-
| mein || v. || cause; compel
|-
| mein || n. || boat
|-
| meippu || n. || mountain
|-
| mi || post. || in; at
|-
| mifein || v. || grow
|-
| miji || conj. || maybe; perhaps
|-
| miju || n. || sea
|-
| miki || num. || two
|-
| miki || adj. || white
|-
| mikki || v. || hope; await
|-
| mikku || n. || urine
|-
| mikkóun || num. || twenty
|-
| miktatta || n. || lip
|-
| mippa || n. || hole; sinkhole; pit
|-
| miptəí || v. || sprout
|-
| mira || n. || sun
|-
| missein || v. || be tired
|-
| mistaka || v. || tire; bore (tr.)
|-
| mitrəí || v. || smile
|-
| mitta || n. || litter (of animals)
|-
| mitti || n. || summer
|-
| mivein || n. || rain
|-
| mjəiri || n. || tingle; itch; compulsion
|-
| mjəy || adv. || so it seems; it appears that
|-
| mjəyri || n. || breath
|-
| moun || v. || sow
|-
| moun || v. || wait
|-
| mrakpiji || n. || south
|-
| mratpáu || n. || north
|-
| mriki || adj. || happy
|-
| mrukki || adj. || beautiful
|-
| mrəi || v. || be calm
|-
| mrəifa || n. || surface; floor
|-
| mujan || n. || mung bean
|-
| muku || n. || fruit
|-
| mussan || n. || guts; intestines
|-
| mutein || n. || son
|-
| mvaki || adj. || wise
|-
| məi || v. || have; hold
|-
| məikasi || n. || grasp; connection
|-
| məy || n. || wind
|-
| məyta || n. || shoe
|-
| nafa || v. || judge; evaluate
|-
| nakki || v. || hide (intr.)
|-
| naktaka || v. || hide (tr.)
|-
| nakteitta || n. || damage; destruction; injury
|-
| naku || n. || skin
|-
| nappa || v. || hear; listen
|-
| nasoun || v. || be surprised
|-
| natkiki || n. || tooth
|-
| natein || n. || flower
|-
| natraka || v. || burn (tr.); set fire to
|-
| natrəí || v. || burn (intr.); catch fire
|-
| natta || v. || condemn; dismiss
|-
| naukiru || n. || mayor
|-
| naukki || adj. || hard
|-
| nei || v. || weigh
|-
| nei || n. || fat; oil
|-
| neikkoun || n. || dye; paint
|-
| nein || v. || dye; paint; daub
|-
| nifi || v. || sneeze
|-
| nija || v. || stand out; be noticeable
|-
| nikan || v. || worry; be sad; be anxious
|-
| nikkan || v. || swim
|-
| nikki || v. || prefer; favor
|-
| nipkasi || n. || sneeze
|-
| niptaka || v. || clean; wash
|-
| niri || v. || be subordinate
|-
| niriki || adj. || low
|-
| nitjəí || v. || brighten; rise (of sun)
|-
| nittan || n. || girl; daughter
|-
| njatta || n. || virtuous man; hero
|-
| njautan || n. || star
|-
| niri || v. || get; receive
|-
| nrou || n. || fire
|-
| nukvissi || n. || roof opening
|-
| nunna || v. || eat
|-
| nuptaka || v. || cook (tr.)
|-
| nuroun || n. || well-being; happiness
|-
| nusi || adv./conj. || then; therefore; consequently
|-
| nutti || num. || nine
|-
| nutti || n. || sister
|-
| nutvaka || v. || attract the attention [of]
|-
| nuvu || v. || see; look
|-
| nvakki || adj. || good; virtuous
|-
| nvakmajein || v. || smell good
|-
| nvakréi || n. || morning; dawn; east
|-
| nvaksita || v. || taste good
|-
| nəyn || v. || have sex
|-
| pakan || n. || disaster; catastrophe
|-
| paki || v. || fail; disintegrate; break down
|-
| pakki || n. || bow (weapon)
|-
| paktəí || v. || go insane
|-
| pakutjéi || n. || insane person; lunatic
|-
| passein || v. || win; succeed; achieve
|-
| patan || n. || milk
|-
| patta || n. || pin; fastener
|-
| paun || conj. || but; however
|-
| pei || n. || sky
|-
| pei || n. || thread; line
|-
| peiji || n. || bivalve; seashell
|-
| peikki || adj. || gray; brown
|-
| peiru || n. || turtle
|-
| peitan || n. || center; abdomen; navel
|-
| pfiji || v. || remain; adhere; join
|-
| pfuru || n. || bear
|-
| pifein || v. || tell (a story); recount; recite
|-
| piji || num. || five
|-
| piki || adj. || thin
|-
| pikka || n. || brother
|-
| pikróun || num. || thirty
|-
| pin || conj. || with
|-
| pira || num. || three
|-
| pitan || n. || finger
|-
| pitein || n. || mesh; netting
|-
| pittu || v. || hang
|-
| pjata || n. || hand
|-
| pjou || n. || main part; majority
|-
| pjəy || n. || thumb
|-
| pkappu || n. || drum
|-
| pkata || n. || twin
|-
| pkəy || n. || clothing
|-
| pkəytta || n. || change; transformation
|-
| pmimmu || n. || toe
|-
| pmuppu || n. || owl
|-
| pmutta || n. || plant
|-
| pnafa || n. || hearth
|-
| pnakoun || n. || cooking pot; cauldron
|-
| pnaroun || n. || chieftan
|-
| pnau || n. || shaman
|-
| pniki || adj. || clean
|-
| pouki || adj. || brown
|-
| pouktəí || v. || wilt; rot
|-
| prafa || n. || beehive; conical hut
|-
| prakkein || n. || bird
|-
| prattaka || v. || combine; mix (tr.)
|-
| Prousoun || top. || a large island
|-
| prəi || n. || think [of what to do]; consider
|-
| prəiki || adj. || secret
|-
| prəu || n. || grass
|-
| psaki || adj. || orderly; secure; normal
|-
| psattan || n. || path; route
|-
| psikki || adj. || strong; powerful
|-
| psummu || n. || vegetation; foliage
|-
| ptafa || n. || wedding
|-
| pteiri || n. || thing; object
|-
| puki || n. || cloth; blanket
|-
| pukka || n. || rough seas
|-
| pummu || v. || spare one's life
|-
| pun || n. || ancestor spirit
|-
| pusein || n. || leaf
|-
| putan || n. || hill
|-
| putta || v. || marry
|-
| puvu || v. || breathe
|-
| pəu || n. || flat surface
|-
| rafi || n. || autumn
|-
| rajoun || v. || open (tr.)
|-
| raka || v. || be shut
|-
| rakki || n. || band; tribe
|-
| rakkoun || adv. || why
|-
| rapmiri || v. || connect; join
|-
| rappan || n. || bridge; connection
|-
| rapsəí || v. || become friends [with]
|-
| rasa || n. || horn
|-
| raun || n. || basket
|-
| rei || n. || powder; flour
|-
| reikki || adj. || angry
|-
| rifa || n. || meat
|-
| riki || adj. || dirty
|-
| rikki || adj. || smooth
|-
| rinni || v. || laugh
|-
| rippein || n. || mountain lion; puma
|-
| rirein || n. || arrow (weapon)
|-
| rissein || v. || open (intr.)
|-
| riti || v. || run
|-
| rjata || n. || side (of the body)
|-
| rjou || n. || border; perimeter
|-
| rjuki || adj. || round; fat
|-
| rjəyn || n. || a mythical beast
|-
| rou || n. || bundle; sack
|-
| roukein || n. || lump; clump; node
|-
| rouvákki || n. || radish
|-
| rufi || v. || smoke; burn
|-
| rujein || n. || picture; image; appearance
|-
| ruji || v. || show up; appear
|-
| rukein || n. || claw; tool; hook
|-
| rumiri || v. || portend; signify
|-
| run || n. || man
|-
| ruppa || n. || bee
|-
| ruttu || n. || fog; mist
|-
| rəi || n. || year
|-
| rəy || n. || tail
|-
| rəyku || v. || release; free
|-
| sajein || v. || perceive; experience
|-
| saku || n. || rat
|-
| sani || n. || rice
|-
| sanipəu || n. || rice paddy
|-
| sapkasi || n. || end (temporal); completion
|-
| sappa || n. || steam
|-
| sassa || n. || eagle
|-
| satein || v. || close; stop using; put away
|-
| sei || num. || six
|-
| sei || n. || head
|-
| sein || n. || family; lineage
|-
| seitan || n. || worm
|-
| sifa || n. || name
|-
| sifein || v. || fly
|-
| sikein || v. || sew
|-
| siki || adj. || short
|-
| sikki || n. || snow
|-
| sikki || adj. || thick
|-
| siknəý || n. || flea
|-
| sin || n. || small island
|-
| sinni || v. || think; remember
|-
| sipkasi || n. || journey
|-
| sita || v. || taste
|-
| sitein || v. || bind; wrap
|-
| sitoun || n. || knot
|-
| sitta || v. || succeed; be fulfilled
|-
| sjei || v. || be different
|-
| sjeiki || adj. || different
|-
| skau || n. || edge; cliff; border
|-
| skou || n. || magic
|-
| skuppa || n. || stitch
|-
| skəyku || n. || blackcurrant
|-
| smujan || v. || be important; be famous
|-
| snata || n. || breast
|-
| spaviki || adj. || renowned; famous
|-
| spifa || n. || end (physical); stump
|-
| spukein || n. || island
|-
| srata || n. || ear
|-
| sriki || adj. || sweet
|-
| srou || n. || snake
|-
| staki || adj. || effective; successful
|-
| stukkoun || n. || blanket; cloak; shroud
|-
| stəy || n. || speech; language
|-
| sujein || v. || give
|-
| sukka || n. || ability; strength
|-
| sukki || n. || fish
|-
| suku || v. || fall
|-
| sura || n. || mouth
|-
| surein || n. || reed
|-
| suru || n. || period; eon
|-
| səikoun || adv. || like this; in this way
|-
| səun || n. || riverbank
|-
| səymmu || n. || louse
|-
| səyn || n. || spring (season)
|-
| taji || n. || front
|-
| takan || n. || blade; leaf; sheaf
|-
| tapkóu || n. || enemy
|-
| tapnitta || n. || footstep; tracks (of animals)
|-
| tappa || n. || hand
|-
| tara || n. || problem; difficulty; failure
|-
| tatta || v. || put down; set down; bring
|-
| tatta || n. || arm
|-
| tattu || v. || be cold (of weather); be cruel
|-
| tatu || num. || seven
|-
| tau || n. || father
|-
| tauki || adj. || deep; full; long
|-
| taun || part. || negative or privative particle
|-
| tauta || n. || parent; living ancestor
|-
| tei || n. || bed
|-
| teijəý || n. || fish eggs; roe; spawn
|-
| tein || n. || wall
|-
| tifi || n. || point; dot
|-
| tijan || v. || shiver
|-
| tika || n. || stick
|-
| tikein || n. || frog
|-
| tiki || num. || one hundred
|-
| tikka || n. || shrimp
|-
| tippa || n. || noise; commotion
|-
| tirein || n. || needle
|-
| tisan || n. || knee
|-
| tissi || v. || be awake; be alert
|-
| tistəí || v. || wake up
|-
| tisu || n. || roof; top; covering
|-
| tita || n. || wing; (of humans) shoulder
|-
| tjakki || adj. || green
|-
| tjaun || n. || spider
|-
| tkari || n. || tripod
|-
| tkousu || n. || oven; kiln
|-
| tkufa || n. || meeting; council
|-
| tkuvu || n. || be true
|-
| tkəu || n. || discussion
|-
| tmata || n. || ear; hearing
|-
| tmauta || n. || river otter
|-
| tmeiri || v. || assemble; gather
|-
| tmou || n. || crowd
|-
| tnau || n. || knife; dagger
|-
| tnippu || n. || large quantity
|-
| tnou || n. || jaw; jawbone
|-
| tnuvu || n. || hoe
|-
| tnəita || adv. || now
|-
| tou || n. || cloud
|-
| toun || n. || egg
|-
| tpafa || n. || plains; lowlands
|-
| tpaki || adj. || flat
|-
| tpakoun || n. || hammer
|-
| tpatan || n. || nut
|-
| tpau || n. || left
|-
| tpikkein || n. || mouse
|-
| trappu || n. || hurricane
|-
| triki || adj. || quick; fast
|-
| tsaki || adj. || warm
|-
| tsaru || n. || crawfish
|-
| tsei || n. || cattle
|-
| tsimma || n. || mole; shrew
|-
| tsukein || n. || stem
|-
| tsuki || adj. || cruel; harsh
|-
| tsukmajein || v. || smell bad
|-
| tsuksita || v. || taste bad
|-
| tsuri || n. || group of three people
|-
| tsuta || n. || couple; pair (of people)
|-
| tsəy || n. || feast; large meal
|-
| tufa || n. || hood; bonnet
|-
| tufi || n. || soul; mind
|-
| tujein || n. || nose
|-
| tuji || n. || dog
|-
| tukki || adj. || dead
|-
| tuku || n. || matter; topic
|-
| tutjaki || adj. || dark
|-
| tutjəí || v. || grow dark; fall (of night)
|-
| tutrəí || v. || perform poorly
|-
| tutti || v. || carry; wield
|-
| tuttəí || v. || die (of people)
|-
| tutu || n. || tree trunk; torso
|-
| tuvein || n. || mosquito; pest
|-
| tvaksəý || n. || earthquake
|-
| tveiri || v. || hold; contain
|-
| tveiréi || n. || bag; sack
|-
| tvou || n. || bad weather
|-
| Təisi || top. || the capital; at the mouth of the Ku
|-
| təuka || n. || frost; winter
|-
| təykkein || n. || flea
|-
| təyra || n. || swallow (bird)
|-
| təytta || n. || testicle
|-
| vaukki || adj. || wet
|-
| vikkein || v. || climb; mount; ascend; overtake
|-
| voun || n. || stomach
|-
| vriki || adj. || new
|-
| vukka || v. || speak with the dead
|-
| vuri || n. || ice
|-
| vuvoun || n. || herb; grass
|-
| vəiki || adj. || weak
|}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages]]

Ndok Aisô/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:36:57Z

Cedh: +14

This is a short lexicon of [[Ndok Aisô]]. All entries are in the form of the dialect of Ngahêxôldod, ca. 250 YP.

The citation form of verbs is the indicative habitual singular. Along with this, the indicative habitual plural and the stem class are given for all verbs, and any unpredictable irregularities are also listed in the morphology column.

Adjectives are cited in the nominative singular; the accusative singular is also given since the combination of these two forms generally suffices to predict all other morphological forms.

For nouns, the antigenitive form is only given when the stem undergoes changes.

Abbreviations used:
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Gez. = [[Gezoro]]
* F. = [[Fáralo]]
* Me. = [[Meshi]]
* Miw. = [[Miwan languages|Forest Miwan]]
* PHab. = [[Habeo languages|Proto-Habeo]]
* Tl. = [[Tlaliolz]]
* unmarked = [[Ndak Ta]]

If no etymon is given, the word can be assumed to be a non-Edastean loan from any of various sources, including Hitatc languages, Meshi, Mohudza, and western dialects of Tlaliolz. I expect that these will fill in as more information on these languages becomes available.

''(922 words)''

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
|-
! class="l"| Word
! Morphology
! PoS
! Class
! Definition
! Etymon
|-
| adoi || adaig || adj. || || hungry || ''anai'' "empty"
|-
| agets || || pron. || || somehow || ''au etsn'' "some method"
|-
| ageu || || n. || || city-dweller; citizen || ''arbwa'' "craftsman"
|-
| agixeu || || n. || || hope; prospect || ''awio''
|-
| agoi || || n. || || battle; 3rd day of the week || ''angài'' "war"
|-
| agoisoi || agoisut'eu || v. || A-IV || fight, struggle, strive || ''angài su'' "do war"
|-
| agufaib || agufaimat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} agufaip'e || v. || A-II || mourn, grieve || ''owu mpaim'' "mourn and cry"
|-
| ahêb || || n. || || tea || {{PHab|*ʔankem}}
|-
| aheu || || n. || || air || ''âka''
|-
| áibôxeu || || n. || || snake || ''aimwa''
|-
| aidageupeu || aidageupot'eu || v. || A-I (o) || strike down || ''aina wapa'' "hit down"
|-
| aideu || aidag || adj.dem || || lower, front || ''aina'' "downward"
|-
| aidoi || aidait'eu || v. || A-V || love || ''âidai'' "need"
|-
| aigrad || aigradat'eu || v. || A-II || scratch, rip, tear apart || ''egran'' "scratch"
|-
| aigrat'oi || aigrat'uxa || n. || || claw || ''egrandu'' "scratcher"
|-
| aihê || || pron. || || everything || ''ege''
|-
| aihêg || || qu./pron. || || both || ''egeg'' "everything" (du.)
|-
| aihêts || || n. || || stele, monument || ''ngkets'' "column" + honorific prefix
|-
| aip'oi || aip'uxa || n. || || commoner || ''aimbu'' "peasant"
|-
| aisô || aisôt'eu || v. || A-VI || speak; communicate || {{Me|aysu}}
|-
| aiteu || aitixa || n. || || day || ''airti''
|-
| ait'eu || ait'ag || adj. || || dead || ''ainda'' "ashes, remains, corpses"
|-
| Aitol || || n. || || the sun god || ''tol'' "sun" + honorific prefix, cf. {{Fá|iodol}}
|-
| Ak'ab || || top. || || a city || (toponym prefix ''a-'' + ''nggam'' "mat"; i.e. "resting place")
|-
| akakseu || akaksat'eu || v. || A-I || trample, stamp down on || {{PHab|*a:kʷu-a:kas}} "kill with the feet"
|-
| akô || || n. || || base (of a mountain); source (of a river) || {{Me|aku}}
|-
| Akôdaig || || top. || || a city || ("base of the mountain")
|-
| akseu || aksixa || n. || || horse, stallion || {{PHab|*akešiʔ}}
|-
| ameu || amixa || n. || || insect || ''ammi'' "fly"
|-
| aseu || || cj. || || long before || ''anto'' "old"
|-
| at || || n. || || hill || {{Me|at}}
|-
| at'eu || || pp. || || towards, into, onto || ''anda'' "into"
|-
| auseu || ausixa || n. || || river || ''aunti''
|-
| auxud || || pron. || || somebody || ''au rud'' "a man"
|-
| axageu || || n. || || dinner || ''arâwa''
|-
| Axôkseuhod || || top. || || [[Kasca]] || (toponym prefix ''a-'' + ''Kasadgad'')
|-
| Axôltseubeu || || top. || || [[Lasomo]] || (toponym prefix ''a-'' + ''Latsomo'')
|-
| badoi || badait'eu || v. || B-V || worship; celebrate (religion) || ''banai''
|-
| bafaib || bafaima || n. || || onion || ''bâpu mpaim'' "cry-root"
|-
| baikau || baikaut'eu || v.erg || B-VI || fail || ''bekwâu'' "insufficient"
|-
| bail || bailat'eu || v. || B-II || burp; express disdain || ''bâil'' "burp"
|-
| bat'oxeu || || n. || || breakfast || ''bandoro''
|-
| bausifa || || n. || || naval commander || {{Fá|baosifa}}
|-
| bauxeu || bauxag || adj. || || great, significant, important || ''baura''
|-
| beb || bebat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} bep'e || v. || B-II || kill; slay (on the battlefield) || {{Fá|beb}} "punish"
|-
| bêdug || bêduhog || adj. || || detailed, elaborate, sophisticated || ''benung'' "complete, finished"
|-
| bêhoi || || n. || || number, amount, quantity || ''bengkai''
|-
| bêmoi || || pp. || || above, on top of || ''ob imu'' "at head"
|-
| bepun || bepunog || adj. || || puny || {{Ad|bepūn}} "insufficient"
|-
| besoi || || pp. || || near, next to || ''wimès wau'' "neighbor to"
|-
| betsleu || || n. || || beard || ''betsla''
|-
| beudeu || || cj. || || either/or || ''boda''
|-
| bik || bika || n. || || jaw, chin || ''bikng''
|-
| bisoi || || pp. || || after || ''ob iswau'' "at night"
|-
| bistoi || bistuxa || n. || || column, pillar || ''bistu'' "trunk (of a tree)"
|-
| boi || || adv. || || again || ''bau''
|-
| boiloi || || n. || || earth, soil; 5th day of the week || ''baulai''
|-
| bois || || n. || || ox; cattle || ''baus''
|-
| boitroi || || n. || || leg || ''baitrai''
|-
| bol || beulat'eu || v.erg || B-II (eu) || lie, recline || ''bal''
|-
| bolteu || bôltat'eu || v.erg || B-I || be laid down, be put away, be dropped || ''bal ta''
|-
| bomeu || || n. || || wheat || ''borma''
|-
| bok'eu || || n. || || buttocks || ''bongga'' "back"
|-
| bosteu || bôstêg || adj. || || soft || ''basti'' "gentle"
|-
| bot'a || || cj.gap || || either/or || ''*bondâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| bots || beutsa || n. || || weapon || ''batsn'' "stick"
|-
| bu || || num. || || four || ''bu''
|-
| bugits || bugitsog || adj. || || warm, hot || ''bubwits''
|-
| buneu || bunat'eu || v. || B-I || hear, listen || ''budna''
|-
| busad || || n. || || crab, crayfish || ''busan''
|-
| dagaihêseu || || n. || || winter || ''[lu] dauwaikintsa'' "the whitening"
|-
| daig || daiha || n. || || mountain || ''daing''
|-
| daiheu || daihêt'eu || v. || B-III || hate || ''deki''
|-
| daihiteu || daihitat'eu || v. || B-I || take revenge || ''deki ta''
|-
| dausa || || n. || || blanket || ''*dâusâ'' < {{Gez|dâuzâ}} (K)
|-
| daxêfêd || daxêfêdog || adj. || || careful, cautious, prudent || ''darempin'' "warn oneself"
|-
| deb || debat'eu || v. || B-II || marry || {{Me|deb}}
|-
| dedeu || dedixa || n. || || prospect, opportunity || {{BNz|dedi}} "option"
|-
| dêfeu || dêfixa || n. || || young (of an animal) || ''dempi'' "child"
|-
| dêheu || dêhixa || n. || || finger || ''dengi''
|-
| demit || || n. || || advantage, benefit || {{BNz|demit}} "profit"
|-
| dên || || n. || || water ||
|-
| dênoi || dênait'eu || v. || B-V || punish || ''denai''
|-
| dêp'ahêd || dêp'ahêdog || adj. || || hidden, invisible, secret || ''dimbangkin'' "put away-{{sc|mid}}"
|-
| dêp'oi || || n. || || butter || ''dimbau'' "fat"
|-
| despog || despeuhat'eu || v. || B-II (eu) || hunt, track, pursue || ''desmog''
|-
| deuhib || || n. || || stranger, foreigner || ''dokib'' "guest"
|-
| deusibauxeu || || n. || || "Queen of the Gods" || ''dasi baura'' "great goddess"
|-
| dihod || || n. || || tool; utensil || ''dikon'' "thing"
|-
| ditoi || || adv. || || maybe || ''ditai'' "possible"
|-
| dixêheu || || n. || || king, ruler || ''diàka''
|-
| dixêheuteu || || n. || || dynasty || ''diàka ta''
|-
| dixêkloi || || n. || || palace || ''diàkalau'' "king-place"
|-
| doi || || num. || || five || ''dau''
|-
| doitêd || doitênog || adj. || || sacred, holy || ''dautin''
|-
| dol || || cj. || || but || ''dal''
|-
| dôlbit || dôlbitat'eu || v. || B-II || bring || ''dalmit'' "hold; present"
|-
| dolda || || cj.gap || || but || ''daldâ''
|-
| dôlsux || || n. || || honey || ''dalsur''
|-
| doma || || n. || || glass || {{Fá|doumah}}
|-
| dôstod || dôstonat'eu || v. || B-II (n) || attack, march forward || ''das non'' "fight-go"
|-
| dôxeu || || n. || || wild boar ||
|-
| dugeu || dugêt'eu || v. || B-III || praise || ''dungwi''
|-
| dulbe || || n. || || broom, brush, rake || ''dulbe''
|-
| dume || dumet'eu || v. || B-VI || campaign for sth. || {{BNz|dume}} "advertise"
|-
| dup'eu || dup'ot'eu || v.erg || B-I (o) || smell || ''dumbo''
|-
| dusab || dusabat'eu || v. || B-II || blush, be embarrassed, be ashamed (about) || ''dusam'' "regret"
|-
| duts || || n. || || shoulder || ''duts''
|-
| êb || || pp. || || to, for (dative/benefactive) || ''em'' "turn"
|-
| êbixeu || êbixat'eu || v. || A-I || show, exhibit, have as a feature || ''*eubixol'' < ''obial'' "offer" (final ''-l'' reanalysed as passive)
|-
| Êbloi || || top. || || a city || ''emlau'' "bend in the road"
|-
| êboi || êboixa || n. || || name || ''imai''
|-
| êboi || êbuxa || n. || || head || ''imu''
|-
| êboiteu || êboitat'eu || v. || A-I || adopt, raise as one's own child || ''imai ta'' "name-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| êbôxel || || n. || || west || ''emwel''
|-
| ebreu || ebrêt'eu || v. || A-III || destroy, annihilate || ''ebri''
|-
| ebroib || ebroibat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} ebroip'e || v. || A-II || describe, explain || ''ebraib''
|-
| êdeu || êdat'eu || v.erg || A-I || see || ''ina''
|-
| edos || edeusat'eu || v. || A-II (eu) || act hostile || ''erdas'' "be aggressive"
|-
| edos || edeusog || adj. || || hostile; belligerent; enemy || ''erdas'' "be aggressive"
|-
| êfêd || êfêdat'eu || v.intr || A-II || turn; change one's mind || ''empin'' "turn oneself"
|-
| êfeu || êfixa || n. || || grass || ''empi''
|-
| ege || || qu. || || every; each one of || ''ewe''
|-
| egek || || qu. || || all; all of || ''ewek'' (pl.)
|-
| egeloi || || pron. || || everywhere || ''ewelau''
|-
| egetsoi || || pron. || || always || (by analogy)
|-
| egexud || || pron. || || everybody || ''ewe rud'' "every man"
|-
| egip || || pron. || || in every way || ''ewip''
|-
| êhêkoi || êhêkuxa || n. || || body || ''ingkwakpu'' "that which perceives"
|-
| êheu || || n. || || mammal || ''engka'' "animal"
|-
| êheuloi || || n. || || stable, stall, barn || ''engkalau'' "animal-place"
|-
| êheutoi || êheutuxa || n. || || property || ''ingkotu''
|-
| ekêk'oi || ekêk'uxa || n. || || cripple, invalid || ''erkengbu'' "limp person"
|-
| êk'eu || êk'at'eu || v.erg || A-I || use || ''imbwa''
|-
| ekoip || ekoipog || adj. || || light (not heavy) || ''epwaip''
|-
| êlekreu || êlekrat'eu || v. || A-I || bribe; blackmail || ''êlakra'' "urge"
|-
| élôxoi || || n. || || utterance, statement || ''lewai'' "word"
|-
| elpôhêp || || n. || || beetroot || {{PHab|*lepankke:pe}} "red root"
|-
| êngelô || || n. || || army, military || {{Fá|æŋéilo}}
|-
| engge || || n. || || (respectful term of address) || ''mebwe'' "father"
|-
| êp'eseu || êp'esag || adj. || || fortunate || ''imbenta'' "cheerful"
|-
| êp'eu || êp'ixa || n. || || the moon (in non-religious contexts); 4th day of the week || ''imbi''
|-
| êp'ux || êp'uxat'eu || v.intr || A-II || swim, float || ''embur''
|-
| êsaig || || cj. || || in order to || ''intaing'' "in favor of"
|-
| êsaik'a || || cj.gap || || in order to || ''*intainggâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| êsetsê || || n. || || type, species || {{Fá|æsečə}}
|-
| êseu || êsat'eu || v.intr || A-I || be hanging || ''inta''
|-
| êseuteu || êseutat'eu || v. || A-I || hang (tr.) || ''inta ta''
|-
| eskid || eskênat'eu || v. || A-II (n) || cook, fry, roast || ''eskidn''
|-
| esteleu || estelat'eu || v.intr || A-I || burn; be emotionally agitated || ''estela''
|-
| estelteu || esteltat'eu || v. || A-I || burn, ignite, set on fire; anger, upset || ''estela ta''
|-
| esul || esulat'eu || v. || A-II || receive || ''esul'' "take"
|-
| êt'oi || êt'ut'eu || v.erg || A-IV || fall || ''endu''
|-
| ets || || n. || || manner; method || ''etsn''
|-
| ets || || num. || || six || ''ets''
|-
| Êtugê || || n. || || the Etúgə religion || {{Fá|Etúgə}}
|-
| euba || eubat'eu || v.intr || A-VI || be a nuisance || ''abâ'' "commit a crime"
|-
| eubai || || n. || || swamp || ''abâi''
|-
| eubeu || || n. || || mother; 6th day of the week || ''omo''
|-
| eugonod || || n. || || thunder || ''abwodnodn'' "thunder"
|-
| eukeu || || n. || || ear || ''okwa''
|-
| eulaseu || eulasat'eu || v.intr || A-I || exhaust oneself || ''olanta'' "do too much"
|-
| eulebeu || eulebog || adj. || || tired, exhausted || ''olerbo'' "should rest"
|-
| eulêd || || n. || || furrow || ''alen'' "split"
|-
| euloi || || n. || || place || ''olau''
|-
| euseu || || n. || || noblewoman || ''asa'' "woman"
|-
| euteu || eutot'eu || v. || A-I (o) || come (intr.); arrive at (tr.) || ''oto''
|-
| eutot'e || eutot'êt'eu || v. || A-VI (ê) || take; pull || ''oto nde'' "come-touch"
|-
| êxaspoi || êxasput'eu || v. || A-IV || capture, seize || {{PHab|*eʔas-esmu}} "take with force"
|-
| exat'e || exat'êg || adj. || || drunk || {{Ad|erathe}}
|-
| exiboi || exibuxa || n. || || tyrant || {{Ad|ēribu}} "conqueror"
|-
| exofeu || exofot'eu || v. || A-I (o) || forget || ''*exôxofeu'' < ''erwompo''
|-
| exoitsoi || exoitsut'eu || v. || A-IV || betray, defraud, abandon || ''eraitsu'' "fail to promise"
|-
| Faxalô || || ethn. || || the Fáralo people || {{Fá|faralo}}
|-
| fogau || || n. || || painting || {{BNz|fɔgau}} "decoration, artwork"
|-
| fuloi || fulug || adj. || || lenient, forgiving; loose || {{Me|fwulu}} "treat kindly" (anticausative)
|-
| gad || || n. || || knife || ''gan''
|-
| gagêp'eu || gagêp'ixa || n. || || month || ''gau imbi'' "road of the moon"
|-
| gaheu || gahog || adj. || || angry, violent || ''gâga''
|-
| gahoip || || n. || || axe || ''*gangkwaip < gan mepwaip'' "heavy blade"
|-
| gaikseu || gaiksixa || n. || || religious feast || ''bwaikti''
|-
| gaiksiteu || gaiksitat'eu || v. || B-I || commemorate || ''bwaikti ta''
|-
| gak'eu || || n. || || lettuce || {{Gez|gaːngo}} (C)
|-
| galul || || pron. || || here, there (near you) || ''gâlul''
|-
| gasêhab || || n. || || bat || {{Gez|ganthakam}} (C)
|-
| gaufog || gaufeuha || n. || || trade route || ''gau mpag'' "far road"
|-
| gauxod || || n. || || desert || ''gauron'' "semiarid land"
|-
| gaxud || || pron. || || this person (near you) || ''gâ rud''
|-
| ged || || n. || || son || ''bwed''
|-
| Gedaig || || ethn. || || the Dāiadak people || (''ged + daig'': "sons of the mountains")
|-
| gêdig || gêdiha || n. || || iron || ''ginig''
|-
| gêfeu || gêfat'eu || v. || C-I || hurt (emotionally) || ''gempa'' "insult"
|-
| gegeu || || pron. || || what || ''gewa''
|-
| gêheu || gêhog || adj. || || hard, solid, sturdy, durable || ''gingko''
|-
| gêk'oitsoi || gêk'oitsuxa || n. || || birthright of nobles || ''bwenggautsu'' "inheritance"
|-
| gêk'ox || gêk'oxat'eu || v. || B-II || honor, respect || ''bwenggor''
|-
| gematê || || n. || || navigation || {{Fá|boéimate}}
|-
| gêngeu || gêngêg || adj. || || high || ''gingwi'' "tall"
|-
| [auseu] Gêp'oi || || top. || || the Bwimbai/Ziphē River || ''[Aunti] Bwimbai''
|-
| gepud || || n. || || snail || ''gepun'' "seashell"
|-
| gesanô || || n. || || country-dweller; peasant || (''ged + sanô'': "son of the village")
|-
| gesteu || gestêg || adj. || || decadent, immoral, obscene || {{Fá|boéisti}} "orgy"
|-
| geteu || || n. || || family || ''bwed ta''
|-
| gets || || adv. || || likely || ''gets''
|-
| geu || gat'eu || v. || C-I || follow; be next || ''gua''
|-
| geu || gag || adj.dem || || other, next, subsequent || ''gua'' "follow"
|-
| gib || gêmog || adj. || || cruel, evil || ''gibm'' "bad"
|-
| gikeu || gikot'eu || v. || C-I (o) || please, accommodate, entertain || ''*girko'' "serve, obey" < {{Gez|giːrko-}} "listen, pay attention" (K)
|-
| gildeu || gildag || adj. || || slow, gradual || ''gilna''
|-
| gise || giset'eu || v. || B-VI || defecate || {{Me|gise}}
|-
| gobloi || || n. || || hill, promontory || ''gomlau'' "high place"
|-
| goibreu || || n. || || ram || ''gaibra'' "sheep"
|-
| goidaig || || n. || || pass (in mountains), gap || ''gau daing'' "mountain road"
|-
| goideu || || n. || || rabbit || ''gaido''
|-
| goile || || n. || || trail, footpath || ''gaule'' "little road"
|-
| goiloid || || n. || || a two-year calendar cycle || ''gau laid'' "road of the year"
|-
| goise || || n. || || snowflake || ''bwai aise'' "star of snow"
|-
| goit || goitog || adj. || || easy, simple, trivial, boring || ''gaut'' "dull"
|-
| goitol || goiteula || n. || || week || ''gau tol'' "road of the sun"
|-
| gok'eu || gok'at'eu || v. || C-I || share, distribute, spread || ''gabbwa''
|-
| gok'oi || gok'ait'eu || v. || C-V || resist, ward off || ''gonggai'' "break"
|-
| gomodoi || gomoduxa || n. || || cross-staff || {{Fá|goumoudu}}
|-
| gop'eu || || n. || || crowd (of people), herd (of animals), ensemble (of things); any large group || ''gomba'' "people; the public"
|-
| got || geuta || n. || || wood || ''gatn''
|-
| gots || geutsa || n. || || sweat || ''bwats''
|-
| gotsteu || gotstat'eu || v. || B-I || sweat || ''bwats ta''
|-
| goxeg || goxaiha || n. || || salt || {{Gez|goːreg}} (C)
|-
| gub || guma || n. || || existence || ''gubm'' "life; survival"
|-
| gubloi || gubluxa || n. || || seal, badge, emblem || {{BNz|guvlu}}
|-
| gun || gunog || adj. || || brave, courageous || {{Me|gwun}} "fierce"
|-
| gupseu || || n. || || survival || ''gubm ta''
|-
| gus || || n. || || millet || {{Gez|guːz}} (C)
|-
| guseu || || cj. || || so, thus || ''gunto''
|-
| gut || gutog || adj.dem || || right (direction) || ''bwut'' "rightward"
|-
| gut'a || || cj.gap || || so, thus || ''gundâ''
|-
| guxeu || || n. || || belly, stomach || ''guro'' "guts"
|-
| ha || || adv. || || yes || (ideophonic)
|-
| haga || hagat'eu || v. || B-VI || provide; sell; deliver || {{BNz|xaga}} "distribute"
|-
| hakis || || n. || || garlic || {{Ad|hakis}}
|-
| hêseu || || n. || || season; period of time || (back-formed from the season names ''oispihêseu, rafêhêseu, nabagihêseu'' and ''dagaihêseu''; originally a reflex of the NT middle participle ''-kintsa'')
|-
| heuxaid || || n. || || livestock || ''engka'' "animal" + ''ain'' "farm"
|-
| heumaisa || || n. || || cow || ''engka'' "animal" + ''mâisâ'' "cow"
|-
| hogeu || hogat'eu || v. || B-I || write (for everyday use); keep account of || {{BNz|xowa}}
|-
| hoi || || pp. || || during || ''ob gau'' "on road"
|-
| Hoifaxa || || top. || || Huyfárah || {{Fá|Huyfárah}}
|-
| hok'o || hok'ot'eu || v. || B-VI || masturbate || {{Ad|hokho}}
|-
| holdeu || hôldot'eu || v. || B-I (o) || forge || {{Gez|xoːldo-}} "alloy, weld, join together" (C)
|-
| huxeu || huxixa || n. || || book || {{Ad|hui}} "record"
|-
| ibladeu || ibladat'eu || v. || A-I || flow (intr.); flood (tr.) || ''imlana'' "flood"
|-
| idau || || n. || || noble || ''idâu''
|-
| idux || || n. || || vinegar || ''idur'' "sour"
|-
| igaxud || || pron. || || who || ''iwa rud'' "which man"
|-
| igêd || || adv. || || perfectly, suitably || ''iwen'' "well" (adv.)
|-
| igeu || || pron. || || which || ''iwa''
|-
| igeuloi || || pron. || || where || ''iwalau''
|-
| igeutsoi || || pron. || || when || (by analogy)
|-
| igrik || igrihat'eu || v. || A-II || suck, swallow || ''igrik'' "absorb"
|-
| ihix || ihixat'eu || v. || A-II || whisper, murmur || ''idgir''
|-
| ik'êd || ik'êdat'eu || v. || A-II || bend, fold || ''ibbwen''
|-
| imaza || || n. || || textile workshop || {{Ad|īmaza}}
|-
| imoi || || n. || || cloth, fabric || {{Fá|imu}} "that which is sewed"
|-
| ineu || inixa || n. || || child || {{Me|ini}}
|-
| ipeu || || pron. || || how || ''ipa''
|-
| isaxeu || isaxêt'eu || v. || A-III || allow, permit || ''isâri''
|-
| iseu || isêt'eu || v.erg || A-III || happen, occur || ''isi'' "sudden"
|-
| ispeu || ispat'eu || v. || A-I || sew || ''isma''
|-
| iskod || iskana || n. || || storm (var. form) || ''sikadn''
|-
| isleu || || cj. || || before || ''isla''
|-
| istêd || istênat'eu || v. || A-II (n) || lose sth. || ''isten''
|-
| istêhoi || istêhuxa || n. || || cotton || {{BNz|istixu}}
|-
| iteuboi || iteubuxa || n. || || key, door bolt || ''irtabu'' "that which opens sth."
|-
| itoi || ituxa || n. || || flower || {{BNz|itu}} "blossom"
|-
| itôxab || || n. || || arm || ''itwam''
|-
| itslau || || n. || || tooth; fang || ''tsilâu''
|-
| ixep'a || || n. || || toe || {{Ad|iēpha}}
|-
| ixoha || ixohag || adj. || || stupid || {{Ad|ioxa}} "backward"
|-
| kaibe || kaibêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || know || ''kaime'' "study"
|-
| kaibloi || || n. || || school, academy || ''kaimlau''
|-
| kaid || kaidat'eu || v. || B-II || bite; chew; snap apart || ''kwain''
|-
| kaihoiteu || kaihoitixa || n. || || ring || ''kwaim kaitia'' "golden circle"
|-
| kaikoi || kaikuxa || n. || || spearman || ''kekpu'' "one who throws"
|-
| kainabeu || kainabêt'eu || v. || B-III || shout, scream || ''kwaidn mbi'' "say loudly"
|-
| kaip'oi || kaip'uxa || n. || || learned man, scholar || ''kaimbu'' "student"
|-
| kanoi || kanuxa || n. || || oar, paddle || ''karnu''
|-
| kaseu || || n. || || crow, raven || {{Gez|kaːntho}} (C)
|-
| kaubiseu || kaubisêt'eu || v. || C-III || criticise; warn || ''kaumisi'' "reprimand"
|-
| ke || || num. || || one || ''ke''
|-
| kêbeu || kêbixa || n. || || deal, contract, treaty || {{BNz|kəvi}} "confirm a deal"
|-
| kêd || || pp. || || with (comitative) || ''kwen''
|-
| kedeu || kedat'eu || v.erg || B-I || be ready, be prepared, anticipate || ''kweda'' "ready"
|-
| kêdoi || kêdaut'eu || v. || C-V (au) || order, command || ''kenau'' "ask"
|-
| kêduk || kêduha || n. || || helmet || ''*kêduk'' < {{Gez|kêduk}} (K)
|-
| kêfol || kêfeulat'eu || v.intr || C-II (eu) || be unhappy || ''kimpal'' "complain"
|-
| kehad || || n. || || bean || ''kwagan''
|-
| kêhade || || n. || || button (of clothing) || ''kwi ngane'' "connect-piece"
|-
| kêhafoi || || n. || || brooch, fibula || ''kwi ngane pai'' "big connect-piece"
|-
| kêheu || kêhêt'eu || v.intr || B-III || squeal, squeak || ''kwingi'' (imitative)
|-
| kêheutsok || kêheutsehat'eu || v. || B-II (e) || ban || ''kwengatsak'' "exile"
|-
| kekob || kekama || n. || || lip || ''kak mabm'' "edge of the mouth"
|-
| kela || || n. || || news, message || {{BNz|kwela}}
|-
| kelboi || kelbuxa || n. || || messenger, herald || (''kela'' + ''-boi'')
|-
| keldeu || || n. || || cleric || *''kelna'' < ''kenla'' "scholar"
|-
| kelkeu || kelkêg || adj. || || fierce, dangerous || ''kelki''
|-
| kêneu || || n. || || shoe || {{BNz|kəño}}
|-
| kêseu || kêsot'eu || v. || C-I (o) || donate, grant; be a patron || ''kinto'' "generous"
|-
| ketsteu || ketstat'eu || v. || B-I || shake off (a burden) || ''kwetsn ta'' "cause to let go"
|-
| k'eulag || || pp. || || under || ''ob nggolang'' "at foot"
|-
| keutop || keutopat'eu || v. || B-II || crush, defeat || ''kwatopm'' "smash, break"
|-
| kihik || || n. || || lightning || ''kikik''
|-
| kikau || || n. || || tribe, horde (of barbarian nomads) || {{Me|kikaw}}
|-
| kil || || n. || || barley || ''kil''
|-
| k'ixa || || n. || || governing council || (by haplology from ''k'ixaxa'' < {{Ad|khiara}})
|-
| kix || || n. || || goat || ''kwir''
|-
| kóbôxeu || || n. || || language || ''komwa'' "tongue"
|-
| koinod || koineuda || n. || || trophy, status symbol || {{Gez|khoinod}} "ibex, mountain goat" (S)
|-
| koipegê || koipegêt'eu || v. || B-VI || assume incorrectly || {{Fá|kuəpéigə}} "assume; suppose"
|-
| koiteu || koitixa || n. || || gold || ''kaitia''
|-
| kok || keuha || n. || || edge; border; borderland || ''kak''
|-
| kok'e || kok'eg || adj. || || annoyed || {{Ad|kokhē}} "be enraged"
|-
| kôksod || kôkseudat'eu, {{sc|mid.npst.sg}} kôksôskêd || v. || B-II (eu/s) || help, support, be allied with || ''kaktod'' "greet"
|-
| komê || || n. || || price; payment || {{BNz|komɛ}} "compensate"
|-
| kot || keutog || adj. || || smelling of feces || ''kwat'' "bad-smelling"
|-
| kots || keutsa || n. || || chair; throne || ''kwats''
|-
| kud || kudog || adj. || || bold; tough (of people) || ''kun'' "stiff; sturdy"
|-
| kufas || || n. || || heathen cult place || {{Fá|kufas}} "Etúgəist temple"
|-
| kufoigeu || kufoigat'eu || v. || C-I || believe, have faith in || ''kumpaiwa''
|-
| kug || kuha || n. || || jar || {{Me|kug}}
|-
| kuhoi || kuhait'eu || v. || B-V || keep, raise (domesticated animals) || ''kukail'' "tame" (final ''-l'' reanalysed as passive)
|-
| kuma || kumat'eu || v. || B-VI || repeat, try again || {{Fá|kuəma}}
|-
| kupozoi || kupozuxa || n. || || task, campaign, quest, mission || {{Gez|khurpoːzu-}} "go on a quest" (C)
|-
| kusaboi || kusabuxa || n. || || wasp, hornet || {{BNz|kusavo}}
|-
| kustab || || n. || || olive || ''kusram''
|-
| kusox || kusoxog || adj. || || white || ''kuntor'' "bright"
|-
| lade || ladêt'eu || v. || B-VI (ê) || lead; precede || ''lane'' "aim"
|-
| lade || ladêg || adj.dem || || previous || ''lane'' "aim"
|-
| ladog || ladeuhog || adj. || || good; desirable || ''lanag'' "good-smelling"
|-
| lafoi || lafut'eu || v. || B-IV || carry, transport; tow forward (a boat) || {{Gez|lamphu-}} (C)
|-
| lagagloi || || n. || || hometown, place of origin || ''langànglau'' "familiar place"
|-
| Lageu || || top. || || the Eigə delta || ''lâwa'' "delta"
|-
| laheu || || n. || || bone || ''langkwo''
|-
| laixeu || laixêg || adj. || || young || ''lairi''
|-
| lamoi || lamaig || adj. || || long; tall || ''larmai''
|-
| lanaloi || lanalug || adj. || || comfortable, convenient || {{BNz|lañalu}} "cozy place"
|-
| lasoi || lasaig || adj. || || quick, fast || ''lantai''
|-
| latsatseu || || n. || || hour || ''lartsartsa''
|-
| lêd || || n. || || grape || ''lin''
|-
| lêg || lêha || n. || || face || ''leng''
|-
| legideu || legidat'eu || v. || B-I || translate || {{BNz|lɛwida}} (influenced by ''legoi'' etc.)
|-
| legoi || legait'eu || v. || B-V || compose poetry || (back-formed from ''legoitsai'')
|-
| legoitsai || || n. || || [[Ndok#Literary Output|epic poem]] || ''lewaitsâi''
|-
| legolpoi || legôlpaut'eu || v. || B-V (au) || decree; document (officially) || ''lewalpau'' "write"
|-
| lekseu || || n. || || taxation || ''lekta'' "collect"
|-
| lekseu || leksat'eu || v. || B-I || tax || ''lekta'' "collect"
|-
| lesta || || n. || || room; interior (of a building) || ''lestâ''
|-
| lestôspok || lestôspeuha || n. || || king's hall, throne room || ''lestâ ospàk''
|-
| lêtsoi || lêtsaug || adj. || || cold || ''lêtsau''
|-
| leuboi || || n. || || footprint || ''lobau''
|-
| leubop || leubopat'eu || v. || B-II (eu) || insult || *''labap'' < ''lapabap'' "ignore"
|-
| leuset || leusetat'eu || v. || B-II || build || ''lasetn''
|-
| leusoi || leusut'eu || v. || B-IV || liberate || {{Fá|lewsuy}}
|-
| liha || || cj.gap || || neither/nor || ''ligâ''
|-
| lihê || lihêt'eu || v. || B-VI || pile up || {{PHab|*linke}} "layer, level"
|-
| lik || || cj. || || neither/nor || ''lik''
|-
| lisêheu || lisêhot'eu || v. || B-I (o) || shake; disrupt || ''lisedgo''
|-
| liteu || || pp. || || inside; between || ''lita'' "throughout"
|-
| loi || || n. || || bird || ''lai''
|-
| loi ses || || n. || || poultry || ("farm bird")
|-
| loid || || n. || || year || ''laid''
|-
| lolboi || lôlbuxa || n. || || guest || ''*lolboiboi'' < ''lolmaubu'' "visitor"
|-
| loltoi || lôltuxa || n. || || hunger; famine || ''lu oltu'' "the starving"
|-
| losixeu || losixat'eu || v. || B-I || answer; respond || ''lonsia''
|-
| lots || leutsa || n. || || land, country, region || ''lats''
|-
| lukên || || n. || || saddle || {{Me|luken}}
|-
| luk'imeu || luk'imêg || adj. || || elegant, graceful || {{Tl|lūk’im}} "agile, competent"
|-
| lusit || lusitat'eu || v. || B-II || try, attempt || ''lusit''
|-
| Lusoi || || top. || || a city || ''lunde [âk] tau'' "shore of the lake"
|-
| luskoi || || n. || || flag || ''luskai'' "sail"
|-
| mab || || num. || || seven || ''mam''
|-
| mag || || adv. || || today || ''mâg''
|-
| maga || || pp. || || before (temporal) || ''ob mowâ'' "at dawn"
|-
| mahaisô || mahaisot'eu || v. || C-VI || terminate an agreement; turn against sb. || {{BNz|maxaysɔ}} "shun, avoid one's company"
|-
| mahê || || pron. || || nothing || ''mage''
|-
| mahêg || || qu./pron. || || neither || ''mageg'' "nothing" (du.)
|-
| maihoi || || n. || || yolk (of an egg) || ''ulmài ngkai'' "egg yellow" (initial unstressed ''ul-'' dropped due to confusion with definite article ''lu'')
|-
| maisa || || n. || || cow's milk || ''mâisâ'' "cow"
|-
| maisloi || || n. || || pasture || ''mâislau''
|-
| Maislofeu || || top. || || a city || ''mâislau ompa'' "flat pasture"
|-
| mak'at || || n. || || cap, bonnet, hood || {{Tl|mak’āt}}
|-
| malixa || malixat'eu || v. || C-VI || fellate || {{Ad|malia}} "suck"
|-
| maneu || manixa || n. || || specialty; characteristic feature/product || {{BNz|mañi}} "rare, remarkable, special"
|-
| mastô || || n. || || flute || {{BNz|mastɔra}} (final ''-xa'' reanalysed as antigenitive)
|-
| mat'oi || || pron. || || for no reason || ''mandu''
|-
| mauk || mauhat'eu || v. || C-II || protest (against); argue (with) || ''mâuk''
|-
| mauseu || || n. || || soul, spirit, essence || ''*maunta'' < ''maundi ta''
|-
| maxob || maxomog || adj. || || heavy || ''*marobm'' < ''mwarwobm''
|-
| maxolê || maxolêt'eu || v. || C-VI || reject || {{BNz|marolə}}
|-
| mbaxeu || || n. || || bark || ''mbâro'' "bark"
|-
| mbêfêleu || || n. || || raindrop || ''mber mpêlo'' "tear of rain"
|-
| mbêge || mbêgêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || sing || ''mbîbwe''
|-
| mbêgetsai || || n. || || tale, legend || ''*mbîbwetsâi'' "song" (analogous to ''lewaitsâi'' "poetry")
|-
| mbêp'oi || || cj. || || while, in between || ''mbembu'' "between"
|-
| mbiboi || mbibuxa || n. || || voice || ''mbibu'' "speaker"
|-
| mbihob || || n. || || duty, obligation || ''mbigom'' "tax, tithe"
|-
| mbiteu || mbitat'eu || v. || C-I || fan, kindle (a fire); support, keep sth. going || {{Gez|mibiːtha-}} (C)
|-
| mbits || || n. || || heron (bird) || ''mbits''
|-
| mbod || mbeuda || n. || || color; mood || ''mbod''
|-
| mboi || mbaig || adj.dem || || left (direction) || ''mbai'' "leftward"
|-
| mbop || mbeupa || n. || || music || ''mbop''
|-
| mbosoi || || n. || || seed || ''mbontai''
|-
| mbugeu || || adv. || || yesterday || ''mbubwa'' "recently"
|-
| mbuspoi || mbuspuxa || n. || || bedding || ''mbusmu'' "belly; soft part of an animal"
|-
| mbuspuloi || || n. || || bed || ''mbusmulau''
|-
| mbuxeu || mbuxat'eu || v. || C-I || decide, choose || ''mbura''
|-
| mê || mêt'eu || v.intr || C-VI || walk || ''mê'' "journey"
|-
| meboi || mebuxa || n. || || merchant || {{Ad|mebu}}
|-
| mêgagoi || || n. || || general, military commander || ''mebwe angài'' "father of war" (influenced by ''mêgeu'')
|-
| mege || || n. || || father || ''mebwe''
|-
| mêgeu || mêgag || adj. || || mighty; intimidating; strong (alcohol) || ''mingwa'' "powerful"
|-
| meheu || mehixa || n. || || table || ''maki''
|-
| mehod || meheuda || n. || || bronze || {{Gez|makhad}} (W)
|-
| mekot || mekeuta || n. || || brother; cousin; something similar to something else || ''merkàt''
|-
| mêkseu || mêksêt'eu || v. || C-III || loot, plunder || {{PHab|*me:qise}} "look"
|-
| meled || melênat'eu || v. || C-II (n) || hold, contain, confine, limit || ''meledn'' "include"
|-
| mêleu || mêlêt'eu || v. || C-III || read || ''mêli''
|-
| mese || mesêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || meet || ''mese''
|-
| met || || n. || || woman || {{Me|met}}
|-
| mêt'a || || cj.gap || || or || ''*mindâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| Mêt'oi || || top. || || the city of Miədu || ''[Mos] Mindu''
|-
| meuge || meugêt'eu || v.erg || C-VI (ê) || crumble, break down || ''mabwe'' "unstable"
|-
| meulad || meuladat'eu || v.erg || C-II || notice, find, discover || ''molan'' "awake, alert" (adj.)
|-
| meulêdeu || meulêdat'eu || v. || C-I || consider, take into account || ''molina'' "not be blind to"
|-
| meuloi || || pron. || || nowhere || ''malau'' "no place"
|-
| meutsoi || || pron. || || never || ''matsau''
|-
| mi || || qu. || || no; none of || ''mi''
|-
| mi || || cj. || || or || ''mi''
|-
| miheu || mihat'eu || v. || C-I || trust || ''miga''
|-
| mihoi || mihait'eu || v. || C-V || be delighted (intr.), thank (tr.) || ''midgai''
|-
| mik || miha || n. || || bread || ''mik''
|-
| mikispeu || || n. || || dough || ''mikwisma''
|-
| mina || || n. || || old whore; harridan || {{Ad|mina}} "mother"
|-
| mip || || adv. || || no || ''mip'' "no way"
|-
| miskeu || miskêt'eu || v. || C-III || blame, accuse || ''miskwi''
|-
| mixets || || pron. || || in no way || ''mi etsn'' "no method"
|-
| mixud || || pron. || || nobody || ''mi rud'' "no man"
|-
| mixuhuboi || mixuhubuxa || n. || || adventurer; rogue || ''miukurbu'' "one who tries"
|-
| mob || mama || n. || || mouth || ''mabm''
|-
| mob || meubog || adj. || || stupid || ''mab'' "blunt"
|-
| mobloi || || n. || || beak || ''mabm lai'' "bird mouth"
|-
| moboi || mobuxa || n. || || shadow || ''morbu'' "dark one"
|-
| mod || manog || adj. || || sudden || ''madn''
|-
| mofoi || mofuxa || n. || || river ford || ''mompu'' "not deep"
|-
| Mofutêseu || || top. || || a city || ''mompu tento'' "wide ford"
|-
| moiboi || moibait'eu || v.erg || C-V || sleep || ''maubai'' "not active"
|-
| moisa || moisat'eu || v.intr || C-VI || retreat, recede || {{BNz|mɔysa}}
|-
| mok'oi || || n. || || worm || ''mombwai''
|-
| moldoi || || pp. || || in front of || ''ob moldau'' "at front"
|-
| mos || meusa || n. || || city, esp. a Ndok city-state || ''mos''
|-
| môsô || || n. || || harbor || {{Fá|mosou}}
|-
| Môsp'euseu || || top. || || the city of Momuva'e || ''Mos Mumbàsi''
|-
| mostoi || môstut'eu || v.intr || C-IV || run or fly very rapidly || ''mastu'' "whistle"
|-
| mot || ''(irr.; see grammar)'' || v.aux || C-II (eu) || be (copula) || ''matn'' "know"
|-
| mot'oi || mot'uxa || n. || || event, instance, iteration || ''mondu'' "count"
|-
| mot'uboi || mot'ubuxa || n. || || minister (of state), magistrate, government official || ''mondubu'' "accountant"
|-
| môxáugubê || môxáugubêg || adj. || || ponderous; absurdly serious || {{Fá|mwáogube}}
|-
| moxe || moxêg || adj. || || dark (of lighting) || ''more''
|-
| mpaga || || cj.gap || || because || ''*mpawâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| mpaxêb || || n. || || notch, indentation, gouge || ''mparim'' "furrow"
|-
| mpe || mpêt'eu || v.intr || C-VI (ê) || sit || ''mpe''
|-
| mpêleu || || n. || || rain || ''mpêlo''
|-
| mpep || || n. || || breast || ''mpepm''
|-
| mpeu || mpag || adj.dem || || that || ''mpag'' "far" (final ''-g'' reanalysed as {{sc|acc}} ending)
|-
| mpisoi || mpisuxa || n. || || spider || ''mpisu''
|-
| mpitoi || || n. || || plot, conspiracy || ''mpitau'' "private"
|-
| mpob || mpoma || n. || || plum || ''mpom''
|-
| mpoi || || cj. || || because || ''mpau''
|-
| mpoifô || mpoifot'eu || v. || C-VI || make possible by providing resources; finance (a project) || {{BNz|mpɔyfɔ}} "allow, permit"
|-
| mpóisôxeu || || n. || || fish || ''mpaiswa''
|-
| mpôskeuleu || mpôskeulêt'eu || v. || C-III || preach, proselytise; admonish || ''mpaskali'' "assert, declare"
|-
| mpunêb || || n. || || heathen || ''mpurnim''
|-
| mudok || mudeuha || n. || || dream || ''murdak''
|-
| mugoi || muguxa || n. || || owl || ''mungwu''
|-
| mula || || n. || || ice || ''mulâ''
|-
| muloi || || n. || || north || ''Mulau'' "the northern mountains"
|-
| musidutê || || n. || || philosophy; ideology || {{Fá|mušidutə}}
|-
| mutê || || n. || || invasion, assault || {{PHab|*mute}} "shoot, launch, throw"
|-
| nabageu || nabagêg || adj. || || brown, grey || ''namowi'' "brown"
|-
| nabagihêseu || || n. || || autumn || ''[lu] namowikintsa'' "the browning"
|-
| nabloi || || pron. || || somewhere || ''namlau''
|-
| nagô || || n. || || bear || {{Fá|nagu}}
|-
| nak || naha || n. || || field || ''nâk''
|-
| nalungoi || nalungut'eu || v.intr || C-IV || be in formation (of soldiers) || {{Fá|naluŋuh}} "organise; arrange"
|-
| naneu || nanot'eu || v. || C-I (o) || cut || ''narno''
|-
| nap'e || || pron. || || something || ''nambe''
|-
| nap'oi || || pron. || || someday; sometimes || ''nambau''
|-
| naskak || naskaha || n. || || pain; wound, injury || {{Tl|nāsqak}}
|-
| naxas || || n. || || turtle, tortoise ||
|-
| ndaud || ndaunog || adj. || || clean || ''ndaun'' "pure"
|-
| ndauk'oi || || n. || || religious orthodoxy, faith, conservatism || ''ndaun gau'' "the pure way"
|-
| ndausêhêd || ndausêhêdat'eu || v.intr || C-II || supplicate, do penance (religious) || ''ndaun ta'' + ''-kin'': "purify oneself"
|-
| nde || ndêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || cause || ''nde'' "touch"
|-
| ndêbuteu || ndêbutat'eu || v. || C-I || forgive, pardon || ''ndimu ta'' "mercy-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| ndêgoiteu || ndêgoitat'eu || v. || C-I || protect, safeguard || ''ndêwu ta''
|-
| ndênab || ndênabat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} ndênap'e || v.erg || C-II || live; reign (specifying duration) || ''ndenam''
|-
| ndepes || ndepesat'eu || v. || C-II || gather (esp. fruit from trees, bushes) || ''ndepes''
|-
| ndesonô || || n. || || renegade; waverer || {{BNz|nzesoño}} "change one's mind"
|-
| ndeulid || ndeulêna || n. || || enthusiasm; vigor || ''ndalidn'' "energy"
|-
| ndeuloi || || pron. || || there || ''ndo olau'' "{{sc|top}} place"
|-
| ndeupeu || ndeupêg || adj. || || wise || ''ndapi'' "smart"
|-
| ndeutsoi || || pron. || || then || (by analogy)
|-
| ndit || || n. || || wrist || ''nditn''
|-
| nditol || nditeula || n. || || lamp, torch || ''nditol''
|-
| ndog || || qu. || || a pair of; two out of || ''ndog'' (dual discourse-referential article)
|-
| ndoi || || n. || || tree || ''ndai''
|-
| Ndok || || ethn. || || the Ndok people || ''Ndak''
|-
| Ndokseu || || n. || || the pagan Ndok religion || ''Ndak Ta''
|-
| ndoneu || || n. || || success, prosperity, revenue, assets || {{BNz|nzɔñu}} "advantage"
|-
| ndoxud || || pron. || || that person || ''ndo rud'' "{{sc|top}} man"
|-
| ndub || || n. || || plot of land, estate, territory || ''ndum'' "fence"
|-
| ndugeu || || pron. || || why || ''nduwa''
|-
| Nduk'ot || || top. || || a city || ''ndum gatn'' "wooden fence"
|-
| ndulob || ndulamat'eu || v. || C-II (m) || plan, intend || ''ndulabm'' "arrange"
|-
| nêd || || cj. || || if/then, therefore || ''nin''
|-
| neheu || || n. || || god || ''naka''
|-
| nelgad || nelgadat'eu || v. || C-II || change, turn, move around || ''nelgan'' "twist"
|-
| nêpsod || nêpseuda || n. || || nomad, barbarian, steppe-dweller || ''nimsad''
|-
| nêp'eu || nêp'ixa || n. || || thought, idea, intention, purpose || ''nembi'' "mean, intend"
|-
| nêt'a || || cj.gap || || if/then || ''nindâ''
|-
| netroi || || n. || || wife || ''netrai''
|-
| neubau || neubaug || adj. || || certain; reliable || ''nabâu'' "predictable"
|-
| neulox || || n. || || workhorse || ''*neulaxox'' < ''nalaròr''
|-
| neuluk || neuluhat'eu || v. || C-II || arrange, sort, structure || ''nalunguk'' "organise"
|-
| neupe || neupêg || adj. || || red || ''napê''
|-
| nga || || qu. || || a few; some of || ''ngwa''
|-
| nga- || || (prefix) || || (augmentative prefix) || ''ngâ'' "adult, mature"
|-
| Ngadagoi || || n. || || the moon god || ''ngâ dauwai'' "Big White"
|-
| ngade || || n. || || neck; bridge || ''ngane''
|-
| Ngafoix || || top. || || a city || ''*ngampài'' < ''ngane pai'' "large bridge"
|-
| ngagôstad || || n. || || leather; (light) armor || ''ngwau asnàn'' "dry skin"
|-
| ngagud || ngagunat'eu || v. || C-II (n) || sneeze || ''ngwargudn''
|-
| ngahêboi || ngahêbait'eu || v. || C-V || connect, combine, assemble || ''ngane kîbai'' "tie a connection"
|-
| ngai || ngait'eu || v. || C-VI || reckon; guess || ''ngwâi'' "think"
|-
| Ngahêxôldod || || top. || || the city Akelodo || (aug. prefix ''nga''- + ''Ngkeladadn'')
|-
| ngatsaug || ngatsauha || n. || || moat || ''ngane saungwe'' "water-neck"
|-
| ngatseu || ngatsixa || n. || || tool || ''ngwartsi''
|-
| ngatsima || || num. || || thousand || (aug. prefix ''nga''- + ''tsima'' "hundred")
|-
| ngauhoi || || n. || || shell; shield || ''ngwau ngkai'' "egg-skin"
|-
| ngaxunok || ngaxuneuha || n. || || high priest of a city || (aug. prefix ''nga-'' + ''runok'')
|-
| ngêbot || ngêbeutat'eu || v. || C-II (eu) || remember || ''ngwimatn'' "should know"
|-
| ngêdod || ngêdonat'eu || v. || C-II (n) || have a bad reputation, be unwelcome || ''ngwinon'' "should leave"
|-
| ngekeu || || n. || || jewel, gemstone || ''*ngerko'' < {{Gez|ŋerko}} (K)
|-
| ngeksis || || n. || || slave; prisoner || ''ngaktìs''
|-
| ngêp'eu || || n. || || growth; protuberance || ''ngemba'' "toe"
|-
| ngêp'eu || ngêp'at'eu || v.intr || C-I || grow, swell || (verbalization of "growth")
|-
| ngêp'oi || ngêp'ug || adj. || || sharp, pointed || ''ngimbu''
|-
| ngeulai || ngeulaig || adj. || || full || ''ngwolâi''
|-
| ngeulai || ngeulait'eu || v.erg || C-VI || get filled || ''ngwolâi''
|-
| nggab || || n. || || carpet || ''nggam'' "mat"
|-
| nggage || nggagêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || strike || ''mbwawe'' "push"
|-
| nggageu || nggagêt'eu || v. || C-III || put, place; push || ''nggawi'' (with interference from ''nggage'')
|-
| nggaihade || || n. || || ladder; staircase || ''nggai ngane'' "upwards-connecting thing"
|-
| nggaixit || || cj. || || until || ''nggairit''
|-
| nggexoi || || n. || || cabbage || ''nggerau''
|-
| nggoi || nggaig || adj.dem || || upper; back || ''nggai'' "upward"
|-
| nggoiloi || || n. || || sky || ''nggailau'' "upward-place"
|-
| nggol || nggeula || n. || || foot || ''nggol''
|-
| nggudeg || nggudaiha || n. || || butterfly || ''ngguneg''
|-
| ngguheuboi || ngguheubuxa || n. || || traitor || ''nggukobu'' "liar"
|-
| ngi || || num. || || two || ''ngi''
|-
| ngiboi || ngibuxa || n. || || twin; lookalike; copy; model || ''ngibu'' "two-{{sc|person}}"
|-
| ngigatats || || n. || || bireme || {{Fá|ŋigatač}}
|-
| Ngkadeu || || top. || || the world; Akana || ''Ngkana''
|-
| ngkaifoig || ngkaifauha || n. || || aftereffect || ''ngkwaimpaugng'' "vomit"
|-
| ngkeha || || n. || || brine; undrinkable water || ''nukwàkâ'' "slime, mucus"
|-
| ngket || ngketat'eu || v.intr || C-II || wilt; wither || ''ngket''
|-
| ngkeupeu || || n. || || cart, wagon || ''ngkopa''
|-
| ngkilbeu || || n. || || plough || ''ngkilba''
|-
| ngkoi || || n. || || egg || ''ngkai''
|-
| ngkomoi || ngkomuxa || n. || || saw || ''ngkormu''
|-
| ngkup || || n. || || nut || ''ngkup''
|-
| ngod || ngeuda || n. || || fork || ''ngod''
|-
| ngog || || cj. || || although, despite || ''ngwogng'' "backward"
|-
| ngok'a || || cj.gap || || although, despite || ''*ngwonggâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| ngol || || adv. || || even, indeed || ''ngal'' "very"
|-
| ngu || || cj. || || as, when || ''ngu''
|-
| ngufeu || || n. || || cat ||
|-
| ngugoi || || adv. || || thus, as follows || ''ngu wai''
|-
| nibixê || || n. || || ambition || {{BNz|nivíyə}} "be ambitious"
|-
| nigeu || nigixa || n. || || rice || {{BNz|nigiwo}}
|-
| nigloi || niglug || adj. || || weak, faint, helpless || {{Miw|nīglu}} "feeble"
|-
| nil || || num. || || nine || ''nil''
|-
| nilê || nilêt'eu || v. || C-VI || estimate, value || {{BNz|nilə}}
|-
| nilik || nilihog || adj. || || honest, frank, authentic, genuine || {{Tl|nilīk’}}
|-
| nixeutêb || || n. || || waterclock || ''niàtem''
|-
| nod || nodat'eu || v.intr || C-II || go || ''non'' [initial /n/ does not mutate; the word thus behaves as if < ''*-nnôd-'']
|-
| nôhala || || n. || || goods; cargo || {{BNz|noxala}}
|-
| noi || || pp. || || at, on, in || ''nai'' "in"
|-
| noilêd || noilêdat'eu || v. || C-II || assess, judge || ''nailin''
|-
| noiskoi || || adv. || || only, merely; in vain || ''naisngai'' "pointlessly"
|-
| nolô || || n. || || road || {{Fá|noulo}}
|-
| nonoiloi || nonoilut'eu || v.intr || C-IV || be in debt ({{sc|hab/impf}}); go bankrupt ({{sc|pfv}}) || {{BNz|noñuylu}} "bankruptcy"
|-
| not'e || not'êt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || reach, achieve, accomplish || ''non nde'' "go-touch"
|-
| nots || neutsat'eu || v.erg || C-II (eu) || die || ''nots''
|-
| ntaik'oi || || adv. || || disturbingly || ''nte ainggàu'' "with crookedness"
|-
| ntaug || ntauha || n. || || forest || ''ntâug''
|-
| nte || || pp. || || with, by (instrumental) || ''nte''
|-
| ntêga || || n. || || penis || ''ntêwâ'' "tail"
|-
| ntêgaux || || adv. || || urgently || {{BNz|ntəgáwɛ}} "pushing"
|-
| ntetspoi || ntetspuxa || n. || || boat || ''ntetspu'' "floater"
|-
| ntêt'eu || || n. || || sword || ''ntindo'' "metal"
|-
| nteuloi || || n. || || death; funeral || ''ntalau''
|-
| ntixeu || ntixag || adj. || || good || ''ntia'' "true"
|-
| ntixol || ntixeulog || adj. || || same || ''ntial''
|-
| ntonad || ntonadat'eu || v. || C-II || watch, check, examine || {{BNz|ntɔnadɛ}} "have a closer look at"
|-
| ntots || || pp. || || around || ''ntatsn''
|-
| ntotskeuteu || ntotskeutat'eu || v. || C-I || wrap || ''ntatsn kota'' "cover all around"
|-
| ntsad || || adv. || || very || ''ntsand'' "greatly"
|-
| ntse || || n. || || vital fluids; blood (metaphorical) || ''ntse''
|-
| ntsêloi || ntsêluxa || n. || || belt || ''ntsîlu''
|-
| ntsetêb || ntsetêbat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} ntsetêp'e || v. || C-II || discuss, negotiate || ''ntsertim''
|-
| ntsetêbloi || || n. || || issue, topic of discussion || ''ntsertimlau''
|-
| ntseuhot || ntseuheuta || n. || || roof (of a building) || ''ntsadgot''
|-
| ntsex || || adv. || || (emphatic, cf. "bloody" but may have positive force) || ''ntse'' "blood"
|-
| ntsexelseu || ntsexelsêt'eu || v.erg || C-III || have a fever || ''ntse relsi'' "hot blood"
|-
| ntsihad || || n. || || chicken || ''ntsigan''
|-
| ntsod || ntseuda || n. || || straw, hay || ''ntsad''
|-
| ntsofeu || || n. || || platform, terrace, porch (in front of a building) || ''ntsompa'' "stairs"
|-
| ntsuxeu || || n. || || needle || ''ntsuro''
|-
| ntuk || ntuha || n. || || pen, writing brush || ''ntuk'' "stem, stalk; shaft; stylus"
|-
| ntupseu || ntupsat'eu || v. || C-I || rest || ''ntupa ta'' "become peaceful"
|-
| nubeheu || nubehêg || adj. || || proud || ''numagi'' "boast"
|-
| nuhots || nuheutsat'eu || v. || C-II (eu) || trade || ''nugats''
|-
| numoi || numuxa || n. || || tip (of a spear or arrow) || ''*nurmu'' < ''nurimu''
|-
| nus || nusat'eu || v.intr || C-II || move back and forth; happen regularly || ''nus'' "high tide"
|-
| od || || cj. || || and || ''on''
|-
| ódôxeu || wôdôxag || adj. || || black || ''adwa'' "dark"
|-
| ofeu || wôfag || adj. || || flat || ''ompa''
|-
| oga || || cj.gap || || and || ''ongwâ''
|-
| oi || aug || adj.dem || || any || ''au'' (indefinite article)
|-
| oibeu || oibog || adj. || || faithful, righteous || ''aubo'' "easy, happy" (via "confident")
|-
| [auseu] Oigeu || || top. || || the Eigə River || ''[Aunti] Aiwa''
|-
| oigoi || || n. || || divine light; 7th day of the week || (hon. prefix ''oi''- + ''bwai'' "star")
|-
| Oigop'oibauxeu || || top. || || the city of Bwimbai/Ziphē || (hon. prefix ''oi'' + ''Gop'oi'' (variant of ''Gêp'oi'') + ''baura'' "great")
|-
| oipeu || oipêt'eu || v.erg || A-III || freeze || ''aipi''
|-
| ois || || qu. || || many, more, an exceptionally large number of || ''ais''
|-
| oisaxud || || n. || || human sacrifice || ''ausa'' "sacrifice" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| oiseuloi || || n. || || temple || ''ausalau'' "altar"
|-
| oispeu || oispêg || adj. || || green || ''auspi''
|-
| oispihêseu || || n. || || spring (season) || ''[lu] auspikintsa'' "the greening"
|-
| oit || oitat'eu || v. || A-II || have, own, be equipped with || ''aitn'' "keep"
|-
| oiteu || || pp. || || compared to || ''aio ta'' "salient-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| oitsoi || || pron. || || now || ''waitsau'' (initial ''w-'' irregularly lost)
|-
| ok'eu || wôk'euxa || n. || || wealth, splendour || ''abbwa'' "bloom"
|-
| oldoi || wôldoixa || n. || || eye || ''oldau''
|-
| olgeu || wôlgog || adj. || || sweet || ''algo''
|-
| olgoi || wôlgaig || adj. || || typical, ordinary || ''alngai'' "common"
|-
| ólôxoi || || pp. || || against || ''al wau'' "without regard for"
|-
| olteu || wôltog || adj. || || new || ''olto''
|-
| ópôxeu || wôpôxixa || n. || || fruit || ''apwi''
|-
| osoi || wôsut'eu || v. || A-IV || affirm || {{BNz|osu}} "promise"
|-
| ospoi || wôspaut'eu || v. || A-V (au) || return || ''oto bau'' "come again"
|-
| pahê || || n. || || back (of the body) || {{PHab|*panke}}
|-
| paihoi || paihut'eu || v.erg || B-IV || fear, be afraid || ''paingkwu''
|-
| paikeu || paikag || adj.dem || || last, final || ''pekwa''
|-
| pat || patog || adj. || || foul; undesirable; bad || {{Ad|pat}} "bad-smelling"
|-
| patsuna || || n. || || mathematics || {{Fá|pačuna}} "count; reckon"
|-
| pasoi || pasuxa || n. || || bundle, bunch, batch || ''pantu'' "sheaf (of grain)"
|-
| peda || pedag || adj. || || loud || {{Ad|pēda}}
|-
| pêg || pêha || n. || || mortar, glue || ''ping''
|-
| pes || || n. || || cup, bowl || ''pes''
|-
| pêseu || || adv. || || damn || ''penta'' "fuck up"
|-
| peupoi || peuput'eu || v. || B-IV || dance || ''popu''
|-
| peupoi || peupaut'eu || v. || B-V (au) || identify || ''papau'' "name"
|-
| peupos || peupeusa || n. || || wall (fortification) || ''*peupapos < pap âk mos'' "shield of the city"
|-
| pexos || pexeusa || n. || || hero || ''peras'' "brave"
|-
| pige || pigêt'eu || v. || B-VI (ê) || rush, hurry || ''piwel'' "early" (stative verbalization reanalysed as passive)
|-
| piloi || pilait'eu || v. || B-V || send || ''pilai''
|-
| pip || pipog || adj. || || correct; proper || ''pipm'' "useful"
|-
| pispeu || pispêt'eu || v. || B-III || hurt, injure || {{Tl|pisfi}}
|-
| pitsau || || n. || || wool || ''pitsâu''
|-
| poi || paig || adj. || || big, large || ''pai''
|-
| p'okeu || || pp. || || behind, beyond || ''ob bongga'' "at back"
|-
| poldeu || pôldeuxa || n. || || valley || ''palda''
|-
| polp'eu || pôlp'ixa || n. || || mystery; (pl.) religious truth; 1st day of the week || ''palmambi'' "secret"
|-
| pop || peupa || n. || || man || ''pop'' "shield" (via "infantry soldier")
|-
| pôpsod || pôpsanat'eu || v.intr || B-II (n) || hiccup; hesitate || ''papsadn''
|-
| pôspud || pôspudat'eu || v. || B-II || leave, go away || ''posmun'' "flee"
|-
| posteu || pôstot'eu || v. || B-I (o) || be irritable || ''pasto'' "attack; pick a fight"
|-
| pugeu || || n. || || nose || ''pungwa''
|-
| puma || || n. || || smoke || ''pumâ''
|-
| rafêd || || cj. || || instead || ''rampen''
|-
| rafêt'a || || cj.gap || || instead || ''*rampendâ'' (by analogy)
|-
| rafeu || rafag || adj. || || abundant, rich, luxurious, prosperous || ''rampa''
|-
| rafêhêseu || || n. || || summer || ''[lu] rampakintsa'' "the lush season"
|-
| ragaxud || || n. || || veteran; experienced person || ''râwa rud'' "mature man"
|-
| rageb || ragêmog || adj. || || awkward; unskilled; unsuitable; defunct || ''rawebm'' "incompetently"
|-
| rageu || ragat'eu || v. || C-I || play (music), perform (theatre) || ''rowa''
|-
| raidoi || raidait'eu || v. || C-V || enjoy || ''râidai'' "be hooked on"
|-
| ramê || || n. || || confusion || {{BNz|ramɛ}} "confuse, mix up"
|-
| raniza || ranizat'eu || v. || C-VI || be insane || {{Ad|rāniza}}
|-
| rap'e || || cj. || || during || ''rambe''
|-
| raseu || rasot'eu || v. || C-I (o) || obey, take orders || ''ranto'' "hear"
|-
| rat'ex || || n. || || jar || ''rander''
|-
| raug || rauha || n. || || countryside, open landscape (anything that's neither human settlement, forest, or mountains) || ''raung''
|-
| rêbox || || n. || || earthquake || ''remor''
|-
| rêfe || || n. || || trunk (of a tree) || ''rimpe'' "tree stump"
|-
| rehôldak || rehôldahat'eu || v. || C-II || sow || ''ragol nâk'' "fill the field"
|-
| rêlek || rêlaihat'eu || v. || C-II || ride || ''*rêlek'' < {{Gez|rêːleko-}} (K)
|-
| resteu || restêt'eu || v. || C-III || buy, acquire || {{BNz|resti}} "choose"
|-
| retsêd || || pp. || || like, similar to || ''retsen'' "characteristically act like sth."
|-
| reu || || num. || || ten || ''ro''
|-
| rig || || pp. || || through, via, across || ''rigng''
|-
| ristêd || ristênat'eu || v.intr || C-II (n) || have bad luck, have circumstances conspire against you, be thwarted || ''risten'' "lose regularly"
|-
| ritsod || ritsana || n. || || loom || ''ritsadn''
|-
| rixab || rixabat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} rixap'e || v. || C-II || learn, study || ''riam''
|-
| rob || roma || n. || || feather || ''robm''
|-
| robeu || {{sc|acc}} roba || cj. || || that, which (relativiser) || ''roma''
|-
| roi || {{sc|acc}} rai || cj. || || that (complementiser) || ''rai''
|-
| roifô || || n. || || freak, outsider, weirdo || {{BNz|ruyfɔ}} "peculiar"
|-
| roileu || roilat'eu || v. || C-I || adore, be impressed by || ''raula'' "love"
|-
| roits || || cj. || || (adverbial subordinator) || ''raits''
|-
| rote || rotêt'eu || v. || C-VI (ê) || flee, escape || ''rorte'' "be on the run"
|-
| roxop || roxeupa || n. || || coast; land by the sea || ''rorop'' "peninsula"
|-
| roza || || n. || || public discourse || {{Ad|roza}}
|-
| ru || || pp. || || as (essive) || ''ru'' ({{sc|hab.cop}})
|-
| rud || || n. || || human being || ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rugai || rugaig || adj. || || intelligent || ''rungwâi'' "think regularly"
|-
| rugêb || rugêbat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} rugêp'e || v.intr || C-II || stay, dwell, be located (+ pp.) || ''ruwim'' "live regularly"
|-
| rugeu || rugat'eu || v. || C-I || be gullible, be naïve || ''rugua''
|-
| rugeuteu || rugeutat'eu || v.erg || C-I || be lazy; procrastinate || ''rungata''
|-
| ruheu || ruhat'eu || v.intr || C-I || get by, survive || ''*ruhosteu < rungkasta'' "always make it through" (reanalysed as {{sc|impf.sg}})
|-
| ruhuk || ruhukat'eu || v. || C-II || be reckless, be impatient, behave riskily || ''rukuk'' "always be in a hurry"
|-
| rulbeu || || n. || || thief || ''rulmo''
|-
| runok || runeuha || n. || || high-ranking cleric || ''runnak''
|-
| sabrêdeu || sabrêdixa || n. || || rival, competitor (esp. in business) || {{BNz|savrɛdi}} "feud, rivalry"
|-
| Sagibleu || || top. || || ancient name for Huyfárah; metaphorically, decadence || ''Sau Ibli''
|-
| saifeu || saifog || adj. || || only, exclusive, unique || ''saimpo'' "alone"
|-
| saigol || saiglog || adj. || || blue || ''sai ngal'' "very blue"
|-
| saldêneu || saldênag || adj. || || public; official || ''*sâlnena'' < ''sanlena''
|-
| saseu || sasag || adj. || || rightful; traditional || ''santa'' "legal"
|-
| sat'uhop || sat'uheupat'eu || v. || B-II (eu) || claim for oneself; occupy || {{Gez|saːndugoːpe-}} "settle down at" (C)
|-
| sax || || n. || || sister || {{Me|sar}}
|-
| Saxehêd || || ethn. || || the Isthmus peoples || ''saragin'' "Faraghin"
|-
| sanô || || n. || || village || {{Me|sanu}}
|-
| sapob || sapamat'eu || v. || B-II (m) || start, begin || ''sâpabm'' "lift"
|-
| sasa || || n. || || tube; pipe; snout || ''sarsâ''
|-
| sasaug || sasauha || n. || || reed || ''*sarsaung'' < ''sarsâ saungwe'' "water tube"
|-
| saugaihil || || n. || || beer || ''saungwe kil'' "barley water"
|-
| sauk'e || || n. || || blood || ''saungwe'' "water" (via some poetic phrase or euphemism)
|-
| Saukseuleu || || top. || || a lake and river at the northeastern fringes of Lasomo || ''saungwe tali'' "Tali water"
|-
| se || || n. || || snow || ''oise'' < ''ause'' (''oi-'' dropped due to confusion with hon. prefix)
|-
| sêb || || n. || || sheep || ''sim'' "cloud"
|-
| sêb || sêbat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} sêp'e || v.erg || B-II || be lucky || ''sim'' "lucky"
|-
| sebaux || || n. || || drum || ''sebaur''
|-
| sêbêd || sêbêdat'eu || v. || B-II || deny, refuse || ''semen''
|-
| sêbêsêt'oi || sêbêsêt'uxa || n. || || monk, hermit, ascetic || ''sementindu'' "one who denies himself"
|-
| sêbloi || || n. || || line, row || ''semalau'' "queue (of people)"
|-
| sêbreu || || n. || || copper || {{Gez|zɛmraː}} (W)
|-
| sêdos || sêdeusa || n. || || bucket || {{Gez|siːnoz}} (C)
|-
| seg || saiha || n. || || hook || ''seg''
|-
| sêlatra || || n. || || lynx || {{Tl|selantla}} "wild cat"
|-
| sêp'ox || sêp'oxat'eu || v. || B-II || boil || ''simbor''
|-
| ses || || n. || || farm ||
|-
| sêtêg || sêtêhog || adj. || || different || ''sîteng''
|-
| sêtik || sêtiha || n. || || bow || {{Tl|setiek}}
|-
| setsauk || setsauha || n. || || emperor || {{Fá|serčaok}}
|-
| seu || || n. || || meat || ''sa''
|-
| seu || || pp. || || from || ''sa''
|-
| seupeu || seupêt'eu || v. || B-III || force || ''sapmi''
|-
| seupub || seupumat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} seupup'e || v. || B-II (m) || originate in; derive from || ''sapum''
|-
| sexin || || n. || || empire || {{Fá|(lu-) serin}}
|-
| sihêdeu || sihêdat'eu || v. || B-I || curse sb.; sabotage || ''sikîda'' "corrupt"
|-
| sihod || sihana || n. || || storm || ''sikadn'' "hurricane"
|-
| sixêsêd || sixêsênog || adj. || || worthy, accomplished, reputable || ''sientin'' "prove oneself"
|-
| sob || seubat'eu || v.erg || B-II (eu) || drink; swallow || ''sab''
|-
| sodêloi || || n. || || graveyard || ''sonîlau''
|-
| sodêneu || || n. || || grave; gravesite || ''*sonîna'' < ''sonîda''
|-
| sofis || sofisat'eu || v. || B-II || conquer || ''sompìs''
|-
| soisuk'oi || soisuk'uxa || n. || || left-handed person || ''saisunggu''
|-
| su || ''(irr.; see grammar)'' || v.aux || B-IV || do || ''su''
|-
| sud || || num. || || eight || ''sudn''
|-
| suneu || sunixa || n. || || apple || {{BNz|suni}}
|-
| suseu || susixa || n. || || mouse || ''susi''
|-
| t'a || || adv. || || also, as well, moreover || {{Gez|thaːr}} (C)
|-
| tab || || n. || || south || ''tam''
|-
| tableu || tablêg || adj. || || foreign || (''tab-ibleu'' "north-south")
|-
| tageu || tagot'eu || v. || B-I (o) || oppose, rebel, rise against || ''targo''
|-
| taiheu || taihêt'eu || v. || B-III || tie, fasten, attach || {{Gez|theːgi-}} (C)
|-
| taxag || taxaha || n. || || daughter || ''tarang''
|-
| taxot || taxeutog || adj. || || determined, persistent, steady, tireless, stubborn, unforgiving, vengeful || ''taròt'' "hard-working, diligent" < {{Gez|taròːt}} "courage, energy" (K)
|-
| têb || || n. || || wall (of a house) || ''tem''
|-
| têfeu || || n. || || shelf, board || ''tempa''
|-
| têhagleu || têhaglixa || n. || || brick || ''tingkàu ali'' "fire-stone"
|-
| têhê || têhêt'eu || v. || B-VI || lie, deceive || ''tingke'' "compel, coerce" (influenced by ''têheu'')
|-
| têheu || têhot'eu || v. || B-I (o) || coax, persuade || ''tengo'' "pull"
|-
| têloi || têlaig || adj. || || bright, colorful || ''têlai'' "rainbow"
|-
| Têmêgeu || || top. || || a city || ''tem mingwa'' "strong wall"
|-
| tênô || tênot'eu || v. || B-VI || be late || {{BNz|tɛnɔ}} "delay, postpone"
|-
| tep || || n. || || cheese || {{Me|tep}}
|-
| têtseu || têtsixa || n. || || arrow || {{Tl|teatsi}}
|-
| teulêb || teulêbog || adj. || || blank, polished; empty || {{Gez|taːliːm}} "bald" (C)
|-
| tilkeu || tilkag || adj. || || disgusting; rejectable || {{Miw|atilka}} "ugly"
|-
| tiskeu || || n. || || flax; linen || ''tiska''
|-
| titeu || titixa || n. || || flea || ''titi''
|-
| tixeu || tixixa || n. || || door, gate || ''tiri''
|-
| tod || tona || n. || || hand || ''ton''
|-
| tohêt || || n. || || ginger || ''ton ngket'' "withered hand"
|-
| toidoi || || adv. || || somewhat || ''taudu''
|-
| toitseu || toitsêt'eu || v. || B-III || form, shape; create || ''tautsi'' "bend"
|-
| toizô || toizôt'eu || v. || B-VI || load, charge || {{Tl|toezo}} "pack"
|-
| tol || teula || n. || || the sun (in non-religious contexts) || ''tol''
|-
| tomob || tomeuba || n. || || fist || ''ton mab'' "blunt hand"
|-
| tósôxoi || || n. || || star || ''*toswau'' < ''tol iswau'' "night-light"
|-
| tôspab || tôspamat'eu || v. || B-II (m) || denounce, betray || ''tasbam'' "imply"
|-
| tôxadoi || || n. || || protection; 8th day of the week || ''tuanau''
|-
| tôxadoi || tôxadaut'eu || v. || B-V (au) || prevent || ''tuanau''
|-
| tsafeu || tsafêt'eu || v. || B-III || give || ''tsampi''
|-
| tsaig || tsaihat'eu || v.erg || B-II || wash || ''tsaing''
|-
| tsaihêdig || tsaihêdiha || n. || || chain || ''tseginig''
|-
| tsateuna || tsateunat'eu || v. || B-VI || propose, suggest, recommend || {{Tl|tsateonna}}
|-
| tsehoi || || n. || || bee || ''tsakai''
|-
| tselog || tseloha || n. || || spear || ''tselô''
|-
| tsêneu || tsênêt'eu || v. || B-III || allay sb.'s concerns; appease || {{BNz|tsəñɛ}} "unlikely"
|-
| tses || || n. || || fire || {{Me|ches}}
|-
| tsêska || tsêskat'eu || v. || B-VI || hide, conceal, disguise || {{Far|českan}} (probably via Tl.)
|-
| tsêt'oi || || pron. || || therefore || ''tsindu''
|-
| tsêtseu || tsêtsixa || n. || || louse || ''tsêtsi''
|-
| tseubeu || tseubêt'eu || v. || B-III || rule, govern; supervise || ''tsobi'' "control"
|-
| tsig || tsihat'eu || v.intr || B-II || urinate || ''tsig''
|-
| tsihê || || pron. || || that thing || ''tsige''
|-
| tsima || || num. || || hundred || {{Me|chima}} "large quantity"
|-
| tsip || || pron. || || so, thus, that way || ''tsip''
|-
| tsis || || n. || || dog || ''tsis''
|-
| tsôbroi || tsôbrut'eu || v. || B-IV || improve, optimise || {{BNz|tsɔvruyɔ}}
|-
| tsod || tsanog || adj. || || deaf || ''tsadn''
|-
| tsôdêneu || tsôdênixa || n. || || revelation; discovery || {{BNz|tsɔd{{IPA|ə́}}ñɛ}} "amazing, stunning, compelling"
|-
| tsog || tsoha || n. || || knee; corner || ''tsong''
|-
| tsohitôxab || || n. || || elbow || ''tsong itwam'' "arm-knee"
|-
| tsohop'oi || tsohop'uxa || n. || || loser, pitiable person || ''tsodgabmbu'' "one who deserves pity"
|-
| tsoisoi || tsoisait'eu || v. || B-V || raise, lift || ''tsaisai'' "arise"
|-
| tsot'eu || || n. || || dust, dirt || ''tsondo''
|-
| tsu || || qu. || || a single one; one out of || (same source as {{Ad|-su}} singulative suffix?)
|-
| tsuts || tsog || adj.dem || ''(irr.)'' || this || ''tsuts'' "near"
|-
| tsuxeu || || adv. || || tomorrow || ''tsuri''
|-
| tu || tut'eu || v.erg || B-IV || eat || ''tu''
|-
| tuxoi || tuxuxa || n. || || shirt, tunic || ''*turu'' < {{Gez|tuːru}} (K)
|-
| ub || || pp. || || made of || ''um''
|-
| ugeu || || cj. || || after || ''uwa''
|-
| ugoi || || adv./cj. || || then (in the future), soon || ''ubwu''
|-
| uhaid || uhaidog || adj. || || polite, modest, humble, obedient, innocent || ''ukain'' "be unambitious"
|-
| uhap'eu || uhap'êt'eu || v. || A-III || declare, announce || ''ukambi''
|-
| uhêb || uhêbat'eu, {{sc|pfv.pl}} uhêp'e || v. || A-II || be sorry, regret || ''ukem'' "judge oneself harshly"
|-
| uhêk'eu || uhêk'at'eu || v. || A-I || select, choose, prefer || ''ukimbwa'' "would like to use"
|-
| uheuteu || uheutot'eu || v. || A-I (o) || bet, wager || ''ukoto'' "anticipate"
|-
| uhubai || uhubaig || adj. || || guilty || ''ukumâi'' "repentant"
|-
| ukêdoi || || n. || || plea, request; prayer || ''ukkenau'' "would like to ask"
|-
| uk'oi || uk'ug || adj. || || broken || ''unggu'' "crippled"
|-
| uk'uteu || uk'utat'eu || v. || A-I || break || ''unggu ta''
|-
| Uksaux || || top. || || the city of Ussor || ''Uksaur''
|-
| uksêd || uksêdat'eu || v. || A-II || want, wish, desire || ''uktsin'' "would like"
|-
| ulboi || ulbaig || adj. || || yellow || ''ulmài''
|-
| uleu || || n. || || rope || ''ulwo''
|-
| ulixô || || n. || || grapevine || {{Ad|ulio}} "vine"
|-
| ulok || uleuha || n. || || gift, present || {{Gez|uːlakh}} (C)
|-
| umêt'oi || umêt'ut'eu || v. || A-IV || get rid of, throw away || ''umbom-endu'' "cause to fall"
|-
| umeu || umat'eu || v. || A-I || play (games), joke || ''unma''
|-
| unô || || n. || || elder; boss (collq.) || (variant of ''unoi'')
|-
| unoi || unuxa || n. || || village priest || {{Me|unu}} "shaman"
|-
| upê || upêt'eu || v. || A-VI || punch, hit || {{PHab|*u:pe}}
|-
| upleu || uplat'eu || v. || A-II || teach || ''upla'' "explain"
|-
| upot || upeutat'eu || v. || A-II (eu) || ask, inquire || ''upmatn'' "investigate"
|-
| upot'oi || upot'ut'eu || v. || A-IV || pay attention (to detail) || ''upmondu'' "be picky about"
|-
| usiboi || usibuxa || n. || || cloud || ''untsibu'' "cloud" ("blower")
|-
| usoi || usait'eu || v. || A-V || challenge, provoke, tease || ''untai'' "joke"
|-
| uxoi || uxuxa || n. || || healing; 2nd day of the week || ''uru''
|-
| uxoi || uxut'eu || v. || A-IV || heal, cure || ''uru''
|-
| wafub || wafuma || n. || || pot, cauldron || ''wampum'' "hollow"
|-
| wagoik || wagoihog || adj. || || calm || ''wawaik''
|-
| wagoikseu || || n. || || peace || ''wawaik ta'' "calm-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| waihê || || pron. || || this thing || ''waige''
|-
| waskeu || waskêt'eu || v. || C-III || be skilled; do sth. well || ''*wâski'' < {{Gez|wâzaki-}} "have experience" (K)
|-
| wêbes || || n. || || friend || ''wimès'' "neighbor"
|-
| wêbloi || || n. || || house, home || ''wimlau''
|-
| wed || wêna || n. || || vegetable || ''wedn'' "herb"
|-
| wêdab || || n. || || scar || {{Gez|wiːnjam}} "wounded, injured" (C)
|-
| wêg || wêhog || adj. || || damp, wet || ''wing''
|-
| wênofeu || || n. || || papyrus || ''wedn ompa'' "flat herb"
|-
| wesau || || n. || || dagger || ''*wesâu'' < {{Gez|wesâu}} "sword" (K)
|-
| wetsap'oi || wetsap'uxa || n. || || fool, idiot || ''wedusambu'' "one who will regret"
|-
| widilboi || widilbuxa || n. || || coat, robe || ''wirdelbu'' "wear-thing"
|-
| wisoi || wisait'eu || v. || C-V || speak || ''wisai'' "yell; cry out"
|-
| wispeu || || n. || || mud; filth || ''wisma''
|-
| wôblauteu || wôblautat'eu || v. || A-I || finish, complete, conclude || ''malâwe ta'' "successful-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| wôbuleu || wôbulat'eu || v. || A-I || talk, chat, gossip || ''omula''
|-
| wofeu || wôfot'eu || v. || C-I (o) || think || ''wompo'' "remember"
|-
| wôgil || wôgilat'eu || v. || A-II || be worried, be stressed, be under pressure || ''orngil'' "be squeezed"
|-
| wôhob || wôhama, {{sc|pl}} o-ohob || n. || || misery || ''odgabm'' "suffer"
|-
| woilul || || pron. || || here (near me) || ''wailul''
|-
| woixud || || pron. || || this person (near me) || ''wai rud'' "this man"
|-
| wôkrêbeu || {{sc|pl}} o-ôkrêbeu || n. || || candle || ''akremo'' "wax"
|-
| wôldixeu || wôldixat'eu || v.intr || A-I || fly || ''alnia''
|-
| wôldos || {{sc|pl}} o-ôldos || n. || || warrior, soldier || ''oldas''
|-
| wôltsêheu || {{sc|pl}} o-ôltsêheu || n. || || province, local kingdom || ''lats tsingki'' "separate land"
|-
| wômod || wômeudat'eu, {{sc|mid.npst.sg}} wômôskêd || v. || A-II (eu/s) || travel || ''abmod'' "walk"
|-
| wôprid || wôprênat'eu || v.erg || A-II (n) || be shocked, be upset || ''apridn'' "be horrified"
|-
| wôpsiteu || wôpsitat'eu || v. || A-I || braid, plait || {{Gez|paːzitha-}} (C)
|-
| wos || || num. || || three || ''wos''
|-
| wôskatats || || n. || || trireme || {{Fá|wozgatač}}
|-
| wôskêg || wôskêhat'eu || v. || A-II || aim for, approach, go towards || ''oto keng'' "come-walk"
|-
| wôspeu || || adv. || || lately, already || ''osma'' "recent"
|-
| wôspok || wôspeuha, {{sc|pl}} o-ôspok|| n. || || royal garb and paraphernalia || ''ospàk'' "throne"
|-
| wot || weuta || n. || || period; era || ''wat'' "age"
|-
| wôt'iseu || wôt'isêg || adj. || || smart, clever, intelligent || ''ondisi'' "expert"
|-
| wôt'iseu || wôt'isêt'eu || v. || A-III || be able, be competent, know how to do sth. || ''ondisi'' "expert"
|-
| wots || weutsa || n. || || deer, stag || ''wots''
|-
| wôtskêp'eu || wôtskêp'at'eu || v. || A-I || kick || ''tsong on ngemba'' "knee and toe"
|-
| wôtspixaid || wôtspixaidat'eu || v. || A-II || succeed || ''tsopirain'' "obviously have planned"
|-
| wuhoi || wuhut'eu || v. || C-IV || specify; point to || ''wuku'' "blame"
|-
| zan || || n. || || wine || {{Ad|zān}}
|-
| zat'an || || n. || || pig || {{Ad|zathan}}
|-
| zaxeu || zaxêt'eu || v. || B-III || surprise, startle, catch sb. off guard || {{Me|zaryi}} "cause to move swiftly"
|-
| zikoi || zikug || adj. || || fried, roasted (of food) || {{Fá|jiəku}} "hard"
|-
| zil || || n. || || warlord (of nomadic barbarians) || {{Me|jil}} "chief, ruler"
|-
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Namɨdu/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:33:46Z

Cedh: +3

==Lexicon of Namɨdu==

'''See also:'''
* [[Namɨdu|Namɨdu grammar]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* WF = [[Woltu Falla]]
* Æð. = [[Æðadĕ]]
* B.Nz. = [[Buruya Nzaysa]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* unmarked = [[Fáralo]]

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! '''Namɨdu Word'''
! '''Definition'''
! '''Etymon'''
|-
| aba
| mason; metalworker
| ''aoba''
|-
| akodag
| a sweet wine from [[Lasomo]]
| from the city of ''Akôdaig''
|-
| alo
| swamp
| ''aə'' "swamp" + ''-lo''
|-
| ała
| flower
| ''alóu''
|-
| Andok
| of the Ndok people
| ''əndók'' < {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| Andokasa
| the Ndok Aisô language
| ''əndokáisə'' < {{NAis|Ndok Aisô}}
|-
| alegdu
| constitution; contract
| ''alégadu''
|-
| anyen
| dry
| ''anǽn''
|-
| areł
| politics
| back-formation from ''arełbu''
|-
| arełbu
| politician
| ''arélibu'' "dissident"
|-
| asezzuł [pl. ''asezlek'']
| conquer
| ''as ezul'' "utterly take"
|-
| awobbo
| unhappy
| ''avávo'' "poor"
|-
| aya
| anxiety
| ''aogə'' "uncertainty"
|-
| Azbyebbu
| a city
| ''As Bǽbu'' "many anchors"
|-
| azin
| sophisticated
| {{Aedh|āz}} "city dweller" + ''-in''
|-
| babde
| uncle (father's older brother)
| ''baobadew''
|-
| badał
| statue
| from dim. of ''Baodan'', a 4th c. emperor
|-
| balɨ
| fifth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''baoluy''
|-
| Banoggo
| a city
| ''Barnágo''
|-
| bes
| first day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''bewš''
|-
| bible
| to massage
| {{Ndd|bivle}} "to touch gently"
|-
| biddzi
| leg
| *''biji'' < {{Ndd|bizri}}
|-
| bissa
| practical knowledge; to teach it
| ''bista'' < {{Aedh|biþta}} "to educate"
|-
| bɨda
| to be convinced; to take advice
| ''buədə'' "to listen"
|-
| bɨdaso
| to persuade; persuasion
| "cause to be convinced"
|-
| boddał
| grape
| {{Ndd|badal}} "berry"
|-
| bodde
| father
| ''badew''
|-
| bomma
| wheat; wheat flour
| ''bomə''
|-
| bop [stem ''-ebop'']
| chant (n.)
| ''ebóp'' "music"
|-
| borda
| to buy
| {{Ndd|bårëda}} "to acquire"
|-
| borɨ
| to appoint
| ''baruy''
|-
| bos
| calm; content
| ''bas''
|-
| bosse
| large branch; spine
| ''baše''
|-
| boÿon
| landlord
| {{Ndd|båwayån}} "lord"
|-
| bu
| four
| ''bu''
|-
| bura
| to decide; pick; vote
| ''ebúrə''
|-
| but
| near
| ''but''
|-
| bwes
| ox
| ''bous''
|-
| bwettsa
| daughter
| ''boéča''
|-
| Bwɨba
| [[Bwimbai]] (river); [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] (esp. in historical contexts)
| ''Boíəba''
|-
| bwogge
| to stir; mix
| ''boáge'' "push; impel"
|-
| byenna
| to ask
| ''bæna'' "to beg"
|-
| byenyoło
| non-Etúgə temple
| ''bænéilo''
|-
| byopsa
| vagina (somewhat impolite); all-purpose insult
| ''beibulsa''
|-
| byottsa
| leg (metaphorical); branch of a river
| ''beiča''
|-
| bÿa
| star
| ''boéi''
|-
| bÿonte
| astronomy
| ''boéimate''
|-
| bÿoya
| declination (of a star); latitude
| ''boéiægə''
|-
| bÿossi
| chaos
| ''boéisti'' "orgy"
|-
| dadan [pl. ''dadnak'']
| to dance
| ''daodan''
|-
| darud
| man (somewhat formal)
| ''dau'' "male" + ''rud'' "man"
|-
| deło
| stage; porch; broad staircase
| ''edélo'' "theater; stage"
|-
| debło
| autumn; fall
| ''edébelo''
|-
| demu
| to hunt
| ''dewmuh''
|-
| deññeł
| finger
| {{Ndd|dëñe}} + -''l''
|-
| dettsin
| ink
| (from the name of a flower)
|-
| didda
| improbable
| ''dida'' "possible"
|-
| dizza
| stuff; pieces
| {{Ndd|diza-diza}}
|-
| dɨbo
| lard
| ''diəbo'' "fat, oil"
|-
| dɨlo
| secret; hidden thing
| back-formation from ''nadɨlo'' "hidden"
|-
| dobba
| white
| ''daba''
|-
| dobzyet
| silver
| ''daba'' "white" + ''syet'' "gold"
|-
| doggɨ
| to be in charge; command; host
| ''daguy'' "host"
|-
| Dok
| foreigner, but esp. the peoples of Kasca; (collq.) poor schmuck
| ''Edák''; but felt as the second element of ''Andok'', ''Doydok''
|-
| dorats
| lunch; dinner (large midday meal)
| ''dorač''
|-
| dos
| to pursue; sneak attack
| ''das'' "fight"
|-
| Doya
| Ndak paganism
| {{Ndd|Dï'aya}}
|-
| Doydok
| the Dāiadak people (archaic)
| ''dayadok''
|-
| dukkas
| teacher
| ''dukəs''
|-
| dumbi
| stray animal
| {{Aedh|dūmvi}} "homeless; stray"
|-
| dwa
| five
| ''dou''
|-
| dwemma
| glass
| ''doumah''
|-
| dya
| thumb
| ''deiŋ'' "finger"
|-
| dye
| hill
| ''dæŋ'' "mountain"
|-
| Dyeññał
| a hill and district in Mɨdu
| ''dæŋəl'' "little hill"
|-
| dyempɨ
| goat
| ''dæŋ pir'' "mountain-goat"
|-
| dyok
| haunted
| back-formation from ''dyokło''
|-
| dyokło
| haunted area
| ''deiklo''
|-
| dyonne
| facility; skill
| ''deine'' "smarts; cunning"
|-
| dyop
| punk, insolent youngster
| ''deip'' "young (of an animal)"
|-
| dzappa
| insult
| ''jeipə''
|-
| dzeddze
| that one; that person
| ''jæje''
|-
| dzegga
| belligerent
| ''jægə'' "wrathful"
|-
| dzen
| knife
| ''jæn''
|-
| dzes
| maybe
| ''ješ'' "probably"
|-
| dzibbe
| evil
| ''jibe'' "bad"
|-
| dzibbɨs
| to wheeze
| ''jibe uəš'' "badly breathe"
|-
| dzɨku
| strong
| ''jiəku'' "hard"
|-
| dzɨna
| slow
| ''jiwnə''
|-
| dzɨnaba
| ironsmith
| ''dzɨni'' + ''aba''
|-
| dzɨni
| iron
| ''jiənih''
|-
| dzombu
| traveler
| ''dzoññu'' + ''-bu''
|-
| dzoññu
| to travel
| ''jaŋu'' "to move"
|-
| dzoritsi
| to wake up
| ''jori'' "awaken" + ''-tsi'' reflexive
|-
| ebe
| short
| ''ebewr''
|-
| ebu
| to sleep
| ''eobu''
|-
| ebyeru
| tree bark
| ''ebǽru''
|-
| ebyeruł
| husk of a fruit
| ''ebǽru'' + -''l''
|-
| edastan
| of the Edastean peoples
| reborrowing of ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" + -''n''
|-
| eddenilos
| holy land (a formulation of some religious texts)
| ''edewnin'' "holy" + ''los''
|-
| Edossa
| the [[Naidda]] language
| ''Edástə'' "Ndak Ta" (latter is now ''Ñÿeru Edossa'')
|-
| edya
| tree
| ''edéi''
|-
| edyołas
| forest
| ''edéi'' + ''laš''
|-
| Edzada
| the Æðadĕ language; or one of its speakers (collq. and slightly despective)
| {{Aedh|Æðadĕ}}
|-
| egyottsa
| stairs
| ''egéi čeiŋ'' "up-walk"
|-
| ekɨ
| blessing; third day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''ekúi''
|-
| Eklodo
| [[Akelodo]], the largest city of Lasomo
| {{Aedh|Æxloðo}}
|-
| ełpe
| to melt (intr.)
| ''elpe''
|-
| ełpso
| to melt (tr.); heat up
| ''elpe'' + -''so''
|-
| ente
| to be unsure
| ''eomate'' "to guess"
|-
| Entsełde
| historical name for Akelodo
| ''Enčélade''
|-
| epa
| likeness
| ''ewpa'' "statue"
|-
| epał
| figurine
| ''ewpa'' "statue" + ''-l''
|-
| epe
| to sit; stay
| ''epé''
|-
| Epɨm
| a follower of Epɨmya in the religious sense, cf. Toło
| ''epúonim'' "heathen"
|-
| Epɨmya
| the religion of the Epɨm
| ''Epɨm'' + -''ya''
|-
| eppa
| light; easy
| ''epaf''
|-
| eps
| destruction; to destroy
| ''epš''
|-
| epsło
| encampment
| ''epšilo'' "ruins"
|-
| ero
| nasty (of behavior; weather; events)
| {{Ndd|eddor}} "caustic"
|-
| es
| six
| ''eš''
|-
| esko
| hospitable
| {{Aedh|æþko}}
|-
| essen [pl. ''esnek'']
| to act; behave
| ''ešen''
|-
| etsa
| to lose [a game; battle]
| ''eočeiŋ'' "to stumble"
|-
| Etugga
| the Etúgə religion
| ''Etúgə''
|-
| Etugenna
| the Etúgə world
| ''Etúgə'' + ''-enna''
|-
| ewa
| snake
| ''ewa''
|-
| fissas
| criminal (n.)
| ''fistaš'' "unlawful"
|-
| fogga
| make; create
| ''foga''
|-
| foggał
| small artwork; knicknack
| ''foga'' "create" + -''l''
|-
| fogło
| store; shop
| ''fogalo'' "workshop"
|-
| Forło
| a Fáralo language, or simply "language"; of Fáralo culture
| ''Fáralo''
|-
| forłobu
| a Fáralo person (male)
| ''forło'' + -''bu''
|-
| forłosa
| a Fáralo person (female)
| ''forło'' + -''sa''
|-
| gas
| boat
| ''gaos''
|-
| gets
| fourth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''geoč''
|-
| gitsa-gitsa
| wait a minute (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| gɨppi
| to answer; reply
| ''guətu ebí'' "therefore say"
|-
| go [pl. ''gohek'']
| to reject; dismiss
| ''gah'' "to mock"
|-
| goffats
| crime
| ''gafač''
|-
| gonnin
| elder brother
| ''gonin''
|-
| gossu
| rabbit
| ''gašu''
|-
| gottats
| galley
| ''gatač''
|-
| gotte
| wood
| ''gate''
|-
| gotteł
| floor
| ''gatel'' "board"
|-
| gubbe
| to let go; let out (from)
| ''gube'' "to survive; escape"
|-
| gurima
| to betray
| {{Aedh|gujrima}}
|-
| gwa
| road
| ''gou''
|-
| gwedda
| dream
| ''goudah''
|-
| gwegga
| to break; rip
| ''gouga''
|-
| gyo
| to; at
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyorit
| until
| ''geirit''
|-
| gyopsa
| sheep
| ''geipša''
|-
| hadɨ
| out; outside of
| ''hadír''
|-
| handya
| small town; village
| {{Aedh|hānðjĕ}}
|-
| Hayibbał
| the Fáralo sphere (comprising former Huyfárah)
| ''Hagíbəl''
|-
| hebben
| mumble
| ''heben''
|-
| hebu
| single; particular; specific
| ''hewbu'' "solitary"
|-
| hesom
| coat
| {{Aedh|hesom}} "outer garment"
|-
| hessara
| to organize; sort; tidy up
| {{Aedh|hestara}}
|-
| hewe
| water, liquid
| ''hewe''
|-
| hinna
| to lie
| {{Aedh|himna}}
|-
| hisłu
| son
| ''hislu'' "heir"
|-
| Hissɨna
| northeastern Peilaš, beyond Huyfárah
| ''Histuənə'' "[[Siixtaguna]]"
|-
| hitya
| the physical world (Etúgə terminology)
| ''hitugə''
|-
| hɨbɨ
| to cook
| ''hiəbur'' "to boil"
|-
| hɨbu
| frog
| *''hiəbu'' < ''hiebu''
|-
| hɨm
| cloud
| ''hiəm''
|-
| hɨnsa
| to fix; tend to
| ''huənšar'' "help; aid"
|-
| hɨte
| strange; disconcerting
| ''hiəteŋ'' "different"
|-
| Hɨwora
| the old Fáralo nation; the entire Fáralo sphere (obs.)
| ''Huyfárah''
|-
| ho
| meat
| ''ha''
|-
| hob
| to eat
| ''hab''
|-
| hobasa
| esophagus
| ''hab'' "to eat" + ''harsa'' "tube"
|-
| hodzan
| mountain pass
| {{Aedh|xōðan}}
|-
| hokez
| caveat
| {{Aedh|xokez}}
|-
| hołnadu
| republic
| ''halenadu''
|-
| howe
| broth
| ''ho hewe'' "meat-water"
|-
| howen
| food
| ''[mik] ha-oun'' "bread and meat"
|-
| hudde
| eight
| ''hude''
|-
| Huppa
| Sútapaj, a philosopher/saint of the Etúgə tradition
| ''Hutaba''
|-
| huz
| rat
| ''huz'' "mouse"
|-
| hwa
| beach
| ''hou'' "coast"
|-
| hwezzu
| left (side)
| ''houzuŋ''
|-
| hya
| blue
| ''hei''
|-
| hyoł
| foreign country; unknown place
| ''heil'' "foreign"
|-
| hyołbu
| foreigner
| ''heil'' + -''bu''
|-
| hyomma
| wait; delay
| ''heimə''
|-
| hyotte
| correct
| ''heite'' "neat; proper"
|-
| ibbał
| north
| ''ibəl''
|-
| ibbe
| handle; use; operate
| ''ibe'' "touch; use"
|-
| ibbu
| weapon
| ''ibu'' "tool"
|-
| idɨ
| sea; ocean
| ''idúəŋ''
|-
| idɨnda
| fisherman
| ''idúəŋ-dau'' "sea-man"
|-
| idɨño
| salt
| ''idúəŋ-oa'' "sea-salt"
|-
| idÿe
| arm
| ''idwæ''
|-
| iłseza
| morning glory
| {{Ndd|ilseza}}
|-
| iłts
| black
| ''ilč''
|-
| iłtsaz
| to forbid
| ''ilč eiz'' "paint black"
|-
| iłtsazin
| forbidden
| ''iłtsaz'' + ''-in''
|-
| Iłtsizɨme
| the river that runs through Mɨdu
| ''Ilčizúəme'', from local Ndd. *''ilči sume'' "black water"
|-
| igga
| unknown thing; thingamajig
| ''igə'' "which one"
|-
| igri
| receive; let in; tolerate; put in place
| ''igrih'' "absorb; dissolve"
|-
| ippa
| to taste; smell
| ''ipah'' "to perceive"
|-
| ippi
| liver
| ''ipi''
|-
| irło
| window
| ''iru'' "to open" + ''-lo''
|-
| isa
| before
| ''isə''
|-
| isezzuł
| to put forth; take; hold
| ''isə ezul'' "take before"
|-
| issape
| summer; (metaphorically) flourishing; success
| ''išaupe''
|-
| isso
| cotton
| {{Ndd|isceo}}
|-
| isyenna
| salvation; the spiritual world
| ''ifisænə''
|-
| Ittizan
| of the Hitatc peoples
| {{Ad|Itatizan}}
|-
| iznɨs
| gasp
| ''izin uəš'' "suddenly breathe"
|-
| ɨb
| month
| ''iəb''
|-
| ɨbweddu
| one hundred
| ''iəb'' + ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| ɨda
| term of address for men; "sir"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''dau'' "male"
|-
| ɨdołyog
| sunset; dusk
| ''iodol'' "sun" + ''egág'' "put [down]"
|-
| ɨdruła
| sunrise; dawn
| *ɨdłuła < ''iodol'' "sun" + ''ulə'' "rise"
|-
| ɨlo
| non-Etúge person
| ''uwlo'' "barbarian"
|-
| ɨmya
| yellow
| ''uwméi''
|-
| ɨmyał
| egg yolk
| ''uwméi'' + ''-l''
|-
| ɨñe
| term of address for women; "ma'am"
| ''io'' "noble" + ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ɨño
| to kill
| {{Ndd|ïño}}
|-
| ɨroppo
| vinegar
| ''ior apo'' "sour fruit"
|-
| ɨs
| to breathe
| ''uəš''
|-
| ɨsala
| noble house (in the northern states)
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''üšala''
|-
| ɨseło
| household; family; noble house (obs.)
| ''io šælo'' "noble hearth"
|-
| ɨta
| weigh; measure
| ''iətə'' "hang; suspend"
|-
| ɨzi
| pickled apple
| ''ior zi'' "sour apple"
|-
| kałto
| wind
| ''kaltó''
|-
| kattsa
| aunt
| ''kaotača''
|-
| katya
| gold
| {{Ad|kātia}}
|-
| kawu
| Etúgəist priest
| ''kəwú''
|-
| kaya
| fog
| ''kaogə''
|-
| kayoddin
| uncle (father's younger brother)
| ''kaogádin''
|-
| kaza-kaza
| leave me alone (intj.)
| from Toło dialect; unknown origin
|-
| kebbats
| supper (evening meal)
| ''kebač'' "dinner"
|-
| kełbo
| item of clothing
| {{Bur|kɛlbo}} "cloak"
|-
| kets
| angry; annoyed
| ''keoč''
|-
| Ketsenna
| the world
| ''Kečǽnə''
|-
| kettsem
| to bless; dedicate; honor [a ceremony]
| ''kečem''
|-
| kippa
| alcohol; booze
| ''kipa'' "rice alcohol"
|-
| Kɨkkałto
| the north wind
| ''kuət kaltó'' "demon wind"
|-
| kɨnzo
| good
| {{Ndd|kïnzo}} "kind"
|-
| kɨta
| demon
| ''kuət'' - with possible interference by {{Ndd|kwɨda}}
|-
| kodda
| to cover; paint over; a curtain
| ''kodə''
|-
| kodda
| to work tirelessly
| ''ekádə'' "to continue; persist"
|-
| kokło
| border
| ''kaklo''
|-
| koppe
| ages past; "way back when"
| ''kape'' "last year"
|-
| koya
| language
| {{Ad|koia}} "tongue"
|-
| Kozyad
| the nation of [[Kasca]]
| ''Kazəgad''
|-
| kozził [pl. ''kozlek'']
| to see; look at
| ''kazil''
|-
| kpɨma
| smoke
| ''kpuəma''
|-
| kreta
| to capture; seize goods
| ''kreota''
|-
| kros
| brave (esp. in warfare); mighty
| ''kraš''
|-
| kryewa
| breakfast
| ''kræwa'' "porridge"
|-
| ku
| spirit; mind
| ''ku''
|-
| kuffas
| Etúgəist temple
| ''kufas''
|-
| kukka
| hiccup
| ''kuka''
|-
| kumpeł
| tomb
| ''kumepél'' "graveyard"
|-
| kusryem
| olive
| ''kusræm''
|-
| kussu
| to cough
| ''kušu''
|-
| kuz
| book
| ''kuz'' "records; archives"
|-
| kuzło
| cabinet; bookshelf
| ''kuzlo'' "library; archive"
|-
| kwañopsi
| brooch
| {{Bur|kwəñápsi}}
|-
| kweñña
| ring (jewelry)
| {{Bur|kwɛña}}
|-
| kwin
| sacred
| ''kuin''
|-
| kwo
| awful, terrible
| {{Ndd|kwå}} "stinky"
|-
| kwodmał
| to break in (shoes, clothes)
| {{Ndd|kwado'mal}}
|-
| kwosso
| skin rash
| {{Ndd|kwashor}}
|-
| kwuła
| to speak
| ''kouwə ulə'' "raise the tongue"
|-
| kya [stem -''ekya'']
| egg
| ''ekéi''
|-
| kyedda
| ash
| ''kæda''
|-
| kyelin
| wool
| ''kænil'' "hair" + ''-in''
|-
| kyennił
| hair (coll.)
| ''kænil''
|-
| kyewe
| egg white
| ''ekéi hewe'' "egg-water"
|-
| kyołu
| tunic; shirt
| ''keilu''
|-
| kyonte
| medicine
| ''keipmate'' "herblore"
|-
| kyop
| grass
| ''keip''
|-
| kyopło
| field; meadow
| ''keipło'' "pasture"
|-
| kyozze
| snow
| ''keize''
|-
| lama
| tall
| ''laoma'' "long"
|-
| lasa
| hour
| by haplology from *''lāsāsa'' < ''laršaošə''
|-
| le
| question particle; yes (informal)
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| legga
| word (esp. as a formula or declaration)
| ''lega''
|-
| leggał
| to write
| ''legal''
|-
| legyossa
| poetry; verse
| ''legéiša''
|-
| leł
| to jot down; scribble
| {{Ndd|lëål}} "write"
|-
| lepeło
| throne
| ''lu-epélo'' "the chair"
|-
| les
| free (in legal sense); unattached; acting at will
| ''lews''
|-
| Lesfora
| [[Lewsfárah]], the southern Fáralo republican state
| ''lews'' "free" + ''-fárah'' from ''Huyfárah''
|-
| lesso
| to set free; liberate
| "cause to be free"
|-
| lestsa
| steady; resolute; undeterred
| ''lews čeiŋ'' "walking freely"
|-
| leswɨm
| free (politically)
| ''lews wiəm'' "living freely"
|-
| lette
| yes
| ''loute'' "correct"
|-
| lettse
| eighth day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''lečew''
|-
| Lidɨ [Nanozza]
| the ocean to the east of Peilaš
| late {{Fá|lu-idúəŋ na-nazə}} "the eastern ocean"
|-
| liwu
| loser
| {{Aedh|lwīvu}}
|-
| lizyuł
| to shiver
| ''lizegu'' "to shake" + dim.
|-
| lɨdoł
| the sun
| ''lu-iodol''
|-
| lɨmu
| smile; be pleased
| ''liəmu''
|-
| lobba
| snub
| ''labaf'' "ignore"
|-
| lod
| good; honest
| ''lad'' "healthy"
|-
| lodzu
| history
| ''lu-adulsu'' "the story"
|-
| lołpo
| heal; cure
| ''lalpo''
|-
| lonte
| quackery; nonsensical practice
| ''ladmate'' "medicine"
|-
| Lonto
| the Ici Forest
| {{Bur|lo ntɔh}} "the forest"
|-
| loñeñga
| ceremony
| ''lu-oyŋǽŋga'' "something solemn"
|-
| los
| land; nation; region
| ''laš''
|-
| losał
| agreement; pact
| ''lu-ošyal'' "proposal"
|-
| Losmu
| the nation of Lasomo
| ''Lašumu''
|-
| loz
| to shut
| ''laz''
|-
| luboz
| sixth day of the week
| ''lu-ubáz''
|-
| Ludyoddin
| the god of the Epɨm
| ''lu-Deidin'' "the numinous"
|-
| lumessɨ
| Namɨdu (collq.)
| ''lu-'' + {{Ndd|mestïng}} "dialect"
|-
| lumbye
| to act foolishly
| ''luba mæ'' "believe a falsehood"
|-
| luñɨb
| the moon
| ''luŋ-iəb''
|-
| lusek
| personal name
| ''lu-sek'' "the name"
|-
| lyod
| year
| ''leid''
|-
| lyoło
| birdcage
| ''lei'' "bird" + -''lo''
|-
| lyosło
| winter
| ''leišolo'' "cold time"
|-
| lyosso
| boring
| ''leišo'' "cold"
|-
| lÿenna
| hunger
| ''lu-æna''
|-
| madottɨ
| to disapprove
| ''madátuy'' "not allow"
|-
| madzen
| something useless or ineffective
| ''mau jæn'' "dull knife"
|-
| male
| man, guy
| {{Ndd|malë}} "old man"
|-
| malusme
| houseboat
| {{Bur|mlusɔmɛ}}
|-
| mamma
| mother
| baby-talk formation
|-
| mappÿa
| astrolabe
| ''mateboéi''
|-
| mareła
| to ignore; neglect
| ''maróulə'' "not care for"
|-
| mas
| hammer
| ''marš''
|-
| masa
| cow milk
| {{NAis|maisa}}
|-
| masere
| to hate; despise
| ''mašǽre'' "not love"
|-
| masobba
| to miss; make a mistake
| ''mašábə'' "not hit"
|-
| mayuttsił
| to enjoy oneself; be leisurely; take one's time
| ''makúčil'' "not rush"
|-
| me
| to say (used for reported speech)
| {{Ndd|me}}
|-
| mede
| semen; to ejaculate
| ''meode'' "spurt; splatter"
|-
| mekot
| younger brother; subordinate
| ''meokát''
|-
| midzenna
| to have an affair
| ''midišǽna'' "to fornicate"
|-
| mezzeł
| greet; say hello
| ''mezel''
|-
| mik
| [loaf of] bread
| ''mik''
|-
| mipma
| drugs (as a raw substance)
| ''mipimə'' "dough"
|-
| mipi
| nothing
| ''mi pi'' "not [even] a fingernail"
|-
| mipoł
| impolite
| ''mipól'' "indecent"
|-
| mise
| to give
| ''mišǽf'' "to owe"
|-
| mitsen
| cold
| ''mi čæn'' "no fire"
|-
| mittsidde
| to bake
| ''mik ečíde'' "to cook bread"
|-
| mɨbzin
| primitive
| ''muəbazin'' "anarchic"
|-
| mɨdo
| blind
| ''miordo''
|-
| Mɨdu
| a major city
| ''Miədu''
|-
| mɨmisso
| to bewilder; enchant
| ''muymis'' "stupid" + ''-so''
|-
| mɨpa
| deaf
| ''miopə''
|-
| mo
| color
| {{Ndd|mo}}
|-
| mobbe
| mouth
| ''mabe''
|-
| moddesen
| violence; force
| ''made ešen'' "violent action"
|-
| modu
| chest
| ''mordu''
|-
| modu
| in front of
| ''umórdu''
|-
| moła
| full
| ''mola''
|-
| moła
| to choose
| ''molar'' "prefer"
|-
| mołna
| to notice
| ''molinə'' "to not not know"
|-
| moppał
| magnet; compass
| ''matibəl''
|-
| mospo
| penis
| {{Ndd|mospo}} (has lost rude connotations)
|-
| mossin
| urban; public; societal
| ''mastin'' "governmental; public" AND ''mosin'' "civilized; urban"
|-
| moswe
| harbor; port town
| ''mosou''
|-
| mots
| kitchen
| ''mač'' "table"
|-
| mottsud
| slave
| ''mačud''
|-
| motya
| the physically impossible (Etúgə terminology)
| ''matugə''
|-
| motyan
| impossible
| ''motya'' + ''-n''
|-
| mowe
| sex act
| {{Ndd|måwë}} "to fellate"
|-
| mu
| on; above
| *''wiəmú'' < ''wiəmu'' (stress shift via analogy with ''wægól'')
|-
| mubba
| worm
| ''muba''
|-
| mudzada
| to take drugs (esp. hallucinogens)
| {{Aedh|mūðada}}
|-
| muła
| ice
| ''mula''
|-
| mułdye
| mountain
| ''mula dæŋ'' "ice mountain" (influenced by {{Ndd|mulo}} "the Šišin mountains")
|-
| mus
| grow, become
| ''mus''
|-
| mussuta
| ideology; belief
| ''mušidutə''
|-
| mya
| trade; to trade
| ''mei''
|-
| mwa
| skin
| ''mou''
|-
| mweddu
| number; quantity
| ''moudu'' "measure"
|-
| mweru
| narrow
| ''mouru''
|-
| myebił
| pastry; cookie
| dim. of ''myebim''
|-
| myebim
| cake
| {{Aedh|mjebim}} "dough"
|-
| myeg
| day
| ''mæg'' "today"
|-
| myem
| seven
| ''mæm''
|-
| myessa
| cow
| ''mæsa''
|-
| myoł [pl. ''myołk'']
| to read
| ''meil''
|-
| myosko
| drunk
| {{Ndd|myåsko}} "to party"
|-
| nadɨ
| in; at
| ''nadír''
|-
| nadɨlo
| secret; hidden
| ''nadírlo''
|-
| nadyog
| to put in
| ''nadír egág''
|-
| nanu
| to separate; cut
| ''naonu''
|-
| nañga
| split; schism
| ''naoŋga''
|-
| naplekɨ
| goodbye (formal)
| ''enouplu-ekúi'' < ''enóun pein lu-ekúi'' "go with blessing"
|-
| naro
| horse (arch. or poetic)
| ''narór''
|-
| [koya] Nasomo
| the Æðadĕ language
| partial calque of {{Aedh|Gujĕ æx Somo}} "language of Lasomo"
|-
| nazdya
| next to; touching
| ''na-zdeiŋ'' "at the fingers"
|-
| nazyoł
| among; between
| ''na-zegól'' "at the feet"
|-
| nełdzen
| to tweak; adjust
| ''neljæn'' "to twist"
|-
| negge
| (the) best
| ''nege'' "the most"
|-
| nes
| sick; ill
| ''neos''
|-
| nił
| nine
| ''nil''
|-
| niñi
| pointless
| {{Ndd|ni'ñi}} "pointlessly"
|-
| nɨlo
| mass grave
| ''niogalo'' "battlefield"
|-
| nɨma
| condescending
| ''nuəma'' "to boast"
|-
| nɨs
| to cheat
| ''nuəš''
|-
| nɨya
| war
| ''nioga''
|-
| nobbe
| dark red (esp. as a heraldic color)
| ''nabe''
|-
| nobwima
| clay
| ''nabe wimə'' "red mud"
|-
| nogga
| pagan god
| ''nagə''
|-
| nogga
| interior; room
| ''naga'' "inner"
|-
| noggu
| bear (animal)
| ''nagu''
|-
| nogya
| paganism
| ''nogga'' + -''ya''
|-
| nokwi
| (a) fur
| {{Bur|nakwi}}
|-
| nokwimya
| fur trade
| ''nokwi'' + ''mya''
|-
| noł
| mouse
| {{Ndd|nål}}
|-
| nołñu
| to clean (one's house); tidy up
| ''naluŋuh'' "to arrange; organize"
|-
| nom
| small
| Coastal Ndd. ''nam''
|-
| nonnanu
| to cut into small pieces
| ''nom'' + ''nanu''
|-
| nora
| to exit (from a building)
| {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noskɨ
| to take off; remove
| ''naskuy'' "exile; cast out"
|-
| noyo
| work; job
| ''naei''
|-
| noyu
| noodles (now a staple)
| ''nayu''
|-
| nozza
| east
| ''nazə''
|-
| nubazzi
| religious epiphany; enlightenment
| ''nubázi'' (reborrowing)
|-
| nweło
| street
| ''noulo''
|-
| nwen [pl. ''nweñk'']
| to go; leave
| ''noun''
|-
| nwentsi
| to forget
| reflexive of ''noun'' "to go"
|-
| nyedde
| to feel (an emotion); intuit
| ''enǽde''
|-
| nyemmu
| red
| ''næmuh'' "orange"
|-
| ñabba
| toe
| ''ŋeibə''
|-
| ñadde
| to clean
| ''ŋeide'' "to wipe"
|-
| ñadɨbu
| dog
| ''ŋa-duəbu'' "sniffer"
|-
| ñagosso
| leather
| {{NAis|ngagôstad}}
|-
| ñalazbod
| confusing (esp. visually)
| ''ŋalər zebód'' "too many colors"
|-
| ñanɨma
| jerk; asshole
| ''ŋa-nuəma'' "boaster"
|-
| ñassis
| traitor; enemy
| ''ŋastís'' "villain"
|-
| Ñe
| title for women; "Mrs."/"Ms."
| ''ŋæ'' title for elder peasants
|-
| ñegłu
| to accompany
| {{Bur|ñedɛlu}}
|-
| ñenne
| neck
| ''ŋæne''
|-
| ñi
| two
| ''ŋi''
|-
| ñɨbuł
| needle
| ''ŋiəbul''
|-
| ñɨne
| neurotic; overly cautious
| ''ŋuəne'' "prudent; cautious"
|-
| ñoł
| more
| ''ŋal'' "very"
|-
| ñołdzɨ
| tall
| ''ŋal jiə'' "very tall"
|-
| ñołyoł
| flood
| ''ŋalleil''
|-
| ñonne
| business connection
| {{Bur|ñanɛ}} "connection"
|-
| ñopsa
| thick; heavy
| ''ŋapšə''
|-
| Ñoru
| of the Ngauro people
| ''ŋouru'' (reborrowing)
|-
| ñosłok
| idiot
| ''ŋa-oslók'' "forgetter"
|-
| ñuffe
| cat
| ''ŋufew'' < {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñura
| brown
| ''ŋura''
|-
| Ñÿalo
| the city of Ñolo in Kasca
| ''Ŋourlo''
|-
| ñÿeru
| ancient
| ''ŋouru''
|-
| obbo
| peccadillo; misdemeanor
| {{Ndd|avå}} "break the law"
|-
| oddu
| to come
| ''odu''
|-
| odoł
| eye
| ''ordo'' + -''l''
|-
| odwa
| unclear
| ''adwə'' "dark"
|-
| odza
| to tell [a story]
| ''adulsə''
|-
| odzu
| story
| ''adulsu''
|-
| oggu
| happy
| ''agu''
|-
| ogło
| inn; lodging; (euph.) brothel
| ''odulo'' "destination"
|-
| ogyu
| expectation; to expect
| ''agiu'' "hope"
|-
| okmu
| wax
| ''akremu''
|-
| okrem
| seal; to seal closed
| back-formation from ''akremu''
|-
| olo
| ugly (of views; objects)
| {{Ndd|åilo}}
|-
| oł [pl. ''ołk'']
| to want; desire
| ''al''
|-
| ołdo
| to inherit
| ''oludo'' "deserve"
|-
| ołdu
| inheritance; property (land; money)
| ''oludu'' "deserts"
|-
| ołgo
| despite; against; than
| ''algo''
|-
| ołmo
| to steal; filch (esp. from a street vendor)
| {{Ndd|ålmo}}
|-
| ołna
| to not know
| ''olinə''
|-
| ołpo
| to build; to craft; a craft
| ''olpo'' "manufacture"
|-
| ołpu
| craftsman
| ''alpobu''
|-
| ołtoł
| storage area
| ''atelol''
|-
| Ołtu
| a river of central Huyfárah
| ''Oltu''
|-
| ombe
| thunder; to thunder
| ''abunde''
|-
| ombu
| criminal
| ''ammubu'' "thief"
|-
| oñan
| unreachable
| {{Ndd|ålña}} "to fly" + -''in''
|-
| oño
| crayfish
| {{Ndd|orñevo}}
|-
| oppał
| ear
| ''opə'' + -''l''
|-
| oppo
| fruit
| ''apo''
|-
| optu
| something unsettling; to be perturbed
| ''apridu'' "horror"
|-
| opwo
| a type of stew
| {{NAis|[seu od] ópôxeu}} "meat and fruit"
|-
| oreł
| to ignite
| {{Ndd|oreål}} "to catch fire"
|-
| osał
| to propose; suggest
| ''ošyal''
|-
| osawu
| human sacrifice
| ''oisawú'' < {{NAis|oisaxud}}
|-
| oso
| play a game
| {{Ndd|oiså}} "participate"
|-
| ospu
| chief (of a tribe); leader (of a work group, etc.); head (of a queue, etc.)
| ''ašubu'' "chieftain"
|-
| ossin
| heavy
| ''asin''
|-
| otte
| to guard
| ''ate'' "to keep"
|-
| ottebu
| a guard
| ''otte'' + -''bu''
|-
| ottu
| wealth
| ''atu'' "possession"
|-
| ottun
| wealthy
| ''ottu'' + -''in''
|-
| Oypawa
| Oigop'oibauxeu
| Æð. ''Ojpavaw''
|-
| pada
| valley
| ''pardə''
|-
| pagu
| horse
| {{Bur|pə’águ}} "pack horse"
|-
| peppe [stem ''-epeppe'']
| breast
| ''epépe''
|-
| pesen
| ready; alert
| ''pea ešen'' "readily act"
|-
| pi
| small thing; trifle
| ''pi'' "fingernail"
|-
| piggał
| main; primary
| ''pigəl'' "first"
|-
| piła
| to send
| ''pila''
|-
| piñña
| chicken
| {{Ndd|piña}}
|-
| pissił
| dead
| ''pišil'' "grey, pale"
|-
| pɨ
| child (collq.)
| ''pir'' "goat"
|-
| pɨdyemis
| understand; realize
| ''piədæmis''
|-
| połge
| orange (fruit)
| ''Palge'', a [[Kasca|Kascan]] city which exports oranges
|-
| ponda
| purple
| {{Ndd|panada}}
|-
| poppu
| disgust; to be disgusted
| ''popu'' "fear"
|-
| potsna
| to count
| ''pačuna''
|-
| potte
| to find; obtain
| ''epáte'' "to investigate; research"
|-
| pryen
| to design
| ''præn''
|-
| pubbɨt
| to attack
| ''pubiət'' "to threaten"
|-
| puwa
| nose
| ''puwə''
|-
| pwekku
| snub; slight; insult
| ''pouku'' "refuse; deny"
|-
| pwen
| island
| ''poun''
|-
| pya
| big; great
| ''pei''
|-
| pyen
| bite; chew; kiss (inf.)
| ''pæn''
|-
| pyodde
| loud
| ''peide''
|-
| Pyołas
| the continent on which Mɨdu is situated
| ''Peilaš''
|-
| pyombu
| (a) bourgeois; business owner
| ''pei meibu'' "big trader", but often explained as ''pyon-bu'' "with-person"
|-
| pyomyeb
| esoteric cult
| ''peimæb'' "mystery"
|-
| pyon
| with; having
| ''pein''
|-
| Pyopros
| the Poráš river
| ''pei'' "great" + ''Poráš''
|-
| pyossa [stem ''-epyossa'']
| fish
| ''epéiša''
|-
| pÿeggo
| waterfront
| {{Ndd|pyuego}} "dock"
|-
| pÿen [stem ''-epÿen'']
| ball; lump
| ''epoǽn''
|-
| rał
| to pour
| ''raul'' "to fill"
|-
| re
| smooth; flat; straight
| ''rewŋ''
|-
| rełga
| hot
| ''relga''
|-
| rełgło
| cauldron; cooking pot; stew
| ''relga'' + ''-lo''
|-
| rełsa
| caretaker; nurse
| ''roulə'' "care for" + -''sa''
|-
| reñał
| platform; deck [of a ship]; storey
| ''rewŋəl''
|-
| Reñło
| the plains of SW Huyfárah
| ''rewŋlo'' "plains"
|-
| rettsɨs
| menstruation
| ''rečiəs''
|-
| rezdowa
| to waste time
| {{Aedh|rwezidova}}
|-
| rɨna
| priest (non-Etúgəist)
| ''ruənah''
|-
| ro
| ten
| ''ro''
|-
| rołña
| to be insane
| {{Ndd|rålña}}
|-
| rodda
| to have; own
| ''roda''
|-
| roddu
| possessions; property
| ''rodu''
|-
| rote
| to eat (collq.)
| {{Aedh|rote}}
|-
| roznu
| voter
| ''rozaru''
|-
| rubbo
| to masturbate
| {{Ndd|ruvïvo}}
|-
| rubosso
| to haggle
| {{Ndd|rubåsto}} "be agressive"
|-
| rud
| member; citizen; person; man (arch.)
| ''rud'' "man"
|-
| rudza
| woman (somewhat formal)
| ''rud'' "man" + ''-sa''
|-
| russan [pl. ''rusnek'']
| to slander
| ''rušan'' "blame"
|-
| ryed
| head
| *''ræd'' "large pot," back-formation from ''rædel''
|-
| ryeddeł
| jar; container
| ''rædel''
|-
| ryeł [pl. ''ryełk'']
| to ride [a horse]
| ult. Gezoro *''rɜ̃lɛk''; final -''k'' re-analyzed as pl. suffix
|-
| ryen
| like; alike; as
| ''ræpen'' "instead of"
|-
| ryeñu
| instead of
| ''ræpen'' "instead of" + ''ouŋu'' "without"
|-
| ryeppu
| decoy; substitute
| ''ræpenbu'' "person instead of [someone else]"
|-
| ryettu
| to hear
| ''rætu''
|-
| ryommɨ
| earthquake
| ''reimur''
|-
| sadwa
| flatbread; sandwich
| {{Ndd|saodwa}}
|-
| seggan
| hurricane
| Coastal Ndd. ''segan''
|-
| sek
| name; nickname; word
| ''sek''
|-
| sekka
| to name; call
| ''seka''
|-
| seło
| hearth; cooking fire; stove; home (poetic)
| ''šælo''
|-
| sełsa
| dragonfly
| ''selo'' "spear" + ''-sa''
|-
| senat
| minister; official
| ''sernat''
|-
| sesan
| seventh day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''seošan''
|-
| sessɨ
| to crown a ruler (in a monarchy)
| ''šesuy''
|-
| sestsinte
| genealogy
| ''seziči'' "to be born" + -''nte'' (calque of {{Aedh|sīramĕd}})
|-
| Setek
| a city
| ''Sertek''
|-
| setim
| discuss; argue
| ''eséotim''
|-
| settsin
| profitable; fortunate
| ''sečasin''
|-
| siggił [pl. ''siglek'']
| to urinate
| ''sigil''
|-
| siło
| tooth
| ''silo''
|-
| sipa
| crab-claw sail
| [[Takuña]] ''sîpa''
|-
| sipagas
| type of ship
| ''sipa'' + ''gaos'' "boat"
|-
| sira
| prostitute
| back-formation from ''siralo'' < {{Ndd|siddalo}} "brothel"
|-
| sis
| mangy animal; cur; general insult
| ''sis'' "dog"
|-
| sissa
| general insult/profane exclamation
| ''sissa'' "female dog" and/or {{Ndd|sisha}} "piss"
|-
| sisyozza
| tomorrow [morning]
| ''si-seiza'' "that morning"
|-
| sɨn [pl. ''sɨñk'']
| to drink
| ''siən''
|-
| sɨnsɨ
| the day after tomorrow
| ''sur na-sur'' "the tomorrow of tomorrow"
|-
| sɨs
| good; kind (of actions or temperament)
| ''šuys'' "merciful, compassionate"
|-
| sɨso
| last night
| ''si-išo'' "that night"
|-
| sɨts
| both; each
| ''siəč'' "separate; apart"
|-
| slora
| to briefly forget
| {{Ndd|sloira}}
|-
| smoło
| gossip
| {{Ndd|smalo}} "seamstress' parlor"
|-
| smote
| farm
| irregular abbr. of ''musmate'' "agriculture"
|-
| smotebu
| farmer
| ''smote'' + -''bu''
|-
| snon
| land; ground
| {{Ndd|snan}}
|-
| -so
| causative suffix
| ''soy'' "to cause"
|-
| sobren
| clever person
| {{Aedh|sovren}} "expert"
|-
| sołan
| fat
| {{Ndd|shalan}} "obese"
|-
| sos
| second day of the week
| (''lu''-) ''sos''
|-
| sossa
| woman
| ''sossa'' "nubile girl"
|-
| sotya
| false knowledge (of the physical world - Etúgə terminology)
| ''satugə''
|-
| sozzi
| onion
| {{Ndd|sazi}}
|-
| stobi
| funny appendages on hats - a fashion of the decadent 5th century
| ''s''- pl. + {{Ndd|tobi}} "antler"
|-
| suddzi
| olive oil
| ''suji'' "to press"
|-
| sussilos
| neighboring country
| ''sušin'' "neighbor" + ''los''
|-
| swa
| knee; corner; bend (in a road)
| ''souŋ''
|-
| swebło
| bag; sack
| {{Ndd|swëvlo}}
|-
| swekka
| blood
| eastern N.A. ''sok'ə''
|-
| syep
| to perform; effect; emit; utter; give (of acts; emotions; etc)
| ''sæp'' "to give"
|-
| syet
| money
| ''sæt'' "gold"
|-
| syetya
| virtue; morality
| ''sætugə''
|-
| syos
| parasite
| ''seiš'' "louse"
|-
| syoskaya
| mist
| "morning-fog"
|-
| syozza
| morning
| ''seiza'' "dawn"
|-
| te
| with; by
| ''eté''
|-
| teg [stem -''eteg'']
| thicket; cluster; patch; scattered group
| ''etéwg'' "forest"
|-
| tekka
| large crowd
| ''teka'' "army"
|-
| tid
| flea; speck
| ''tid''
|-
| tiddin
| small; slight; insignificant
| ''tid'' "flea" + ''-in''
|-
| tikwa
| anchor
| ''tikóu'' "stone"
|-
| tikweł
| stone; rock
| ''tikóu'' + -''l''
|-
| tɨ
| door
| ''tir''
|-
| tɨdu [stem -''etɨdu'']
| metal
| ''etíədu''
|-
| tɨnsał
| moment; second
| ''tiəŋišəl'' dim. of "flash; spark"
|-
| tɨñño
| stone (material)
| {{Ndd|tïño}}
|-
| tɨpas
| frame; doorway
| ''tir'' "door" + ''paš'' "socket"
|-
| toł
| light (n.), lamp; to shine; set alight
| ''tol''
|-
| Toło
| a member of the ethnic subgroup that follows Epɨmya
| ''Talo''
|-
| tos
| lawful; legal
| ''taš''
|-
| tosse
| around; surrounding; during
| ''etáše''
|-
| tottsa
| older sister
| ''tača''
|-
| tsa [pl. ''tsaññek'']
| to walk
| ''čeiŋ''
|-
| tsak
| king
| ''čaok''
|-
| tsanizzu
| outlaw; exile; fugitive
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''čanizzu''
|-
| tsanno
| to ask
| ''čeino''
|-
| tsapso
| to sneeze
| ''tsap'' (imit.) + ''-so''
|-
| tse
| one
| ''če''
|-
| tsebu
| student
| ''čeobu''
|-
| tsek
| to cast; scatter
| ''ček'' "throw''
|-
| tsełts
| danger; risk
| ''čelč''
|-
| tsemmał
| religious school; sect; faction
| ''ičǽməl'' "study; knowledge"
|-
| tsennu
| fire
| ''čæn'' "fire" + -''u''
|-
| tsenso
| to embarrass
| ''čæn'' "to burn" + -''so''
|-
| tsessum
| insignificant; pompous; over-stuffed
| ''čæšum'' "powerful; great" (via sarcastic usage)
|-
| tset
| to go bad (of milk etc.); perish; expire
| ''ečét'' "to wilt"
|-
| tsił
| barley
| ''čil''
|-
| tsiłsɨn
| beer
| "barley-drink" (calque from {{Ndd|sågïl}})
|-
| tsittsi
| lightning
| ''čičih''
|-
| tsɨpał
| denounce; curse
| ''čiəpal'' "whine; rant"
|-
| tsɨssɨnza
| barely make it through
| {{Ndd|cïstïnza}} "rough it"
|-
| tsɨza
| respectful address for a woman (an archaism); "milady"
| ''æč ioza'' "my lady"
|-
| tsoro
| junk; worthless stuff
| {{Ndd|coddo}} "dust"
|-
| tsure
| some other time [to avoid commitment]
| {{Ndd|cure}} "tomorrow"
|-
| twa
| lake
| ''tou''
|-
| twełyo
| duck
| ''tou'' "lake" + ''lei'' "bird"
|-
| twen
| hand
| ''toun''
|-
| twen
| thin; slim
| ''otóun''
|-
| tyeddi
| house; building; dwelling
| ''tædi'' "shelter"
|-
| tyem
| south
| ''tæm''
|-
| tyoñgas
| punt (used for transportation on Mɨdu's canals)
| ''teiŋgas''
|-
| tyossał
| pudenda (polite)
| ''teiš'' "fold" + -''l''
|-
| tyottu
| wide
| ''teitu''
|-
| Uboz
| the Ndak mother goddess (Ombási)
| ''Ubáz''
|-
| uggas
| storm
| ''ugaš'' "be a storm"
|-
| uła
| lift; pick up
| ''ulə''
|-
| ułga
| taste
| ''ulgə''
|-
| uksɨ
| to conspire; plot (a crime)
| ''ukšúy'' "to covet, long for the forbidden"
|-
| uro
| hostile; belligerent
| {{Ndd|uddo}}
|-
| ussa
| hello
| source equivalent to {{Ndd|usa}}
|-
| Usso
| the old capital of Huyfárah
| ''Ussor''
|-
| uyo
| after
| ''ugə''
|-
| wamyeg
| today
| ''wa-mæg'' "this today"
|-
| waso
| tonight
| ''wa-išo'' "this night"
|-
| wasyozza
| this morning
| ''wa-seiza''
|-
| wedde
| vegetable
| ''wede''
|-
| weddɨbye
| pickle (typically of root vegetables)
| ''wede diəbæŋ'' "vegetable-preserve"
|-
| weddza
| vixen; seductress
| ''oudisa'' "witch"
|-
| wegga
| in back of
| ''ougə''
|-
| wemmoł
| younger sister
| ''oumol''
|-
| wemmu
| older or distinguished woman, "lady"
| ''oumu'' "mother"
|-
| weñña
| ugly
| ''ouŋa'' "vulgar"
|-
| weñu
| without; except; but
| ''ouŋu''
|-
| weñÿebu
| tired
| ''ouŋu eobu'' "without sleep"
|-
| weppu
| to remember
| ''oupu''
|-
| wes
| friend
| {{NAis|wêbes}}
|-
| wezzu
| yesterday
| ''ouzu''
|-
| wiło [nom. ''siło'']
| house
| ''wilo''
|-
| wimma [nom. ''simma'']
| marsh
| ''wimə'' "mud"
|-
| wizza
| to make a commotion
| ''wiza'' "to shout"
|-
| wizze
| feast
| {{Ndd|vize}}
|-
| wɨm
| to live
| ''wiəm''
|-
| wɨmba
| papyrus
| {{Ndd|wïmva}}
|-
| wɨnseło
| grill; to grill
| ''wiəmu šælo'' "over the hearth"
|-
| wɨñgwe
| bridge
| ''wiəmu gou'' "over-road"
|-
| wɨñÿeło
| city canal
| ''wiəŋ noulo'' "wet street"
|-
| wobba
| to strike (with an object)
| ''wabə'' "to hit"
|-
| woddeł [pl. ''wodlek'']
| to wear (clothing)
| ''wodel''
|-
| wogga
| peace; quiet
| ''wagah''
|-
| wogyo
| shellfish
| {{Ndd|wogïño}} "shell"
|-
| Wołdulas
| the Fáralo kingdom centered on [[Ussor]]
| [[Woltu Falla|WF]] ''Woldulaš''
|-
| woñoł
| shoe
| {{Ndd|woñol}} "boot"
|-
| wos
| to bury
| ''waš'' "to dig"
|-
| wos
| three
| ''wos''
|-
| wossats
| trireme
| ''wozgatač''
|-
| wosse
| this one; this person
| ''waše''
|-
| wozzon [pl. ''woznek'']
| to mess up
| {{Ndd|wåzon}} "to sneeze"
|-
| wuł
| country villa
| {{Aedh|vul}} "estate"
|-
| wuggu
| to cast blame; find guilty
| ''wugu''
|-
| yak
| all
| ''ege'' "all" + ''ak'' "them"
|-
| yane
| hidden; unclear; bizarre
| ''eione'' "obscure"
|-
| yanente
| esoteric study; mysticism
| ''eione'' "obscure" + -''mate''
|-
| yati
| week; calendar
| ''eioti'' "day"
|-
| yebba
| cool-witted; practical; smart
| ''æba'' "sober"
|-
| yedda
| corpse
| ''æda''
|-
| yedde
| to stand
| ''æde''
|-
| yegłu
| city; town
| ''ædelu''
|-
| yekka
| air
| ''ækə''
|-
| yemmał
| fly (insect)
| ''æməl''
|-
| yenna
| hungry
| ''æna''
|-
| yeñało
| army
| ''æŋéilo'' "military"
|-
| yestsoł
| bird
| {{Ndd|yësco}} "songbird" + ''-l''
|-
| yegwebbu
| rebel; deviant
| ''ægóubu'' "eccentric"
|-
| yetti
| river
| ''æti''
|-
| yettu
| old; former
| ''ætu''
|-
| Yetwa
| a district of Mɨdu
| ''ætu aə'' "old swamp"
|-
| yob
| green
| abbr. of ''yobbał'' < ''eibəl''
|-
| yobbin
| very cold
| ''eib'' "to freeze" + ''-in''
|-
| yobbɨ
| to swim
| ''eibur''
|-
| yodda
| spring (season)
| ''eibidə''
|-
| yodÿetti
| waterfall
| ''eidu æti'' "falling river"
|-
| yog
| put down; put away
| ''egág'' "to put"
|-
| Yogga
| the [[Aiwa|Eigə River]]
| ''Eigə''
|-
| yoha
| stupid
| {{NAis|ixoha}}
|-
| yokka
| animal
| ''eikə''
|-
| yokku
| to slaughter [an animal]
| ''eiku'' "to kill" - meaning influenced by ''yokka''
|-
| yoł [stem -''eyoł'']
| foot, base
| ''egól''
|-
| yorya
| string
| {{Ndd|yaddiga}}
|-
| yossi
| saw (tool)
| {{Ndd|yasi}} or {{Ad|iāsi}}
|-
| yoweł
| west
| ''eiwəl''
|-
| yoz
| to paint
| ''eiz''
|-
| yozzu
| paint, dye (n.)
| ''eiz'' + -''u''
|-
| ÿa
| wrong; no
| ''yeÿá'' < ''ægóu'' "wrong"
|-
| ÿem
| right (side)
| ''oæm''
|-
| ÿeppum
| useless
| ''wæpum'' "hollow"
|-
| ÿere
| to love; enjoy
| ''wære''
|-
| ÿeta
| of; for; about
| ''wætə''
|-
| ÿoł
| below; under
| ''wægól''
|-
| ÿoło
| garden; park
| ''weilo''
|-
| ÿosso
| now
| ''weišo''
|-
| zera
| copper
| {{Ad|zēra}}
|-
| zetsan
| pig
| {{Aedh|zæþṇ}}
|-
| zguruł
| intestines
| (pl. of ''guru'' "intestines" + ''-l'')
|-
| zi
| apple
| Miwan ''zi''
|-
| zin
| wine
| {{Ndd|zin}}
|-
| zmebło
| countryside
| (pl. of ''mebelo'' "farm")
|-
| znyoñɨbɨ
| tea; tisane
| ''zneiŋə hiəbur'' "to boil leaves"
|-
| zodwen
| face
| ''[lu-mabe] zordo-oun'' "the mouth and eyes"
|-
| zułk
| cheese
| {{Aedh|zūlx}}
|-
| zuma
| to loiter
| {{Aedh|zūma}} "to wait"
|-
| zyetya
| immorality
| ''huzyetya'' < ''huzǽtugə''
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Buruya Nzaysa/Thematic dictionary

2025-02-01T17:30:22Z

Cedh: +31

{| {{softinfobox}}
| __TOC__
|}
=A Thematic Dictionary of Buruya Nzaysa=
:''Note: Not every word in the main dictionary is included, and some words may appear in multiple semantic fields. In case of conflict, the [[../Lexicon|main dictionary]], and not this page, should be considered authoritative.''

==Time and location==
===Time===
{{dl|
;ɛte
:n.
:day

;mɔromə
:n.
:night

;tolma
:n.
:morning, dawn

;badolu
:n.
:morning, early day

;əmuyso
:n.
:noon

;tolbɔ
:n.
:evening, dusk

;esugo
:n.
:evening, early night

;latsa
:n.
:hour

;pelvo
:n.
:hourglass

;kəsusa
:n.
:calendar

;əsu
:n.
:calendar date

;lɛ
:n.
:year

;spexətsa
:n.
:spring

;ya’ɔwa
:n.
:summer

;nzɛwəslu
:n.
:autumn

;rɛyrɔ
:n.
:winter

;xaw{{IPA|ə́}}be
:n.
:month

;yɔti
:n.
:week (of the Fáralo calendar)

;gɔyto
:n.
:week (of the Ndok calendar)

;palmayo
:n.
:1st day of the week

;atsɔyo
:n.
:2nd day of the week

;ɛkuyo
:n.
:3rd day of the week

;əbeyo
:n.
:4th day of the week

;buliyo
:n.
:5th day of the week

;omɔyo
:n.
:6th day of the week

;toyo
:n.
:7th day of the week

;tsuyo
:n.
:8th day of the week

;kawa
:n.
:last year

;smalu
:n.
:last week; last month

;usɔ
:n.
:yesterday

;mah
:n.
:today

;tsore
:n.
:tomorrow

;ogo
:n.
:early

;məsta
:n.
:late

;pewəlu
:n.
:beginning

;nta
:n.
:end

;exɛ
:n.
:first

;pɛgavo
:n.
:last

;isaga
:n.
:previous, preceding

;səmvo
:n.
:next in line, subsequent

;ɔdɔvo
:n.
:event

;soslu
:n.
:annals, chronicles

;ogó’ə
:n.
:history

;atsɔlu
:n.
:the past

;dɛlu
:n.
:the present

;ñudɔ
:n.
:the future

;mvora
:n.
:new

;lire
:n.
:young

;ñurɔ
:n.
:old, ancient

;ñire
:pp.
:before, until

;rabɛ
:pp.
:while, during

;owa
:pp.
:after, since

;witsu
:pron.
:now

;tsetsu
:pron.
:then

;ɛtsu
:pron.
:always

;matsu
:pron.
:never

;natsu
:pron.
:sometime

;solə
:pron.
:when?

;piga
:adv.
:initially, at first

;rabəga
:adv.
:at the same time, simultaneously

;səmaga
:adv.
:next

;ntise
:adv.
:immediately

;uvo
:adv.
:soon

;mvuga
:adv.
:already

;pɛga
:adv.
:finally

;smada
:adv.
:recently

;atsa
:adv.
:still

;bu
:adv.
:again

;uvi
:v.erg
:happen, occur, come to pass

;mɔwa
:v.
:begin

;ntada
:v.
:stop, finish

;kwəma
:v.
:repeat

;we’ɔ
:v.
:expect

;oxɔtɔ
:v.
:anticipate

;səma
:v.
:wait

;məmat
:v.
:remember

;esopo
:v.
:forget

;tɛnɔ
:v.
:delay, postpone

;ɛraga
:v.
:be ineffective, waste time

;əno
:v.
:linger, remain, stay
|tight}}

===Distance, direction, movement===
{{dl|
;kwətso
:n.
:distance

;kəlu
:n.
:step, yard (measurement of distance)

;latsi
:n.
:abroad

;tavlɛ
:n.
:far away, outside the Edák sphere

;petu
:n.
:separation

;ñɛdu
:n.
:infinite

;bədu
:n.
:near, close-by

;tsu
:n.
:vicinity, surroundings

;ega
:n.
:straight

;sisu
:n.
:left side

;ɔ’a
:n.
:right side

;ñunɛ
:n.
:middle, center

;xagala
:n.
:portion, fraction, part, piece

;ɛnalu
:n.
:ground, floor, bottom

;əvle
:n.
:north

;nasa
:n.
:east

;tamlu
:n.
:south

;mvəlu
:n.
:west

;ako
:n.
:origin, source

;kəñəla
:n.
:target

;ñanɛ
:n.
:link, connection

;kwɛña
:n.
:ring, circle

;botsoño
:n.
:square, rectangle

;ñɔlna
:n.
:state of affairs, setting, situation, circumstances

;ñal{{IPA|ɔ́}}nzi
:n.
:speed, velocity, acceleration

;lɔnzi
:n.
:quick, fast

;kəlna
:n.
:slow

;o
:pp.
:at, on

;ada
:pp.
:to, towards

;ni
:pp.
:in, into

;owa
:pp.
:from

;mvəbo
:pp.
:between, among, along, through

;sade
:pp.
:outside of, behind, beyond

;moldu
:pp.
:in front of

;gilu
:pp.
:over, above, on top of

;gɔla
:pp.
:under, below

;ñugɛ
:pp.
:around

;ñire
:pp.
:as far as

;wa
:pp.
:against

;wilu
:pron.
:here

;tselu
:pron.
:there

;ɛlu
:pron.
:everywhere

;malu
:pron.
:nowhere

;nalu
:pron.
:somewhere

;yəlu
:pron.
:where?

;kə
:v.
:go, walk

;oskə
:v.
:come, approach

;məlu
:v.
:arrive

;nora
:v.
:go outside, leave temporarily

;noñə
:v.
:leave, depart, go away

;ninólɔyə
:v.
:emigrate

;amo
:v.
:travel

;xañɔ
:v.
:move

;nəlga
:v.
:turn, twist, rotate, spin, stir

;mɔysa
:v.
:recede, retreat, go backward

;iyɔda
:v.
:lead

;wano
:v.
:follow

;xo’a
:v.
:chase

;kalma
:v.
:lose one's way

;əmu
:v.
:be out of place

;xida
:v.
:climb, go upward

;ɛnta
:v.
:descend, go downward

;pə
:v.erg
:fall

;ɔdɛ
:v.
:pull

;mvawɛ
:v.
:push, shove

;tsugə
:v.
:press, squeeze, pinch

;ñawe
:v.
:put, place

;mpadɛ
:v.
:keep positioned (in a certain way)

;taspa
:v.
:point at

;nodɛ
:v.
:reach for, touch

;solvo
:v.
:bring, carry

;xaga
:v.
:distribute

;nzolab
:v.
:arrange, sort, classify

;niñawe
:v.
:insert

;ñañəvi
:v.
:connect

;tɛfta
:v.
:combine with

;ətsa
:v.
:be attached to

;sɔdɔ
:v.
:stick out, protrude

;to’anu
:v.
:impede, obstruct, block

;salaspo
:v.
:put away

;mɛpsɔh
:v
:expel, eject

;kəh
:v.
:throw

;pili
:v.
:send
|tight}}

===Types of places===
{{dl|
;ŋkana
:n.
:the world

;ɔlu
:n.
:place, location, territory

;la
:n.
:land, region

;latsi
:n.
:foreign country

;layáxa
:n.
:kingdom, state

;bɛru
:n.
:estate; land owned by a noble

;sanu
:n.
:village

;mo
:n.
:town, city

;ñunɛmo
:n.
:city center

;ñuylu
:n.
:marketplace

;baulu
:n.
:harbor

;rɛməl
:n.
:quay

;mlu
:n.
:home, house

;mlusɔmɛ
:n.
:houseboat

;mluñunɛ
:n.
:inn, hostel

;mɛsɛlu
:n.
:tavern

;oñelu
:n.
:mill

;banilu
:n.
:temple

;waslu
:n.
:grave, tomb

;tsɔvlu
:n.
:tower

;pawaymó
:n.
:city walls

;alɔra
:n.
:wall

;kaywemə
:n.
:fence, boundary

;tere
:n.
:door, gate

;murɔ
:n.
:gap, passageway

;nolɔ
:n.
:road, path, way

;xɔpsah
:n.
:trade route

;əlu
:n.
:bend in the road

;xuñe
:n.
:crossroads

;xawaxa
:n.
:bridge

;mopso
:n.
:ford

;ɔtse
:n.
:river

;ñanzɔmɛ
:n.
:canal, waterway

;sɔmɛlu
:n.
:well, fountain

;tasku’u
:n.
:waterfall, rapids

;mɛsɔtsə
:n.
:confluence

;lawa
:n.
:mouth of a river; delta

;ludɛ
:n.
:riverbank

;su
:n.
:shore, coast (of a lake or ocean)

;polu
:n.
:island

;ponaba
:n.
:small island

;tu
:n.
:lake

;ədu
:n.
:ocean

;pɛlbɛ
:n.
:beach

;gɔgəh
:n.
:bay, bayou

;avɛlu
:n.
:swamp, bog

;opsa
:n.
:lowlands, plains

;dɛñə
:n.
:mountain, hill

;xolu
:n.
:slope

;palda
:n.
:valley

;ntɔh
:n.
:forest

;xadalu
:n.
:woodland

;mɛslu
:n.
:meadow, pastureland

;wəlu
:n.
:garden, orchard

;mayradɛ
:n.
:balcony, terrace, veranda

;naysi
:n.
:field

;ɛlu
:n.
:farm
|tight}}

==People==
===General terms===
{{dl|
;maldɔ
:n.
:person, human being

;ru
:n.
:man

;asa
:n.
:woman

;dəpse
:n.
:child

;tsɛsəbo
:n.
:baby, infant

;iñeru
:n.
:boy

;iñesi
:n.
:girl

;lirevo
:n.
:teenager, adolescent

;liru
:n.
:young man

;aduna
:n.
:young woman

;ñavo
:n.
:adult

;rauru
:n.
:old person; senior

;da’ɔ
:n.
:male

;sivo
:n.
:female

;xoba
:n.
:crowd
|tight}}

===Kinship===
{{dl|
;gəsta
:n.
:family, relatives, descendants

;ñanɛvo
:n.
:relative

;mɛwɛnomɔ
:n.
:parents

;mɛwɛ
:n.
:father

;omɔ
:n.
:mother

;mɛya
:n.
:brother

;iñomu
:n.
:sister

;gəru
:n.
:son

;ve
:n.
:son

;tara
:n.
:daughter

;isavru
:n.
:husband

;nɛtsi
:n.
:wife

;uyse’abɔ
:n.
:bride, fiancée

;sɛpsɔya
:n.
:significant other; boyfriend/girlfriend

;mɛpsi
:n.
:grandfather

;opsi
:n.
:grandmother

;ruña
:n.
:uncle; male cousin

;asaña
:n.
:aunt; female cousin
|tight}}

===The nobility===
{{dl|
;sɛtsa’ɔk
:n.
:emperor

;de’áxa
:n.
:king, ruler

;tsɔska
:n.
:queen

;sasama
:n.
:baron, lord

;sasanzi
:n.
:baroness

;nata
:n.
:noble status

;natavo
:n.
:person of noble descent

;erɔvo
:n.
:sir; man of high prestige

;yɔsa
:n.
:lady; woman of high prestige

;səmvo
:n.
:successor, heir

;de’ax{{IPA|ɛ́}}to
:n.
:dynasty
|tight}}

===Occupations===
{{dl|
;aga
:n.
:craftsman

;baxa
:n.
:captain (of a ship)

;daspo
:n.
:warrior

;ɛbo
:n.
:peasant, farmer

;gaxɛtu
:n.
:veteran, pensioner

;gəñobo
:n.
:singer (of religious songs), reciter (of epic poems), eulogist

;gɔlna’a
:n.
:researcher, explorer

;gɔni
:n.
:member of the merchant guild

;gorɔyvo
:n.
:prophet, guru

;kɛyfo
:n.
:spearman

;kəlna
:n.
:teacher

;kwədaspo
:n.
:junior craftsman

;manavo
:n.
:consultant; member of the city council

;mɛgagɔy
:n.
:general, military commander

;məvo
:n.
:traveller

;mɔlado
:n.
:guard, sentinel, custodian

;mvopso
:n.
:musician

;nilədo
:n.
:judge

;ñaysə
:n.
:slave, servant

;ñoxubo
:n.
:adventurer

;ɔyalsi
:n.
:marketwoman

;ɔyalvo
:n.
:trader, merchant

;ɔyrolvo
:n.
:entertainer, performer

;omɔlvo
:n.
:weaver

;ore’e
:n.
:master craftsman

;perɛdo
:n.
:leader, executive

;re’abo
:n.
:student, apprentice

;rulɛwi
:n.
:writer, poet

;rulsi
:n.
:prostitute

;runah
:n.
:priest

;ruyɔvo
:n.
:inventor, creative person

;sɛvɛsɛtɔy
:n.
:monk, hermit, ascetic

;susuvo
:n.
:messenger

;tovo
:n.
:assistant

;tsɛvobo
:n.
:innkeeper

;tsen{{IPA|ɛ́}}ña
:n.
:scholar

;tsɔbo
:n.
:shepherd

;uyɔlvo
:n.
:philosopher

;xo’avo
:n.
:hunter
|tight}}

===Other terms for people===
{{dl|
;avavo
:n.
:offender, culprit, criminal

;balbo
:n.
:sick person

;dɔ’ɔ
:n.
:physically weak person

;ɛnzədɛ
:n.
:straight-haired person

;ɛñəmu
:n.
:curly-haired person

;əbivo
:n.
:blind person

;əstədo
:n.
:widow(er), orphan

;iravo
:n
:outsider (derog.)

;kalɛste
:n.
:active person; one who takes charge of things

;karo
:n.
:helpful person

;kətsɔ
:n.
:patron, sponsor, generous person

;luki
:n.
:versatile person, clever person, genius

;maməlgɛ
:n.
:honest person, trustworthy person

;mɛlɛdu
:n.
:member (of a group or category)

;meko
:n.
:lookalike

;mepsovo
:n.
:outgoing person

;məmova
:n.
:business partner

;məropso
:n.
:one who cannot forgive

;mlaña
:n.
:visitor, stranger

;mɔdɔnɛ
:n.
:mysterious person

;musmə
:n.
:fool

;mpɛbo
:n.
:mourner, one who is in grief

;mpunə
:n.
:heathen

;mvɔrula
:n.
:respected person, one who has good social standing

;mvoñuvo
:n.
:founder, initiator

;mvora
:n.
:newcomer

;nospo
:n.
:dying person

;nzɛwəspo
:n.
:recipient, addressee

;ñabo
:n.
:one who does not pay attention

;ñalvo
:n.
:berserk; one who is mad with rage

;ñoluvo
:n.
:rival

;oldɛbi
:n.
:one who lacks foresight

;otsevo
:n.
:experienced person; expert

;pauvo
:n.
:acrobat; person with skillful movement

;petuvo
:n.
:refugee, exiled person

;rañavo
:n.
:insane person, lunatic

;rɛnavo
:n.
:miser, scrooge

;rɛvlevo
:n.
:opponent, antagonist

;rosa’o
:n.
:citizen (person with full civic rights)

;rudɔ
:n.
:role model; archetype

;ruñɔxɔ
:n.
:liar, hypocrite, double-dealer

;səmədo
:n.
:stubborn person

;simvo
:n.
:one who prefers to be alone

;sɔsa
:n.
:slut, whore

;spɛspo
:n.
:hero; strategist

;stasavo
:n.
:changed person; convert

;suñabo
:n.
:ally; one who cooperates

;tagɔvo
:n.
:rebel; traitor

;tivo
:n.
:friend

;toñɔ
:n.
:strict person, authoritative person

;uylospo
:n.
:inexperienced person; amateur

;uysɔbo
:n.
:jealous person

;vono
:n.
:aggressive person

;wayfo
:n.
:confident person, one who is prudent

;wemə
:n.
:neighbor

;we’ɔvo
:n.
:optimist; ambitious person
|tight}}

==Flora, fauna, and agriculture==
===Livestock===
{{dl|
;bɔ
:n.
:ox

;mɛsa
:n.
:cow, bull

;xɛvra
:n.
:sheep

;kwərə
:n.
:goat

;nzata
:n.
:pig

;nalo
:n.
:horse

;pə’águ
:n.
:pack horse

;aski
:n.
:stallion; war horse

;lɔyse
:n.
:poultry

;mpiña
:n.
:chicken

;lɛñanɛ
:n.
:goose

;lidu
:n.
:duck
|tight}}

===Other animals===
{{dl|
;tsə
:n.
:dog

;dəsmobo
:n.
:tracking dog

;ñufɛ
:n.
:cat

;sose
:n.
:mouse, rat

;yubuso
:n.
:oppossum

;nɔlsi
:n.
:squirrel

;xi’ɔ
:n.
:rabbit

;reyo
:n.
:fox

;tilɛ
:n.
:tiger

;dɔ’ɛ
:n.
:wild boar

;tikasa
:n.
:llama

;yɛski
:n.
:bird

;gɛxu
:n.
:eagle

;tali
:n.
:hawk, falcon

;tɔfu
:n.
:owl

;adavo
:n.
:crow, raven

;limvə
:n.
:heron

;romoldu
:n.
:peacock

;mpɛsa
:n.
:fish

;oño
:n.
:crayfish, crustacean

;pisoño
:n.
:crab

;gɛbo
:n.
:seashell

;ntɔvu
:n.
:turtle

;se’əspo
:n.
:frog

;ɛma
:n.
:snake

;mogi
:n.
:worm

;nudɛ
:n.
:snail

;ɔyvinza
:n.
:insect

;ame
:n.
:fly

;amedalsu
:n.
:bee

;kusavo
:n.
:wasp, hornet

;tsətse
:n.
:louse

;mpeso
:n.
:spider

;yuska
:n.
:a legendary creature that eats people
|tight}}

===Animal-related words===
{{dl|
;əña
:n.
:animal

;əñamlu
:n.
:pet

;əñali
:n.
:young (of an animal)

;ɛsɛtsi
:n.
:type, species

;sudusa
:n.
:meat

;dəbu
:n.
:fat, oil

;te’o
:n.
:milk

;xɛvrine
:n.
:wool

;nakwi
:n.
:fur

;ntəwa
:n.
:tail

;xolnálo
:n.
:hoof

;munanɔ
:n.
:claw

;tɔwi
:n.
:horn

;mavli
:n.
:beak

;tɛde
:n.
:wing

;rɔva
:n.
:feather

;ŋkili
:n.
:egg

;mɔñi
:n.
:shell (of an egg)

;teseñu
:n.
:beehive

;dalsu
:n.
:honey

;kili
:n.
:wild, feral, fierce, dangerous

;koxi
:v.
:domesticate; keep (animals)

;mɛspɔra
:v.
:breed, raise (animals)

;bɔra
:v.
:feed

;ya’iga
:v.
:tie, bind

;rələh
:v.
:ride

;xo’a
:v.
:hunt, chase

;kweka
:n.
:game (hunted animals)

;esevo
:n.
:trap

;ti’aga
:n.
:net (especially for fishing)

;same
:v.
:bring down, hunt down, slay, prey upon
|tight}}

===Food crops===
{{dl|
;monzi
:n.
:grain

;boma
:n.
:wheat

;nigiwo
:n.
:rice

;afe
:n.
:fruit

;suni
:n.
:apple

;mpo
:n.
:plum

;wɛna
:n.
:vegetable

;kwaxa
:n.
:beans

;ñitsɔrə
:n.
:sweet potato

;sɔntu
:n.
:carrot

;nɛnagɔ
:n.
:cabbage

;nzukatu
:n.
:tomato

;yastɛ
:n.
:pumpkin, gourd

;ɔvɔdɛ
:n.
:beetroot

;bapsɛ
:n.
:onion

;saxə
:n.
:garlic

;kusə’a
:n.
:olive

;bɔsalɔ
:n.
:ginger

;kepə
:n.
:herb, spice

;xalu
:n.
:black pepper

;ŋkura
:n.
:cloves

;tulsu
:n.
:cinnamon

;naga
:n.
:cardamom

;gamu
:n.
:cumin

;wəsku
:n.
:turmeric, curcuma

;xiso
:n.
:coriander

;sasalgɔ
:n.
:sugar cane
|tight}}

===Other plants===
{{dl|
;nzi
:n.
:tree

;te’i
:n.
:willow tree

;mvaronowɛ
:n.
:beech tree

;ilu
:n.
:flower

;lanɔ
:n.
:rose

;əpse
:n.
:grass

;təska
:n.
:flax

;istixu
:n.
:cotton

;mpexəme
:n.
:tallgrass

;sasɔmɛ
:n.
:reed

;tsɔyɔspe
:n.
:moss

;tsɔxevo
:n.
:fungus, mushroom (in general)

;xɛrɔ
:n.
:a type of mushroom
|tight}}

===Plant-related words===
{{dl|
;ponə
:n.
:vegetation; plants

;itu
:n.
:blossom

;tsi
:n.
:seed

;bawo
:n.
:root

;xat
:n.
:wood

;mvaro
:n.
:rind, peel

;mɔñi
:n.
:shell (of a nut)

;bəsto
:n.
:trunk (of a tree)

;alnɔ
:n.
:branch, twig

;nɛpsonə
:n.
:leaf

;stonza
:n.
:needle, spike, thorn

;sɔño
:n.
:juice (of fruit)

;kwamɛdi
:n.
:tea, herbal infusion

;ntɔh
:n.
:forest

;xadalu
:n.
:woodland

;mvotsi
:v.erg
:grow

;avɔ
:v.
:flourish, thrive

;iluso
:v.
:bloom

;ŋkɛtsa
:v.
:wilt, wither, decay
|tight}}

===Other agricultural words===
{{dl|
;ɛbo
:n.
:peasant, farmer

;ɛlu
:n.
:farm

;naysi
:n.
:field

;mɛslu
:n.
:meadow, pastureland

;wəlu
:n.
:garden, orchard

;rɛbɛ
:n.
:fertile

;buli
:n.
:soil, earth

;bulnanɔ
:n.
:plough

;oñelu
:n.
:mill

;bɛru
:n.
:estate; land owned by a noble

;tsiso
:v.
:sow
|tight}}

==Weather and astronomy==
{{dl|
;tuyasa
:n.
:good weather

;rəlse
:n.
:hot weather

;avɛ
:n.
:bad weather

;səlu
:n.
:sky

;tol
:n.
:sun

;əbe
:n.
:moon

;vi
:n.
:star

;sivɔy
:n.
:cloud

;kara
:n.
:fog, mist

;mpəlɔ
:n.
:rain

;kisɛ
:n.
:snow

;mola
:n.
:ice

;alsɔ
:n.
:wind

;sexad
:n.
:storm

;sexaspi
:n.
:hurricane

;agono
:n.
:thunder

;kexə
:n.
:lightning

;əftap{{IPA|ə́}}lɔ
:n.
:rainbow

;bogə
:n.
:heat

;rɛlga
:n.
:warm, hot

;lətsu
:n.
:cold

;iwe
:v.erg
:freeze

;asna
:v.erg
:be dry

;wəñə
:v.erg
:be wet

;mlana
:v.refl
:flood
|tight}}

==The human body==
===Body parts===
{{dl|
;ŋkwayfo
:n.
:body

;əmo
:n.
:head

;
:n.
:brain

;ɛne
:n.
:hair

;bəsla
:n.
:beard

;kolduma
:n.
:face

;
:n.
:forehead

;soldu
:n.
:eyes

;
:n.
:eyebrows

;
:n.
:eyelid

;sɔga
:n.
:ears

;puma
:n.
:nose

;
:n.
:tip of the nose

;
:n.
:nostril

;bexa
:n.
:cheek

;mab
:n.
:mouth

;kayma
:n.
:lip

;tselɔ
:n.
:tooth

;
:n.
:palate

;koma
:n.
:tongue

;pɛnɔra
:n.
:jaw, chin

;
:n.
:throat

;
:n.
:neck

;mvintu
:n.
:shoulder

;eta
:n.
:arm

;tsoñeta
:n.
:elbow

;nzeda
:n.
:wrist, forearm

;to
:n.
:hand

;nɛtso
:n.
:palm

;toma
:n.
:fist

;dəñe
:n.
:finger

;lanɛvo
:n.
:index finger

;
:n.
:thumb

;
:n.
:knuckle

;kwe’əñe
:n.
:fingernail

;bitsi
:n.
:leg

;tso
:n.
:knee; joint

;
:n.
:ankle

;xol
:n.
:foot

;
:n.
:sole

;ñəba
:n.
:toe

;
:n.
:chest, torso

;
:n.
:breasts (of a woman)

;mpəwa
:n.
:nipple (of a woman)

;
:n.
:nipple (of a man)

;mvusmo
:n.
:belly

;
:n.
:navel

;
:n.
:waist

;
:n.
:hips, pelvis

;boña
:n.
:back

;
:n.
:butt

;
:n.
:anus

;
:n.
:crotch, genitals

;
:n.
:penis

;
:n.
:testicles

;
:n.
:vagina

;
:n.
:clitoris

;
:n.
:pubic hair

;
:n.
:bone

;lamɔ
:n.
:spine

;
:n.
:ribs

;xañɔvo
:n.
:muscle

;
:n.
:body fat

;mɔdɛ
:n.
:heart

;əme
:n.
:liver

;xorɔ
:n.
:guts

;kəsa
:n.
:flesh and blood

;sauke
:n.
:blood

;gatsɔmɛ
:n.
:sweat

;mpɛsɔmɛ
:n.
:tears

;
:n.
:saliva

;smɛnɔ
:n.
:gall

;pɛsala
:n.
:feces, excrements

;
:n.
:urine

;
:n.
:semen
|tight}}

===Senses and bodily actions===
{{dl|
;nzəna
:v.erg
:breathe, be alive

;ena
:v.erg
:see, notice

;tsɔve
:v.
:watch, observe

;kasəl
:v.
:examine, inspect, look closely

;buna
:v.
:hear, listen

;kwɛsta
:n.
:noise

;magɛsta
:n.
:silence

;dubɔ
:v.erg
:smell (perceive scent)

;dəñɛ
:v.
:taste, savour

;algɔ
:n.
:sweet

;e’u
:n.
:sour

;ɛnɔ
:n.
:bitter

;tul
:v.
:eat

;nzugi
:v.
:devour, eat greedily

;savla
:v.
:drink

;pɛnə
:v.
:bite

;kwɛtsa
:v.
:chew

;inzɔ
:v.
:swallow

;ani
:n.
:hungry

;konzo
:v.
:lick

;malɛ
:v.
:suck

;utse
:v.
:blow

;lɛldɛ
:v.
:touch, caress

;spɛ
:v.erg
:feel, experience (of physical sensations)

;ogab
:v.
:suffer, feel pain

;nodɛ
:v.
:reach for

;ɛsul
:v.
:take, catch, grab

;ɔdɛ
:v.
:take, pull

;dənzo
:v.
:grasp, handle, manipulate; ply

;yana
:v.
:cling to, hold fast, retain

;mvunɛ
:v.
:have, hold

;la’e
:v.
:lift, hold up (physically)

;dalmə
:v.
:present; lift towards

;solvo
:v.
:bring, carry

;tsɔmva
:v.
:drop, let go of

;kəh
:v.
:throw

;tsugə
:v.
:press, squeeze, pinch

;mvawɛ
:v.
:push, shove; urge

;kume
:v.
:punch; test

;
:v.
:hit, beat

;tsoñəba
:v.
:kick

;xoñi
:v.
:break, tear apart

;sili
:v.
:pierce, stab

;əxra
:v.
:scratch; dig

;ñədɛ
:v.
:wipe

;bəbɔ
:v.
:rub

;
:v.
:embrace, hug

;
:v.
:kiss

;
:v.
:make love

;ləmo
:v.
:smile

;ñañɔ
:v.
:laugh

;
:v.
:frown

;
:v.
:nod

;
:v.
:shake one's head

;mpi
:v.erg
:cry, weep

;wesi
:v.
:scream

;nzəxrə
:v.
:yell, shout

;mvəgɛ
:v.
:sing

;mve
:v.
:say, speak

;sɛwə
:v.
:whisper

;masto
:v.
:whistle

;rɔnzobe
:n.
:voice

;ɔrɛ
:v.
:stand

;xəme
:v.
:stand up straight

;mpɛ
:v.erg
:sit

;xodah
:v.
:rest, relax

;ñada
:v.erg
:sleep

;
:v.
:wake up

;xañɔ
:v.
:move

;ntada
:v.
:stop, finish

;kə
:v.
:go, walk

;kwɛno
:v.
:walk around, stroll

;otɛ
:v.
:run

;pɛpɔy
:v.
:dance

;se’ə
:v.
:jump

;
:v.
:go on tip-toes

;
:v.
:sneak

;kəlu
:n.
:step

;tsɛ
:v.refl
:wash oneself

;əbu
:v.refl
:swim

;nəlga
:v.
:turn

;mɔysa
:v.
:go backward; retreat, recede

;ɔlatsa
:v.
:tire, exhaust oneself

;lesəgɔ
:v.
:tremble

;
:v.
:flinch, jerk, shudder

;pə
:v.erg
:fall

;bal
:v.erg
:lie, lie down

;
:v.
:rise up

;
:v.
:bow

;ulbo
:v.
:crouch, kneel

;kəñɛma
:v.
:crawl

;
:v.
:lean against sth.

;pɛsa
:v.
:defecate

;
:v.
:urinate

;tsatsa
:v.
:sneeze

;radɛna
:v.
:cough

;bɛle
:v.
:burp, hiccup

;ɔsinə
:v.erg
:choke

;tsuto
:v.
:spit

;wimvɔ
:v.
:vomit

;gasta
:v.
:sweat, perspire

;rɛtsisa
:v.
:bleed
|tight}}

===Body condition===
{{dl|
;rɛtsə
:n.
:nature (of a thing/person), characteristic attribute

;mu
:n.
:semblance, looks

;əlmo
:n.
:beautiful, attractive

;yumu
:n.
:neat, pretty, cute

;navɔ
:n.
:ordinary-looking, average-sized

;bɛgɔ
:n.
:puny, undesirable

;rifə
:n.
:ugly, scary

;ulpi
:n.
:size

;tətsɔ
:n.
:big, fat

;asi
:n.
:thick, obese

;mewa
:n.
:stout, heavy, broad-shouldered

;olto
:n.
:thin, slender, skinny

;sewe
:n.
:tall, high

;mvɔ
:n.
:short, small

;nabaña
:n.
:tiny, little, dwarf-sized

;katsu
:n.
:power, strength

;mɛgɔ
:n.
:mighty, intimidating, powerful

;kunə
:n.
:tough, muscular

;ɛtsɛ
:n.
:weak, fragile

;dɔ’ɔ
:n.
:weary, tired, physically weak

;lɛlta
:n.
:graceful, agile, nimble, flexible

;pauvo
:n.
:person with skillful movement

;kɔla
:n.
:clumsy person

;ñad{{IPA|ə́}}nzo
:n.
:skill, dexterity, sleight of hand

;ɛnzədɛ
:n.
:straight-haired person

;ɛñəmu
:n.
:curly-haired person

;mɛpsɔgo
:n.
:drunk, intoxicated
|tight}}

===Health and disease===
{{dl|
;laste
:n.
:health

;nɛsɔ’u
:n.
:not feeling well

;nɛsɔ
:n.
:disease

;əno
:n.
:disease, illness, plague

;ñu’o
:n.
:pain

;ñu’əmo
:n.
:headache

;boñamad
:n.
:backache

;
:n.
:injury, wound

;rəstə
:n.
:scar

;kwayo
:n.
:skin disease

;tolta
:n.
:sunburn

;ale
:n.
:fever

;əbivo
:n.
:blind person

;uño
:n.
:lame, crippled

;əkə
:v.
:hobble, limp

;ɛrula
:n.
:impotent

;lamatɛ
:n.
:medicine (field of study)

;orovo
:n.
:doctor

;orono
:n.
:medicine (potion, medical drug)

;lalpɔ
:n.
:medicine (cure-inducing treatment)

;bəduspo
:n.
:bandage

;mabo
:n.
:massage
|tight}}

===Life and death===
{{dl|
;ntalu
:n.
:death

;nospo
:n.
:dying person

;omva
:n.
:corpse, dead body

;waslu
:n.
:grave, tomb

;tsɛsə
:v.
:be born

;tsɛsəbo
:n.
:baby, infant

;ntsəbe
:n.
:menstruation

;meyasa
:n.
:stillbirth, miscarriage

;mosa
:v.erg
:grow up, become an adult

;no
:v.erg
:die

;tutsi
:v.refl
:commit suicide
|tight}}

==The mind==
{{dl|
;mɔtsa
:n.
:soul, mind, personality

;nadana
:n.
:emotion, feeling

;ñam{{IPA|ɛ́}}da
:n.
:opinion, conviction, credo

;dənziya
:n.
:logic, reason

;mɔkə
:n.
:contradiction, inconsistency, flawed logic

;mɛda
:v.
:have an opinion about, assess, deem, review

;dənzi
:v.
:prove, demonstrate, draw conclusions, argue for sth.
|tight}}

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Buruya Nzaysa/Lexicon

2025-02-01T17:28:10Z

Cedh: +1

== Dictionary of Buruya Nzaysa ==

Ergative verbs, which require special inverse participant marking on the auxiliary, are classed as ''v.erg'', and reflexive verbs, which require reflexive participant marking where regular verbs would use intransitive auxiliary forms, are classed as ''v.refl''.

Unpredictable deverbal forms will be given in the morphology column, marked with the abbreviations {{sc|vn}} (verbal noun) and {{sc|ger}} (gerund).

'''See also:'''
* [[../|Buruya Nzaysa grammar sketch]]
* [[../Thematic dictionary|A thematic dictionary of Buruya Nzaysa]]

'''Etymology:'''
* Ad. = [[Adāta]]
* Aff. = [[Affanonic]]
* F. = [[Fáralo]]
* Gez. = [[Gezoro]]
* Kib. = [[Kibülʌiṅ]]
* Me. = [[Meshi]]
* Mer. = [[Merneha]]
* Miw. = [[Miwan languages|Old Eastern Miwan]]
* N.A. = [[Ndok Aisô]]
* Ndd. = [[Delta Naidda]]
* PPI = [[Proto-Peninsular]]
* PW = [[Proto-Western]]
* Thok. = [[Thokyunèhòta]]
* Tl. = [[Tlaliolz]]
* Vyl. = [[User:Zhen Lin/Vylessa|Vylessa]]
* Xš. = [[Xšali]]
* unmarked = [[Ndak Ta]]

1459 words.

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
! class="l"| '''word'''
! '''morphology'''
! '''type'''
! '''definition'''
! '''etymology'''
|-
| ada || {{sc|1p}} adɛ, {{sc|2p}} ada’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || to, towards (allative) || ''anda''
|-
| adavo || || n. || crow, raven || ''adwabu'' "the dark one"
|-
| aduna || || n. || attractive young woman || {{Ad|adūnā}} "girl"
|-
| afe || || n. || fruit || ''apwi''
|-
| aga || || n. || craftsman || ''arbwa''
|-
| agɛ || || v.erg || be, exist || ''abwe'' "stable"
|-
| agono || || n. || thunder || ''abwodnodn''
|-
| ah || {{sc|1p}} axe, {{sc|2p}} adɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || of, belonging to (possessive) || ''âk''
|-
| ako || || n. || origin, source || {{NAis|akô}}
|-
| ala || {{sc|1p}} ale, {{sc|2p}} aldɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || without, except for, unless || ''al''
|-
| aldo || || n. || slice || ''alendu'' "that which has been divided"
|-
| ale || || n. || fever || ''ali'' "fire, heat, warmth"
|-
| alə || {{sc|vn}} aləñə || v.erg || split, separate, distinguish || ''alen''
|-
| algɔ || || n. || sweet || ''algo''
|-
| alme || || adv. || surely, certainly, invariably, without exception, of course || ''al mi'' "without none"
|-
| alnɔ || || n. || branch, twig || {{Ndd|alïnår}}
|-
| alɔra || || n. || wall; separator || (''alə'' + ''-ɔra'': "split-thing")
|-
| alpu || || v. || manufacture || ''alpau'' "create"
|-
| alpula || || n. || man-made, artificial || (''alpu'' + ''-la'')
|-
| alsɔ || || n. || wind || ''altò''
|-
| alu || || cj. || although, despite || ''al wau'' "without regard for"
|-
| ame || || n. || fly || ''ammi''
|-
| amedalsu || || n. || bee || (''ame'' + ''dalsu'': "honey-fly")
|-
| amo || {{sc|vn}} amɔ’a || v. || travel || ''abmod'' "walk"
|-
| ani || || n. || hungry || ''anai'' "empty"
|-
| aña || || v. || fly || ''alnia''
|-
| añi || || n. || war || ''angài''
|-
| arawa || || n. || dinner || ''arâwa''
|-
| arawi || || n. || banquet || (''arawa'' + ''-wi'': "big dinner")
|-
| asa || || n. || woman || ''asa''
|-
| asaña || || n. || aunt; female cousin || ''asa ngane'' "connected woman"
|-
| asi || || n. || thick, obese || {{Fá|asin}} "heavy"
|-
| aski || || n. || stallion; war horse || {{NAis|akseu}}
|-
| asna || {{sc|vn}} asnana || v.erg || be dry || ''asnàn'' "dry"
|-
| Asp{{IPA|ɛ́}}bu || || top. || [[Azbǽbu]] || {{Fá|Azbǽbu}}
|-
| Atale || || top. || the [[Empire of Athalē]] || {{Ad|Athalē}}
|-
| atsa || || adv. || still; as it stands; in the end || ''ande ta'' "stand-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| atsɔyo || || n. || 2nd day of the week || ''[lu airti] anto'' "day of the old wise one" + ''-yo''
|-
| atsɔlu || || n. || the past || ''antolau'' "old-place"
|-
| avavo || || n. || offender, culprit, criminal || ''abâbu''
|-
| avɛ || || n. || mud, dirt; bad weather || ''abâi'' "swamp"
|-
| avɛlu || || n. || swamp, bog || ''abâilau''
|-
| avɔ || || v. || flourish, thrive, prosper || {{Ndd|avwa}}
|-
| axa || || n. || air || ''âka''
|-
| Aydók || || n. || a person of [[Ndok]] ethnicity || (''ay-'' + ''Nzok'')
|-
| aymɛ || || pron. || {{sc|1pl}} possessive || (possibly ''âk waim'' "of those near me")
|-
| ayo || || v. || hope || {{Ndd|ayo}}
|-
| ayrəmo || || n. || candle || ''akremo'' "wax"
|-
| ayru || || pron. || {{sc|3.anim}} possessive || ''âk rud'' "of the man"
|-
| ays{{IPA|ɔ́}}mɛ || || n. || drink || (''ay-'' + ''sɔmɛ'' "water")
|-
| badolu || || n. || morning || ''bandoro'' "early meal" + ''-lau''
|-
| bagɛbo || || n. || cooking spoon, ladle (used mainly for stirring) || {{Fá|eboágebu}} "pusher"
|-
| bal || || v.erg || lie (down) || ''bal''
|-
| balbo || || n. || sick person || ''balbu''
|-
| bani || || v. || pray || ''banai'' "worship"
|-
| banilu || || n. || temple || ''banailau''
|-
| bapsɛ || || n. || onion || ''bâpu mpaim'' "cry-root"
|-
| barɛda || || v. || get, acquire || ''bâre ta'' "have-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| baste || || n. || cheap; decent || ''basti'' "gentle"
|-
| batsa || || n. || stick, staff || ''batsn''
|-
| batsale || || n. || torch || ''batsn ali'' "fire-stick"
|-
| bawo || || n. || root; anchor || ''bâpu''
|-
| baulu || || n. || harbor || ''bâpulau'' "anchor-place"
|-
| baxa || || n. || captain (of a ship) || {{Fá|baogas}}
|-
| bɛgɔ || || n. || puny, undesirable || ''bekwâu'' "insufficient"
|-
| bɛle || || v. || burp, hiccup || ''bâil''
|-
| bɛna || || v. || beg || {{Fá|bæna}}
|-
| bɛru || || n. || estate; land owned by a noble || {{Fá|bæru}}
|-
| begu || || n. || respect || {{Fá|boéigur}}
|-
| besti || || n. || orgy || {{Fá|boéisti}}
|-
| bexa || || n. || cheek || ''bikng'' "jaw"
|-
| bəbɔ || || v. || rub || ''bimbo''
|-
| bədu || || n. || tight; close-by; immediate || ''bendut''
|-
| bəduga || || adv. || almost || (''bədu'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| bəduspo || || n. || bandage (med.) || ''bendutpu'' "that which is tight"
|-
| bəñi || || n. || provisions, supplies, stored food || ''bengkai'' "amount, quantity"
|-
| bəsla || || n. || beard || ''betsla''
|-
| bəsto || || n. || trunk (of a tree) || ''bistu''
|-
| bibɛ || || v. || perform || {{Fá|ebíəbe}} "sing"
|-
| bitsi || || n. || leg || ''baitrai''
|-
| bɔ || || n. || ox || ''baus''
|-
| bɔra || || v. || feed || ''bora'' "nurse" (v.)
|-
| bɔro || || n. || ceremonial meal || {{Ndd|båddo}}
|-
| bɔsalɔ || || n. || ginger || ''bâpu sadlo'' "rich-tasting root"
|-
| bɔve || || v. || fail || {{Ndd|båve}}
|-
| bɔvla || || n. || mistake, blunder, error || (''bɔve'' + ''-la'')
|-
| bɔ’a || || cj. || either/or || ''boda''
|-
| bo || || num. || four || ''bu''
|-
| bogə || || n. || heat || ''bubwits'' "warm"
|-
| boke || || n. || disadvantage, problem || {{NAis|bok'eu}} "buttocks" (via "downside")
|-
| boma || || n. || wheat || ''borma''
|-
| boña || || n. || back (of the body) || ''bongga''
|-
| boñamad || || n. || backache || ''bongga madn'' "violent back"
|-
| botso || || v. || attack || ''bontu'' "stab"
|-
| botsoño || || n. || square, rectangle || ''butsonggu'' "thing with four corners"
|-
| botu || || n. || awl, auger || {{Fá|boutu-u}} "thing for piercing"
|-
| bu || || adv. || again || ''bau''
|-
| buda || || adv. || yet again, even more || ''bau ta''
|-
| buli || || n. || soil, earth || ''baulai''
|-
| buliyo || || n. || 5th day of the week || ''[lu airti] baulai'' "day of the earth" + ''-yo''
|-
| bulnanɔ || || n. || plough || (''buli'' + ''nanɔ'': "soil-cutter")
|-
| buna || || v. || hear, listen || ''budna''
|-
| buña || || n. || prize, trophy, bonus || ''bungia'' "reward" (v.)
|-
| bura || || n. || notable, outstanding, unusual || ''baura'' "great"
|-
| Buruya || || top. || [[Buruya]] || {{Me|buru}} "fortification, settlement" + ''-ya'' (honorific)
|-
| da || {{sc|vn}} dasa || v. || fight || ''das''
|-
| daba || || n. || clean || {{Fá|daba}} "white"
|-
| dal || || cj. || but, however || ''dal''
|-
| dalmə || {{sc|vn}} dalmeda || v. || present; lift towards; suggest; show || ''dalmit''
|-
| dalsu || || n. || honey || ''dalsur''
|-
| darə || {{sc|vn}} darəma || v. || warn || ''darem''
|-
| daspo || || n. || warrior || ''daspu'' "fighter"
|-
| dava || || v. || rot || {{Ndd|davwa}} "spoiled food"
|-
| dayta || || v. || take revenge || {{NAis|daihiteu}}
|-
| da’ɛfɛ || {{sc|vn}} da’ɛfɛda || v. || hesitate, waver, be unsure || {{NAis|daxêfêd}} "careful, cautious, prudent"
|-
| da’ɔ || || n. || male || ''dado''
|-
| dɛlu || || n. || the present || ''daid'' "this year" + ''-lau''
|-
| dɛmi || || v. || shave || ''depmai''
|-
| dɛñə || || n. || mountain, hill || (back-formed from ''Dɛñəməl'')
|-
| Dɛñəməl || || top. || the [[Rathedān]] || ''daing emwel'' "western mountains"
|-
| dedi || || n. || option, possibility, chance || ''ditai'' "possible"
|-
| dediga || || adv. || maybe, possibly, conceivably || (''dedi'' "option" + ''-ga'')
|-
| demit || || n. || profit || {{Fá|deimit}} "receive; yield"
|-
| dəsmobo || || n. || tracking dog || ''desmogbu'' "hunter"
|-
| dəsmoh || {{sc|vn}} dəsmɔxa || v. || search for || ''desmog'' "hunt"
|-
| desu || || n. || normal, usual, typical, real || ''disau''
|-
| desuda || || v. || adjust; standardize || ''disau ta'' "normal-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| desuga || || adv. || usually, typically, out of habit || (''desu'' "normal" + ''-ga'')
|-
| dexo || || n. || item, unit, element || ''dikon'' "thing"
|-
| de’áxa || || n. || king; ruler || ''diàka''
|-
| de’ax{{IPA|ɛ́}}tɔ || || n. || dynasty || {{NAis|dixêheuteu}} (influenced by ''de’áxa'')
|-
| de’ɔva || || v. || imagine || ''dioba''
|-
| de’ɔvla || || n. || guess, scenario, hypothesis || ''diobala'' "that which is imagined"
|-
| dəba || {{sc|vn}} dəbaña || v. || store, keep, preserve || ''dimbang''
|-
| dəbalu || || n. || repository, storage room, pantry || ''dimbanglau''
|-
| dəbaño || || n. || box, chest, case || ''dimbanggu'' "that which is used for storing"
|-
| dəbu || || n. || fat, oil || ''dimbau''
|-
| dənɛrɛ || || adv. || namely, specifically, in fact || ''[âk lu] dene raing'' "with the reason that"
|-
| dənzi || {{sc|vn}} dənzina || v. || prove, demonstrate, draw conclusions, argue for sth. || ''dene-sien'' "prove with reason"
|-
| dənziya || || n. || logic, reason || (''dənzi'' + ''-ya'')
|-
| dənzo || || v. || grasp, handle, manipulate; ply || ''[nte lus] dengi su'' "do with the fingers"
|-
| dəña’o || || adv. || please || ''dengie a dom [nin]'' "if it pleases you"
|-
| dəñɛ || || v. || taste, enjoy || ''dengie'' "please" (v.)
|-
| dəñe || || n. || finger || ''dengi''
|-
| dəpse || || n. || child || ''dempi''
|-
| dəxa || || n. || spirit, supernatural being || ''dêka'' "mystical"
|-
| dimu || || v. || set free || {{Fá|edíəmu}}
|-
| dɔsa || || n. || blanket || {{Gez|dâuzâ}} (K)
|-
| dɔwɔ || || v. || ponder, consider in detail; meditate || ''dowo'' "grumble"
|-
| dɔxa || || n. || ladder || ''dogâ''
|-
| dɔ’ɛ || || n. || wild boar || {{NAis|dôxeu}}
|-
| dɔ’ɔ || || n. || weary, tired; physically weak person || ''dodo'' "be weary"
|-
| domah || || n. || glass (substance) || {{Fá|doumah}}
|-
| domu || || n. || sandals || ''domau'' "shoe"
|-
| dosa || {{sc|vn}} dosama || v. || regret || ''dusam''
|-
| du || || num. || five || ''dau''
|-
| dubɔ || || v.erg || smell || ''dumbo''
|-
| dulbɛ || || n. || broom, brush || ''dulbe''
|-
| dume || || v. || advertize, display || ''dungwi'' "praise"
|-
| dumeya || || n. || the annual trade fair || (''dume'' + ''-ya'')
|-
| dutə || || n. || sacred, holy || ''dautin''
|-
| duwi || || n. || white || ''dauwai''
|-
| ɛbo || || n. || peasant, farmer || ''aimbu''
|-
| ɛde || || n. || mast, pole, column || {{Fá|edéi}}
|-
| ɛdeta || || n. || crossbar, joist || (''ɛde'' + ''eta'': "arm column")
|-
| ɛdə || || v. || have, own; run a business || ''aitn'' "keep"
|-
| ɛflɛ || || n. || necklace || ''eplain'' "ball, bead"
|-
| ɛgetse || || n. || stairs || {{Fá|egéi čeiŋ}} "up-walk"
|-
| ɛgo || || n. || dead-end effort || {{Fá|ægóu}} "awry, wrong, off"
|-
| ɛkuyo || || n. || 3rd day of the week || ({{Fá|ekúi}} "blessing" + ''-yo'')
|-
| ɛlu || || n. || farm || ''ainlau''
|-
| ɛlu || || pron. || everywhere || ''elul'' or ''ewe lau''
|-
| ɛma || || n. || snake, serpent || ''aimwa''
|-
| ɛna || || n. || empty || {{Fá|æna}}
|-
| ɛnalu || || n. || ground, floor, bottom || ''ainalau'' "downward place"
|-
| ɛne || || n. || hair || ''aini''
|-
| ɛnɔ || || n. || bitter, alkaline, limy || ''eno''
|-
| ɛnta || || v. || descend, go downward || ''aina ta''
|-
| ɛnzədɛ || || n. || straight-haired person || ''aini sête'' "tidy hair"
|-
| ɛnzɔmɛ || || n. || eel || ''aimwa saungwe'' "water-snake"
|-
| ɛñəmu || || n. || curly-haired person || ''aini emau'' "loose hair"
|-
| ɛñɔdo || || n. || money || ''ingkotu'' "wealth; possessions"
|-
| ɛñu || || v.erg || feel dizzy; be irritated || ''ainggàu'' "crooked, askew"
|-
| ɛraga || || v. || be ineffective, waste time || ''erabbwa'' "fail to bloom"
|-
| ɛrɔdɔ || || v. || venture, strive for || ''eroto'' "work towards"
|-
| ɛru || || pron. || everybody || ''ewe rud'' "every man"
|-
| ɛru || || v. || prevent, inhibit, avoid || (back-formed from ''ɛrula'', reanalysed as containing patientive ''-la'')
|-
| ɛrula || || n. || impotent || ''eraula'' "fail to love"
|-
| ɛsɛtsi || || n. || type (of thing); species (of animal) || {{Fá|æsečə}}
|-
| ɛsmɛwɛ || || n. || tradition, custom || ''etsn mebwe'' "method of the father"
|-
| ɛsola || || n. || tax || ''esula'' "that which is taken"
|-
| ɛsul || {{sc|vn}} ɛsuna || v. || take, catch, grab || ''esul''
|-
| ɛte || || n. || day || ''airti''
|-
| ɛtsɛ || || n. || weak, fragile || ''ainte'' "feeble"
|-
| ɛtsəñu || || v. || mimic || ''etsen ngu'' "behave like"
|-
| ɛtsu || || pron. || always || ''etsau''
|-
| ɛxɛ || || pron. || everything || ''ege''
|-
| ɛ’i- || || aux. || {{sc|opt.aux}} ("want") || ''âidai'' "need"
|-
| e || {{sc|acc}} ə || pron. || {{sc|1sg}} || ''i''
|-
| ega || || n. || straight || ''ikwa''
|-
| emodo || || pron. || how much, how many (interrogative pronoun) || ''iwa mondu'' "which amount?"
|-
| ena || || v.erg || see, notice || ''ina''
|-
| enamɛ || {{sc|vn}} enamɛ || v. || check; compare || ''ina ngwâi'' "see-think"
|-
| erɔ || || v.erg || be open; get opened || ''iro''
|-
| erɔvo || || n. || sir; man of high prestige || ''idâu'' "nobleman" + ''-bu'' (influenced by {{Ndd|eddå}})
|-
| es-/s- || || aux. || {{sc|emph.aux}} ("can indeed") || ''is-'' (hortative mood prefix)
|-
| eseda || || v.erg || surprise || ''isi ta'' "sudden-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| esevo || || n. || trap || ''isibu'' "that which acts suddenly"
|-
| esopo || || v. || forget || {{Ad|ezopho}} "lose, misplace"
|-
| esugo || || n. || evening || ''iswau ubwu'' "early night"
|-
| eta || || n. || arm || ''itwam''
|-
| ewə || {{sc|acc}} ewa || det. || which one (selective interrogative) || ''iwa''
|-
| ewitsa || || pron. || how, in what way || ''iwa etsn''
|-
| exɛ || || n. || the first one || (same source as {{Ndd|ïkë}})
|-
| exu || || n. || serene, placid; patient; tolerant || (back-formed from ''mexu'')
|-
| e’u || || n. || sour, acidic || ''idur''
|-
| əbabe || || v.erg || be lucky || ''erbambi'' "accidentally succeed"
|-
| əbe || || n. || moon || ''imbi''
|-
| əbe || || num. || hundred || ''imbi''
|-
| əbeyo || || n. || 4th day of the week || ''[lu airti] imbi'' "day of the moon" + ''-yo''
|-
| əbətsa || || n. || amused, cheerful || ''imbenta''
|-
| əbivo || || n. || blind person || ''imbaibu''
|-
| əbɔ- || || aux. || {{sc|cess.aux}} ("stop; interrupt") || ''erbo'' "rest" (v.)
|-
| əbu || {{sc|vn}} əbuyə || v.refl || swim || ''embur''
|-
| ədu || || n. || ocean || ''indùng''
|-
| əftah || {{sc|vn}} əftaxa || v. || shine, glow || ''eptàg''
|-
| əftap{{IPA|ə́}}lɔ || || n. || rainbow || (''əftah'' + ''mpəlɔ'': "rain-glowing")
|-
| əkə || || v. || hobble, limp || ''erkeng'' "fail to walk"
|-
| əlayra || || v. || convince; bargain || ''êlakra'' "urge" (v.)
|-
| əlgɛ || || n. || innocent || ''elge'' "clean"
|-
| əlmɔ || || n. || beautiful || ''ilmo''
|-
| əlu || || n. || bend in the road || ''emlau''
|-
| əme || || n. || liver || ''ingkwi''
|-
| əmi || || n. || name || ''imai''
|-
| əmɔh || {{sc|vn}} əmɔxa || v. || accept || ''ermâuk'' "fail to protest"
|-
| əmɔyla || || n. || compromise, middle ground || ''ermâukla'' "that which meets no protest"
|-
| əmo || || n. || head (of a person); top (of a tree); rim (of a wall); peak (of a hill) || ''imu''
|-
| əmona || || v.erg || realize, awake to sth. || ''em on ina'' "turn and see"
|-
| əmu || || v.erg || be out of control; be out of place || ''emau'' "loose"
|-
| əmuyso || || n. || noon || ''imu âk tol'' "peak of the sun"
|-
| əno || {{sc|vn}} ənona || v. || linger, remain, stay || ''ernon'' "fail to leave"
|-
| əno || || n. || disease, illness, plague || ''ernots'' "be seriously ill" (v.)
|-
| əña || || n. || animal || ''engka''
|-
| əñali || || n. || young (of an animal) || ''engka lairi''
|-
| əñamlu || || n. || pet || (''əña'' + ''mlu'': "home animal")
|-
| əño || || v. || kill || ''engku''
|-
| əpse || || n. || grass || ''empi''
|-
| ərawa || || v. || do sth. the wrong way; mess up || ''erwapa'' "fail to hit"
|-
| əsma || || v. || sew || ''isma''
|-
| əstədo || || n. || widow(er), orphan || ''istendu'' "one who has lost sb."
|-
| əsu || || n. || calendar date || ''iswau'' "night"
|-
| ətavo || || n. || key, wrench || ''irtabu'' "that which opens sth." (from ''iro ta'')
|-
| ətsa || || v. || stick; be attached; be trapped; be compelled to || ''inta'' "be hanging"
|-
| əvle || || n. || north || ''ibli''
|-
| əvre || || v. || strike down, crush, destroy || ''ebri'' "destroy"
|-
| əvrelɛ || || v. || spoil || (''əvre'' + ''-lɛ'')
|-
| əxra || {{sc|vn}} əxrana || v. || scratch, dig || ''egran''
|-
| əxrado || || n. || shovel || ''egrandu''
|-
| əye || || n. || black || ''ilki''
|-
| Falíni || || top. || [[Affalinnei]] || [[Affanonic|Aff.]] ''Affalinnei''
|-
| Fa’alɔ || || n. || the [[Fáralo]] people || {{Fá|Fáralo}}
|-
| fiya || || adv. || together || {{Miw|fwiljān}} "cooperation, teamwork"
|-
| fɔgau || || n. || decoration; artwork || {{Fá|fogau}} "created item"
|-
| ga || || cj. || or || {{Fá|boa}}
|-
| gadɛ || || v. || spare, have mercy || ''bwande'' "let stand"
|-
| gal- || || aux.pass || {{sc|pot.pass.aux}} ("may get done to oneself") || ''bwa-'' (probabilitive/permissive mood prefix) + ''-l'' (passive)
|-
| gamu || || n. || cumin || {{Ad|gamun}} < {{Xsh|gamun}}
|-
| gas-/gaso- || || aux. || {{sc|perm.aux}} ("may") || ''bwa-'' (probabilitive/permissive mood prefix) + ''su'' (proverb)
|-
| gase’ə || {{sc|vn}} gase’əna || v. || assume, suspect || ''bwasien'' "might prove"
|-
| gasta || || v. || sweat, perspire || ''bwats ta''
|-
| gastu || || n. || junk, rubbish, useless thing || {{Miw|gwāstu}} "dump"
|-
| gasu || || n. || shy, timid, reticent, cautious || {{Fá|gašu}} "rabbit"
|-
| gatatsi || || n. || ship, large boat || {{Fá|gatač}} "galley"
|-
| gatsɔmɛ || || n. || sweat || ''bwats saungwe'' "sweat-water"
|-
| gaxɛtu || || n. || veteran, pensioner || (''ga-'' + ''xɛtu'': "one who may retire")
|-
| gɛbo || || n. || seashell || {{Ndd|*gëbon}}
|-
| gɛxu || || n. || eagle || {{Gez|gwekud}} (K)
|-
| gɛyse || || n. || religious feast || ''bwaikti''
|-
| Gedáy || || n. || the [[Dāiadak]] people || {{NAis|Gedaig}}
|-
| gemada || || v. || navigate, orient towards || {{Fá|boéimate}} "astronomy, navigation"
|-
| Gəbi || || top. || the [[Bwimbai]] river || ''Bwimbai''
|-
| gəño || {{sc|vn}} gəñɔra || v. || praise; celebrate a religious feast || ''bwenggor'' "honor" (v.)
|-
| gəñobo || || n. || singer (of religious songs), reciter (of epic poems), eulogist || ''bwenggorbu'' "one who sings praise"
|-
| gəñota || || n. || adventure; heroic deed || ''bwenggor ta'' "honor-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| gəru || || n. || son || ''bwed rud'' "son-man"
|-
| gəsta || || n. || family, relatives, descendants || ''bwed ta'' "son-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| gi || || n. || dot, point || ''bwai'' "star"
|-
| gilu || {{sc|1p}} gilau, {{sc|2p}} gildo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || over, above, on top of || ''ob nggailau'' "at the upper end"
|-
| gisa || || v. || compete with; annoy || {{Fá|gissa}} "cut"
|-
| gise || || v. || hate, despise, disdain, scorn || {{NAis|gise}} "defecate"
|-
| giskɛməl || || n. || the heavens || ''bwai iskaimel'' "astronomy"
|-
| gɔda || || v. || originate in, derive from || {{Fá|goda}}
|-
| gɔgəh || || n. || bay; bayou || ''bwogig''
|-
| gɔla || {{sc|1p}} gɔlɛ, {{sc|2p}} gɔldo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || under, below || ''ob nggolang'' "at foot"
|-
| gɔlna’a || || n. || researcher; explorer || (''ga-'' + ''olna’a'': "one who may find")
|-
| gɔni || || n. || member of the merchant guild || {{Fá|gonin}} "elder brother"
|-
| gɔrasa || || n. || abacus || {{Gez|gworàːzâ}} (K)
|-
| gɔyada || || v. || be furious about sth. || {{Ndd|gåyada}} "get mad"
|-
| gɔyto || || n. || week (of the Ndok calendar) || {{NAis|goitol}}
|-
| goga || || n. || broken, defunct || {{Fá|gouga}} "break" (v.)
|-
| gorɔy || || v. || preach (mystical or magical things) || (back-formed from ''gorɔyvo'')
|-
| gorɔyvo || || n. || prophet, guru || {{Ndd|goddåivo}} "dreamer, mystical person"
|-
| gufay || {{sc|vn}} gufayba || v. || grieve, mourn || {{NAis|agufaib}}
|-
| guvɔ || || v. || mark, tag, seal || {{Ndd|guvå}}
|-
| guvlu || || n. || seal, badge, symbol, emblem || (''guvɔ'' + ''-lu'': "the place which is marked")
|-
| idə || || v. || seem, be perceived as || {{Fá|idər}}
|-
| ifúma || || n. || smoke, steam || ''luk pumâ'' ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| ig{{IPA|ɛ́}}’ə || || adv. || perfectly || {{NAis|igêd}}
|-
| ilu || || n. || flower || ''ailàu''
|-
| iluso || || v. || bloom || (''ilu'' + ''-so'')
|-
| imə || || v. || fasten, stitch || {{Fá|imə}} "sew"
|-
| inzɔ || || v. || swallow || {{Ndd|ina så}} "swallow down"
|-
| iñeru || || n. || boy || {{Me|ini}} "child" + ''-ru''
|-
| iñesi || || n. || girl || {{Me|ini}} "child" + ''-si''
|-
| iñomu || || n. || sister || {{Me|ini}} "child" + ''omau'' "sister"
|-
| ira || || n. || trash, junk, unusable thing || {{Ndd|idda}}
|-
| iralɛ || || n. || nonsense || (''ira'' + ''-lɛ'': "small trash")
|-
| iravo || || n. || outsider (derog.) || (''ira'' + ''-vo'': "trash-person")
|-
| irulɔ || || n. || window || {{Fá|irulo}} "opening"
|-
| isa || || qu. || most || ''ais''
|-
| isaga || || n. || previous, preceding || {{Fá|isəga}}
|-
| isavru || || n. || husband || ''aisab rud'' "husband-man"
|-
| ise || || v. || paint || ''aisi''
|-
| istixu || || n. || cotton || {{Miw|īstjēχu}}
|-
| itu || || n. || blossom || {{Miw|ītur}} "petal"
|-
| itsiru || || n. || hint, advice || {{Fá|ijiru}} "whispered thing"
|-
| itso || || n. || contract, obligation || ''aitsu'' "promise" (v.)
|-
| itsokwɛ’a || || v. || negotiate || (''itso'' + ''kwɛ’a'': "prepare a contract")
|-
| ivrɛ || || n. || tale, story, report || ({{sc|vn}} of ''ivri'')
|-
| ivri || || v. || tell, narrate, inform || {{Ndd|ïvri}}
|-
| iwe || || v.erg || freeze || ''aipi''
|-
| iyɔ || || n. || important, relevant, crucial || ''aio''
|-
| iyɔda || || v. || lead || ''aio ta'' "important-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| Iwa || || top. || the [[Eigə]] river || ''Aiwa''
|-
| kalɛste || || n. || active person; one who takes charge of things || {{Miw|kalestē}} "alive"
|-
| kalma || || v. || lose one's way || {{Miw|kālmā}} "confusing"
|-
| kañɛ || || n. || secret; hidden, invisible; taboo || ''kasnie'' "avoid"
|-
| kara || || n. || fog, mist || ''luk arwa'' ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| karo || || n. || helpful person || {{Ad|kārō}} "friend"
|-
| Kasaga || || top. || [[Kasca]] || ''Kasadgad''
|-
| kasela || || n. || detail || ''kasila'' "that which is looked at"
|-
| kasəl || {{sc|vn}} kasəna || v. || examine, inspect, look closely || ''kasil'' "look at"
|-
| kasəna || || n. || check, inspection || ({{sc|vn}} of ''kasəl'')
|-
| katsu || || n. || power, strength || ''kâtsum'' "powerful"
|-
| kawa || || n. || last year || ''kapm''
|-
| kayma || || n. || lip || ''kak mabm'' "edge of the mouth"
|-
| kaywemə || || n. || fence, boundary || ''kak wimès'' "neighbor's border"
|-
| kɛ || || num. || one || ''ke''
|-
| kɛda || || n. || ashes || ''luk ainda'' ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| kɛfol || || n. || sad, unhappy || {{NAis|kêfol}}
|-
| kɛfolga || || adv. || sadly || (''kɛfol'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| kɛlbo || || n. || cloak, overcoat || ''kailbu'' "wear-thing"
|-
| kɛmɛ || || v. || study, learn || ''kaime''
|-
| kɛyfo || || n. || spearman || ''kekpu'' "one who throws"
|-
| kɛ’u || || qu. || one of (partitive) || ''ke um''
|-
| kele || || n. || barley || ''kil''
|-
| kepə || || n. || herb, spice || {{Fá|keip}}
|-
| kepəña || || n. || spicy food || (''kepə'' + ''-ña'': "very spicy")
|-
| kera || {{sc|vn}} kerana || v. || be responsible for || ''kiran'' "take care of" < {{Gez|kiranâ-}} "provide, supply" (K)
|-
| kesta || || v. || clear debts || {{NAis|ketsteu}} "shake off a burden"
|-
| kexə || || n. || lightning || ''kikik''
|-
| kə || || v. || walk || ''keng''
|-
| kəh || {{sc|vn}} kɛxa || v. || throw || ''kek''
|-
| kəlna || || n. || teacher || ''kenla''
|-
| kəlu || || n. || step, yard (measurement of distance) || ''kenglau'' "walking space"
|-
| kənɔñúmɛ || {{sc|vn}} kənɔñúmɛ || v. || hold a grudge, resent; seek restitution || ''kenau ndong kumâi'' "demand a repair"
|-
| kənu || || v. || ask, inquire, demand || ''kenau''
|-
| kəñɛma || || v. || crawl || ''keng [ngu au] aimwa'' "walk like a snake"
|-
| kəñəla || || n. || target || ''kengîla'' ~ "to where one walks"
|-
| kəño || || n. || shoe || ''kenggu'' "walker"
|-
| kəpsal || {{sc|vn}} kəpsana || v. || lament, whine, complain || ''kimpal''
|-
| kəsa || || n. || flesh and blood || ''luk sa'' "meat" ({{sc|pl}}) + ''luk ntse'' "blood" ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| kəsusa || || n. || calendar || ''luk iswaulsa'' "the dated time" ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| kətsɔ || || n. || patron; sponsor; generous person || ''kinto'' "generous"
|-
| kətsɔda || || v. || donate, bestow || ''kinto ta'' "generous-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| kəvi || || v. || confirm a deal || ''kîbai'' "tie" (v.)
|-
| kəye || || v. || threaten, confront, challenge, provoke, upset || ''kelki'' "dangerous"
|-
| kə’{{IPA|ɛ́}}ta || || v. || seize, capture || {{Fá|kreota}}
|-
| kili || || n. || wild, feral, fierce, dangerous || {{Ndd|kïlye}}
|-
| kisɛ || || n. || snow || ''luk aise'' ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| kiya || || n. || gold || ''kaitia'' < Early {{Gez|kʰɔeteɜ̃}}
|-
| kɔda || || v. || hide || ''kota'' "cover" (v.)
|-
| kɔdanta || || n. || fraud || (''kɔda'' + ''nta'': "hide the end")
|-
| kɔla || || n. || clumsy person || ''kola'' "funny"
|-
| kɔnze || || v. || blame, accuse || ''kaumisi'' "reprimand"
|-
| kɔsara || || v. || be polite, be humble || {{Gez|kosaraŋ}} "friendly" (K)
|-
| koke || || n. || tin || {{Ad|khōkē}}
|-
| kolduma || || n. || face || ''luk oldau on mabm'' "the eyes and mouth"
|-
| koma || || n. || tongue || ''komwa''
|-
| komɛ || {{sc|vn}} komɛ || v. || compensate || ''kumâi'' "repair"
|-
| konzo || || v. || lick || (''koma'' + ''-so'': "do with the tongue")
|-
| kowa || || n. || rudder || {{Fá|kouwə}}
|-
| koxi || || v. || domesticate; keep (animals) || ''kukail'' "tame" (adj., reanalysed as a passive verb form)
|-
| kuba || || v. || waste; (reflexive) decline || ''kumba''
|-
| kume || || v. || punch; test || {{Ndd|ku'me}}
|-
| kunə || || n. || hard, solid, sturdy; (of people) muscular, tough || ''kun'' "stiff"
|-
| kuñe || || v. || squeal, squeak || ''kwingi'' (imitative)
|-
| kupsiwa || || v. || believe || ''kumpaiwa''
|-
| kusavo || || n. || wasp, hornet || ''ukausabu'' "bloodthirsty priest"
|-
| kusə’a || || n. || olive || ''kusram'' < {{Gez|kusaram}} (K)
|-
| kutsa || || v. || ward off, defend (successfully), protect || ''kun ta'' "sturdy-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| kwamɛdi || || n. || tea, herbal infusion || {{Miw|qwāmeti}}
|-
| kwaslami || || n. || bench || ''kwats larmai'' "long chair"
|-
| kwaxa || || n. || beans || ''kwagan''
|-
| kwayo || || n. || skin disease || {{Miw|kwaχjur}} "measles"
|-
| kwɛbo || || n. || ball, sphere || ''kwaimbu''
|-
| kwɛlu || || n. || plate, platter, serving tray || ''kwedalau'' "ready-place"
|-
| kwɛno || {{sc|vn}} kwɛnona || v. || walk around, stroll || ''kwaim non'' "circle-go"
|-
| kwɛña || || n. || ring, circle || ''*kwɛñiya'' < ''kwaim kaitia'' "golden circle"
|-
| kwɛsta || || n. || noise || ''kwaidn ta'' "loud-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| kwɛstaga || || adv. || loudly || (''kwɛsta'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| kwɛtsa || || v. || chew; (refl.) drudge, exert oneself, struggle (to do sth.) || ''kwain ta'' "bite-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| kwɛ’a || || v. || prepare || ''kweda'' "ready"
|-
| kwe || || n. || bit, piece, chip, splinter, flake || ''kwi'' "fingernail"
|-
| kweka || || n. || game (hunted animals) || {{Tl|kʷēkā}}
|-
| kwela || || n. || news, message || ''luk mbila'' "that which is said" ({{sc|pl}})
|-
| kwemi || || v. || understand || {{Ndd|kwïrmï}}
|-
| kwexiya || || n. || coin || ''kwi kaitia'' "piece of gold"
|-
| kwe’{{IPA|ə́}}ñe || || n. || fingernail || ''kwi dengi''
|-
| kwi || || n. || easily audible; clearly spoken || {{Ndd|kwin}} "loud"
|-
| kwivo || || n. || knot || ''*kəvivo'' < ''kîbaibu'' "that which ties"
|-
| kwə || {{sc|1p}} kwɛne, {{sc|2p}} kwədɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || with, having (comitative) || ''kwen''
|-
| kwəbe || || n. || statement, utterance, sentence || ''kwi mbi'' "say-piece"
|-
| kwədamə || {{sc|vn}} kwədanza || v. || have knowledge about sth. || ''kwindamis'' "understand"
|-
| kwədaspo || || n. || junior craftsman || ''kwindamispu'' "one who understands"
|-
| kwəma || || v. || repeat || {{Fá|kuəma}}
|-
| kwəñánɛ || || n. || button (of clothing) || ''kwi ngane'' "connect-piece"
|-
| kwəñápsi || || n. || brooch, fibula || ''kwi ngane pai'' "big connect-piece"
|-
| kwərə || || n. || goat || ''kwir''
|-
| kwətso || || n. || distance || ''kwentu'' "apart"
|-
| kwətu || || v.erg || be bright, be illuminated || {{Fá|*kuətur}} (< ''kuntor'' "bright")
|-
| kwɔtsi || || n. || danger, emergency || {{Tl|qʷotsfi}} "flee" (v.)
|-
| la || || n. || land, region (domestic) || ''lats''
|-
| lalpɔ || || n. || medicine (cure-inducing treatment) || {{Fá|lalpo}} "heal, cure"
|-
| lamatɛ || || n. || medicine (field of study) || {{Fá|ladmate}}
|-
| lami || || n. || long (shape) || ''larmai''
|-
| lamɔ || || n. || spine || ''langkwo'' "bone"
|-
| lanɛvo || || n. || index finger || ''lanebu'' "that which points at sth."
|-
| lanɔ || || n. || rose || {{Ndd|lanå}}
|-
| lañalu || || n. || a cozy place, a comfortable situation || ''langànglau'' "familiar place"
|-
| lase || || v. || close || ''lasi''
|-
| lasevo || || n. || lock || ''lasibu'' "that which closes sth."
|-
| laste || || n. || healthy || ''lasti''
|-
| latsa || || n. || hour || ''lartsartsa''
|-
| latsi || || n. || foreign country; abroad || ''lats sai''
|-
| lawa || || n. || mouth of a river || ''lâwa'' "delta"
|-
| Lawiwa || || top. || the Eigə Delta || ''lâwa Aiwa''
|-
| layáxa || || n. || kingdom, state || ''las âk diàka'' "land of the king"
|-
| la’e || || v. || lift, hold up (physically) || {{Ndd|laï'n}}
|-
| lɛ || || n. || year || ''laid''
|-
| lɛga || || n. || language || {{Fá|lega}}
|-
| lɛldɛ || || v. || touch, caress || ''lail nde'' "flow-touch"
|-
| lɛlta || || n. || graceful, agile, nimble, flexible || ''lail ta'' "flow-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| lɛñanɛ || || n. || goose || ''lai ngane'' "neck-bird"
|-
| lɛñɔ || {{sc|acc}} lɛño || pron. || {{sc|2sg}} || ''laingko''
|-
| lɛtsi || || n. || sword || {{Fá|leč}}
|-
| lɛwi || || n. || word || ''lewai''
|-
| lɛwida || || v. || translate, interpret, explain || ''lewai ta'' "word-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| lɛwitsɛ || || n. || epic poem, ballad || ''lewaitsâi'' "poetry"
|-
| lɛysa || || v. || collect || ''lekta''
|-
| leda || || adv. || completely, thoroughly || ''lita'' "throughout"
|-
| lesəgɔ || || v. || tremble || ''lisedgo'' "shake"
|-
| lespo’o || || n. || ink || {{Ndd|lespoddo}}
|-
| letsədə || || n. || opposite; counterpart || ''lita sîteng'' "completely different"
|-
| leyɔ || || v. || form, shape, mold, knead || ''ligio''
|-
| ləh || || cj. || neither/nor || ''lik''
|-
| ləmo || || v. || smile || ''limu''
|-
| lətsu || || n. || cold || ''lêtsau''
|-
| lidu || || n. || duck || ''lai tau'' "lake-bird"
|-
| limaka || || v. || reveal; give away a secret || {{Tl|liamaqa}}
|-
| limvə || || n. || heron || ''lai mbits'' "heron bird"
|-
| lire || || n. || young; fresh; naïve || ''lairi'' "young"
|-
| lirevo || || n. || teenager, adolescent || ''lairibu'' "young person"
|-
| liru || || n. || young man || ''lairi rud''
|-
| lɔnzi || || n. || quick, fast || {{Ndd|lånzi}}
|-
| lɔvu || || n. || habit, trend, fashion || ''lobau'' "tracks, footprints" (via "sth. to follow")
|-
| lɔyse || || n. || poultry || {{NAis|loi ses}} "farm-bird"
|-
| lo || {{sc|acc}} lu || det. || the (definite article) || ''lu''
|-
| lolmu || || v. || visit, attend || ''lolmau''
|-
| lorə || || n. || cloth, fabric || ''lurits''
|-
| loru || {{sc|acc}} luru || pron. || {{sc|3sg.anim}} || ''lu rud'' "the man"
|-
| losə || {{sc|vn}} loseda || v. || try || ''lusit''
|-
| lotsɛ || || n. || correct, true; truth || ''lonte''
|-
| loya || || v. || answer, respond || ''lonsia''
|-
| loyo || {{sc|acc}} luño || pron. || {{sc|3sg.inan}} || (same source as {{Ndd|lojon}})
|-
| ludɛ || || n. || riverbank || ''lunde''
|-
| luki || || n. || adaptive, versatile, tricky, clever || {{Tl|lūk’im}} "agile, competent"
|-
| luski || || n. || sail (of a ship); flag || ''luskai''
|-
| Luyɔsa || || top. || [[Kasca#Luyosha|Luyosha]] || {{Ndd|Luyosha}}
|-
| ma- || || aux. || {{sc|neg.aux}} ("don't") || ''m-'' (negative mood prefix)
|-
| mab || || n. || mouth || ''mabm''
|-
| mabo || || n. || massage || ''ngwa bimbo'' "a few rubs"
|-
| magɛsta || || n. || silence || (''ma-'' + ''kwɛsta'': "no noise")
|-
| mah || || n. || today || ''mâg''
|-
| maldɔ || || n. || person; human being || ''maldo''
|-
| malɛ || || v. || suck || ''malwe''
|-
| malu || || pron. || nowhere || ''malul''
|-
| maməlgɛ || || n. || honest, straightforward || ''mabm elge'' "clean mouth"
|-
| manavo || || n. || consultant, mentor; member of the city council || ''matnabu'' "wise man"
|-
| mañi || || n. || rare, remarkable, special, extraordinary, odd-one-out || ''malngai'' "not common"
|-
| marob || || n. || heavy; weight || ''mwarwobm''
|-
| marolə || || v. || return sth.; reject || {{Fá|maróulə}} "not care for"
|-
| maru || || pron. || nobody || (by analogy)
|-
| masa || || qu. || least || {{Fá|mas}} "few"
|-
| mastɔra || || n. || flute || (''masto'' + ''-ɔra'': "whistle-thing")
|-
| masto || || v. || whistle || ''mastu''
|-
| matsu || || pron. || never || ''matsau''
|-
| mavli || || n. || beak || ''mabm lai'' "bird-mouth"
|-
| maxayso || {{sc|vn}} maxaysɔ’a || v. || shun, avoid one's company || ''makaktod'' "do not greet"
|-
| maxɛ || || pron. || nothing || ''mage''
|-
| maylo || || n. || decent, suitable || ''maklu'' "not ugly"
|-
| mayradɛ || || n. || balcony, terrace, veranda || ''maki rande'' "sky-table"
|-
| mayrasa || || n. || siege; conflict, confrontation || ''makrasâ'' "facing"
|-
| mɛda || || v. || have an opinion about, assess, deem, review || ''ngwâi ta'' "think-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| mɛdə || || v. || be poor || (''ma-'' + ''ɛdə'': "not have")
|-
| mɛgagɔy || || n. || general, military commander || {{NAis|mêgagoi}}
|-
| mɛgɔ || || n. || mighty, intimidating, powerful || {{NAis|mêgeu}}
|-
| mɛlɛdu || || n. || member (of a group or category) || {{Fá|meledu}} "that which is included"
|-
| Mɛmɛdi || || top. || [[Mæmedéi]] || {{Fá|Mæmedéi}}
|-
| mɛpsi || || n. || grandfather || ''mebwe pai'' "big father"
|-
| mɛpsɔgo || || n. || drunk, intoxicated || ''ngkwaimpaugng'' + ''-bu'': "one who vomits"
|-
| mɛpsɔh || {{sc|vn}} mɛpsuxa || v. || expel, eject || ''ngkwaimpaugng'' "vomit"
|-
| mɛru || || v. || enable; let sth. happen || (''ma-'' + ''ɛru'': "not prevent")
|-
| mɛsa || || n. || cow, bull || ''mâisâ''
|-
| mɛsɛ || || v. || meet, come across, encounter || ''mese''
|-
| mɛsɛlu || || n. || tavern || ''meselau'' "meeting-place"
|-
| mɛslu || || n. || meadow, pastureland || ''mâislau'' "cow-place"
|-
| mɛsɔtsə || || n. || confluence || ''mese aunti'' "river meeting"
|-
| mɛspɔra || || v. || breed, raise (animals) || ''mâisâ bora'' "nurse cows"
|-
| mɛsu || {{sc|1p}} mɛsawe, {{sc|2p}} mɛsu’ɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || near, next to (adessive) || ''wimès wau'' "neighbor to"
|-
| mɛsuga || || adv. || nearby, closely, tightly || (''mɛsu'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| mɛvə || || n. || broke, bankrupt || ''mebis'' "lack"
|-
| mɛwɛ || || n. || father || ''mebwe''
|-
| mɛwɛnomɔ || || n. || parents || ''mebwe on omo'' "father and mother"
|-
| mɛya || || n. || brother || ''merkàt''
|-
| me || || qu. || no, none of || ''mi''
|-
| meko || || n. || lookalike; replacement || {{NAis|mekot}} "similar item"
|-
| melena || || v. || set a limit to, confine, restrict || {{NAis|meled, melêna-}} "hold, contain"
|-
| mepso || || v. || get to know, become friends with || ''ngwipopu'' "socialize"
|-
| mepsovo || || n. || outgoing person || ''ngwipopubu'' "one who socializes a lot"
|-
| mesə || || n. || insufficient || {{Fá|meis}} "lack"
|-
| mevəspe || || v. || blame, accuse || ''ngwibespi'' "should punish"
|-
| mevrumɛ || {{sc|vn}} mevrumɛ || v. || insist || (''mevu'' + ''rumɛ'': "request to know")
|-
| mevu || {{sc|vn}} mevuna || v. || request || (back-formed from ''mevuna'')
|-
| mevuna || || n. || request; task; mission || ''ngwibudna'' "should listen"
|-
| mevunlɛ || || n. || favor || (''mevuna'' + ''-lɛ'')
|-
| mewa || || n. || stout, heavy, broad-shouldered || {{Ndd|mewa}} "big, strong"
|-
| mexa || || n. || faith || ''miga'' "trust" (v.)
|-
| mexu || || n. || nervous; impatient || ''ngwikuk'' "be running late"
|-
| meyani || || v. || become pregnant || ''ngwitianai''
|-
| meyasa || || n. || stillbirth, miscarriage || {{Ndd|measa}}
|-
| meyu || || v. || shock, terrorize, frighten || {{Miw|mēgju}} "noise-maker"
|-
| me’ɛxe || || v. || feel wronged by sb. || ''ngwideki''
|-
| me’oxu || || n. || attempt || ''miukur'' "try"
|-
| me’ufla || || n. || charge (jur.) || ''ngwiupla'' "owe an explanation"
|-
| Mədo || || top. || [[Miədu]] || ''[Mos] Mindu''
|-
| məgi || || v. || thank || ''midgai''
|-
| məle || || v. || read || ''mêli''
|-
| məlela || || n. || writing, text || (''məle'' + ''-la'': "that which is read")
|-
| məlu || || v. || arrive, achieve, accomplish || ''mêlau'' "destination"
|-
| məmat || {{sc|vn}} məmada || v. || recall, remember || ''ngwimatn'' "should know"
|-
| məmova || || n. || business partner || ''wimès muba'' "trade-neighbor"
|-
| məməgi || || v. || rely on, depend on || ''ngwimidgai'' "owe gratitude to"
|-
| mənila || || n. || lawsuit, trial || ''ngwinailinla'' "should be judged"
|-
| məropso || || n. || one who cannot forgive || ''merwompobu'' "one who does not fail to remember"
|-
| məskwe || || n. || guilty, unfair || ''miskwi'' "blame" (v.)
|-
| məsta || || n. || late || ''mits ta''
|-
| məvo || || n. || traveller || ''mêbu''
|-
| miyɔdɔ || || n. || short-sighted; ignorant || {{Fá|miordo}} "blind"
|-
| ml-/mal- || || aux.pass || {{sc|neg.pass.aux}} ("don't get done to oneself") || ''m-'' (negative mood prefix) + ''-l'' (passive)
|-
| mlana || || v. || flow; (reflexive) flood || ''imlana''
|-
| mlaña || || n. || guest, visitor, stranger || ''amlangàng'' "unfamiliar"
|-
| mlu || || n. || home, house || (back-formed from ''mlusɔmɛ'')
|-
| mlulɛ || || n. || one's own room; retreat || (''mlu'' + ''-lɛ'': "little home")
|-
| mluñunɛ || || n. || inn, hostel || (''mlu'' + ''ñunɛ'': "middle house")
|-
| mlusɔmɛ || || n. || houseboat || ''wimlau saungwe'' "water-house"
|-
| mɔ || || num. || seven || ''mam''
|-
| mɔdɛ || || n. || heart || ''maunde''
|-
| mɔdɔnɛ || || n. || mysterious person || ''maunde aurne'' "obscured heart"
|-
| mɔkə || || n. || contradiction, inconsistency, flawed logic || ''mâukkin'' "protest against oneself"
|-
| mɔla || {{sc|vn}} mɔlana || v. || take care, pay attention || ''molan'' "awake, alert"
|-
| mɔlado || || n. || guard, sentinel, custodian || ''molandu''
|-
| mɔlɛ || || n. || full || ''ngwolâi''
|-
| mɔñi || || n. || shell (of an egg or nut) || ''ngwau ngkai'' "egg-skin"
|-
| mɔra || || v. || select || ''morar'' "prefer"
|-
| mɔrala || || n. || favorite, first choice, preferred option || ''morarla''
|-
| mɔrɛ || || n. || dark, darkness, shadow || ''more''
|-
| mɔromə || || n. || night || ''more on mits'' "dark and late"
|-
| mɔtsa || || n. || soul, mind, personality || ''maunde ta''
|-
| mɔwa || || v. || begin; originate in || ''mowâ'' "dawn" (v.)
|-
| mɔysa || || v. || recede, retreat, go backward || ''ngwogng ta'' "backward-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| mo || || n. || town, city || ''mos''
|-
| mola || || n. || ice || ''mulâ''
|-
| moldu || {{sc|1p}} moldau, {{sc|2p}} moldu’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || in front of || ''ob moldau''
|-
| modo || || v. || count, reckon, measure || ''mondu''
|-
| mogi || || n. || worm || ''mombwai''
|-
| monzi || || n. || grain || {{Ndd|monzi}} "seed"
|-
| mopso || || n. || ford || ''mompu'' "not deep"
|-
| mosa || || v.erg || grow up, become an adult || ''mus'' "grow"
|-
| mova || || n. || exchange, deal || ''muba''
|-
| mu || || n. || surface; semblance || ''ngwau'' "skin"
|-
| Mubasɛ || || top. || [[Momuva'e]] || ''[Mos] Mumbasi''
|-
| muda || || v. || look, appear, resemble || ''ngwau ta'' "skin-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| mudaysa || || n. || dream, hallucination, illusion || ''murdak ta'' "dream-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| munanɔ || || n. || claw || (''mu'' + ''nanɔ'': "skin-cutter")
|-
| mura || || v. || decide, conclude, determine || {{Ndd|mura}}
|-
| murítso || || n. || lacuna, loophole (jur.) || (''murɔ'' + ''itso'': "gap in a contract")
|-
| murɔ || || n. || narrow; gap, passageway || ''mauro''
|-
| musmə || || n. || fool || ''musmis'' "stupid"
|-
| musna || || n. || leather || ''ngwau asnàn'' "dry skin"
|-
| muvi || || n. || eager, zealous, enthusiastic || (back-formed from ''mvomúvi'')
|-
| mpadɛ || || v. || keep positioned (in a certain way) || ''mpe ande'' "sit-stand"
|-
| mpaskale || || v. || announce, declare, claim || ''mpaskali''
|-
| mpɛ || || v.erg || sit || ''mpe''
|-
| mpɛbo || || n. || mourner, one who is in grief || ''mpaimbu'' "one who cries"
|-
| mpɛsa || || n. || fish || ''mpaiswa''
|-
| mpɛsavo || || n. || fisherman || ''mpaiswabu''
|-
| mpɛsɔmɛ || || n. || teardrop || ''mpaim saungwe''
|-
| mpedu || || n. || private, personal; off-record || ''mpitau'' "private"
|-
| mpeso || || n. || spider || ''mpisu''
|-
| mpexəme || || n. || tallgrass || ''empi gingwi''
|-
| mpəlɔ || || n. || rain || ''mpêlo''
|-
| mpəlta || || v. || spray, sprinkle, strew, scatter || ''mpêlo ta'' "rain-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| mpəwa || || n. || nipple (of a woman) || ''mpepm'' "breast"
|-
| mpi || {{sc|vn}} mpima || v.erg || cry, weep || ''mpaim'' (influenced by {{Ndd|pi}})
|-
| mpiña || || n. || chicken || (same source as {{Ndd|piña}})
|-
| mpitɔy || || v. || intrigue, plot, conspire, sabotage || {{NAis|mpitoi}} "conspiracy"
|-
| mpɔyfɔ || || v. || allow, permit || ''mpokpo'' "not refuse"
|-
| mpo || || n. || plum || ''mpom''
|-
| mpu || || cj. || because || ''mpau''
|-
| mpu || {{sc|1p}} mpawe, {{sc|2p}} mpu’ɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || because of, due to, in consideration of || ''mpau''
|-
| mpunə || || n. || heathen || ''mpurnim''
|-
| mvaro || || n. || rind, peel || ''mbâro'' "bark"
|-
| mvaronowɛ || || n. || beech tree || ''mbâro nuwe'' "smooth bark"
|-
| mvawɛ || {{sc|ger}} ntəgáwɛ || v. || push, shove; urge || ''mbwawe''
|-
| mvayo || || n. || group; collection; category; set || (contraction of ''omba dikon'' "many things")
|-
| mvɛsta || || n. || ordered || ''mbesta''
|-
| mve || {{sc|ger}} ntəbé || v. || say, speak || ''mbi''
|-
| mvenanɔ || {{sc|ger}} ntəbénanɔ || v. || hurt with words || (''mve'' + ''nanɔ'': "speak-cut")
|-
| mvexo || || n. || debt || ''mbigom'' "tax, tithe"
|-
| mvəbo || {{sc|1p}} mvəgə, {{sc|2p}} mvəbo’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || between, among, along, through (interessive) || ''mbembu''
|-
| mvəgɛ || {{sc|ger}} ntəb{{IPA|ə́}}gɛ || v. || sing || ''mbîbwe''
|-
| mvəgɛtsɛ || || n. || legend, myth || ''*mbîbwetsâi'' "song" (analogous to ''lewaitsâi'' "poetry")
|-
| mvəlu || || n. || west || ''emwellau'' "west-place"
|-
| mvəma || {{sc|ger}} ntəb{{IPA|ə́}}ma || v. || bless || ''mbi mingwa'' "speak strength"
|-
| mvəskɛ || || n. || necessary || ''mbiski''
|-
| mvintu || || n. || shoulder || {{Miw|vīntū}}
|-
| mvɔ || || n. || short, small || ''mbâur''
|-
| mvɔnza || || n. || folk wisdom || {{Ndd|womvånzo}} "tradition" (modified to rhyme with ''sɔnza'' "doctrine")
|-
| mvɔrɔl || {{sc|ger}} ntəb{{IPA|ɔ́}}rɔl, {{sc|vn}} mvɔrɔna || v. || care for; respect || ''mboraul'' "be careful"
|-
| mvɔrula || || n. || cherished, respected, of good social standing || ''mboraula'' "one who is cared for"
|-
| mvɔwa || || adv. || so much, to such an extent; sufficiently || ''mbopm'' "enough"
|-
| mvogɛsta || {{sc|ger}} ntubógɛsta || v. || rumble, rattle; disturb || (''mvo-'' + ''kwɛsta'': "make noise")
|-
| mvomérɔ || {{sc|ger}} ntubomérɔ || v. || open sth. || ''umbom-iro'' "cause to be open"
|-
| mvom{{IPA|ə́}}ño || {{sc|ger}} ntubom{{IPA|ə́}}ño || v. || have sb. executed || ''umbom-engku'' "cause to kill"
|-
| mvomu || {{sc|1p}} mvomawe, {{sc|2p}} mvomu’ɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || to the point of, resulting in, enough for, appropriate to || ''mbopm wau'' "enough for"
|-
| mvomúvi || {{sc|ger}} ntubomúvi || v. || motivate, encourage || ''umbom-aubai'' "make active"
|-
| mvoñu || {{sc|ger}} ntubóñu, {{sc|vn}} mvoñuna || v. || build, construct, put up, establish || ''umbom-kun'' "make sturdy"
|-
| mvoñuvo || || n. || founder, initiator || (''mvoñu'' + ''-vo'': "one who establishes sth.")
|-
| mvopso || || n. || musician || ''mbop'' + ''-bu''
|-
| mvora || || n. || new; newcomer || ''mbwura'' "unusual"
|-
| mvorɔwa || {{sc|ger}} ntəbórɔwa || v. || play music || ''mbop rowa''
|-
| mvoso || {{sc|ger}} ntubóso || v. || cause, bring about, result in || ''umbom-su'' "cause to do"
|-
| mvosta || || n. || color || ''mbod ta'' "color-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| mvotsɛsə || {{sc|ger}} ntubótsɛsə, {{sc|vn}} mvotsɛsera || v. || give birth || (''mvo-'' + ''tsɛsə'')
|-
| mvotsi || {{sc|ger}} ntubótsi || v.erg || grow || ''mbontai'' "seed" (reanalysed as containing causative ''mvo-'')
|-
| mvotsuya || {{sc|ger}} ntubótsuya || v. || fake, copy || ''umbom-ntausia'' "make false"
|-
| mvoyɔsko || {{sc|ger}} ntubóyɔsko || v. || delight sb., please sb. || (''mvo-'' + ''yɔsko'': "make glad")
|-
| mvuga || || adv. || already, so far; (in negated clauses) not yet || ''mbubwa'' "recently"
|-
| mvunɛ || {{sc|ger}} ntəbúnɛ || v. || have, hold, own || ''mbunwe'' "hold"
|-
| mvusmo || || n. || belly || ''mbusmu''
|-
| n- || || aux. || {{sc|pfv.aux}} ("have done") || ''n'' (past perfective copula)
|-
| nabaña || || n. || little, tiny, dwarf-sized || ''nambam ngal'' "very small"
|-
| nabɛ || || pron. || something || ''nambe''
|-
| nada || || v.erg || feel (of emotions) || ''enànda''
|-
| nadana || || n || emotion, feeling || (''nada'' + ''-(n)a'')
|-
| naga || || n. || cardamom || {{Ad|naga}} < {{Xsh|naga}}
|-
| nakwi || || n. || fur || {{Tl|naokʷi}}
|-
| nalo || || n. || horse || ''nalaròr''
|-
| nalu || || pron. || somewhere || ''namlul'' or ''namê lau''
|-
| namə || || qu. || some || ''namê''
|-
| nanɔ || || v. || cut || ''narno''
|-
| nanɔvo || || n. || sharp || ''narnobu'' "thing that cuts"
|-
| nanɔxə || {{sc|vn}} nanɔñə || v.refl || hurt oneself || ''narnokin''
|-
| naru || || pron. || some person || ''namê rud'' "some man"
|-
| nata || || n. || noble status || {{Fá|nata}} "nobility, aristocracy"
|-
| natavo || || n. || person of noble descent || (''nata'' + ''-vo'')
|-
| natsu || || pron. || sometime || (by analogy with ''witsu'', ''tsetsu'' etc.)
|-
| nasa || || n. || east || ''nasa''
|-
| navɔ || || n. || boring; ordinary; average || ''nabâu'' "predictable"
|-
| nawə || || n. || red || ''napê''
|-
| naysi || || n. || field || (contraction of ''nâk wau mbontai'' "field for seeds")
|-
| nayu || || n. || noodles || {{Thok|nayu}}
|-
| nɛnagɔ || || n. || cabbage || {{Ndd|nënagwå}}
|-
| nɛña || || n. || page, scroll || ''nenga'' "leaf"
|-
| nɛpsonə || || n. || leaf || ''nenga ponî'' "plant leaf"
|-
| nɛski || || adv. || anyway; no matter what; by the way || ''naisngai'' "pointlessly"
|-
| nɛsɔ || || n. || disease || {{Fá|neos}} "sick, ill"
|-
| nɛsɔ’u || || n. || not feeling well || (''nɛsɔ'' + ''-’u'': "a bit sick")
|-
| nɛtsɛga || || v. || commit adultery || (''nɛtsi'' + ''sɛga'': "deceive the wife")
|-
| nɛtsi || || n. || wife || ''netrai''
|-
| nɛtso || || n. || palm || ''nenga ton'' "leaf of the hand"
|-
| nɛwɛ || || adv. || more, most || ''newe''
|-
| nesə || || v. || cancel; erase; tear down || ''nises'' "annul"
|-
| newa || || n. || shield || ''nipm'' "shell; armor"
|-
| nexo || || n. || god || {{NAis|neheu}}
|-
| nəbe || || v. || think about, refer to, have in mind, mean, intend || ''nembi''
|-
| nəl || || num. || nine || ''nil''
|-
| nəlga || {{sc|vn}} nəlgana || v. || turn, twist, rotate, spin, stir || ''nelgan'' "twist"
|-
| Nə’ola || || top. || [[Kasca#Nïddola|Nïddola]] || {{Ndd|Nïddola}}
|-
| ni || || cj. || if/then || {{Fá|niən}}
|-
| ni || {{sc|1p}} nɛ, {{sc|2p}} ni’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || in, into (illative/inessive) || ''nai''
|-
| nigiwo || || n. || rice || {{Mer|*nirəgiwə}} < {{PPI|*niha-kifm}} "water-grain"
|-
| nilə || {{sc|vn}} niləna || v. || estimate; value || ''nailin'' "judge"
|-
| nilədo || || n. || judge || ''nailindu''
|-
| nilu || || n. || room (in a house) || ''nailau'' "inside-place"
|-
| nim{{IPA|ə́}}luyə || {{sc|vn}} nim{{IPA|ə́}}luña || v. || approach, go towards somewhere other than "here"; aim at || (NT ''mêlau'' "destination" + ''ni-‖-yə'': "go for a target")
|-
| ninólɔyə || {{sc|vn}} ninólɔña || v. || emigrate || (''nolɔ'' "road" + ''ni-‖-yə'': "go for the road")
|-
| niñawe || || v. || insert; integrate || (''ni'' + ''ñawe'': "put into")
|-
| nira || || n. || silver || {{Ad|nīra}} < {{Gez|niːraː}} (W)
|-
| nivíyə || {{sc|vn}} nivíña || v. || be ambitious || (''vi'' "star" + ''ni-‖-yə'': "go for the stars")
|-
| nɔdɔ- || || aux. || {{sc|pfv{{--}}res.aux}} ("had done before; had become") || ''n'' (past perfective copula) + ''oto'' "come"
|-
| nɔlsi || || n. || squirrel || {{Ndd|nålzi}}
|-
| no || {{sc|vn}} nɔtsa || v.erg || die || ''nots''
|-
| nodɛ || || v. || reach for, touch, get in physical contact with || ''non nde'' "go-touch"
|-
| nolɔ || || n. || road, path, way || {{Fá|noulo}}
|-
| nomláse || || intj. || goodbye (formal) || ''enon kwen lu dasi'' "go with the goddess" (contracted)
|-
| non- || || aux. || {{sc|int.aux}} ("going to") || ''non'' "go"
|-
| noñə || || v. || leave, depart, go away || ''non keng'' "walk away" (lit. "go-walk")
|-
| noñuylu || || n. || bankruptcy || (''noñə'' + ''ñuylu'': "leave the marketplace")
|-
| nora || || v. || go outside, leave temporarily || {{Ndd|nodda}} "step out"
|-
| noráxo || {{sc|vn}} noráxona || v. || shout (a round of drinks), treat sb. to sth. || (''non-'' + ''raxo'': "go-fill")
|-
| nospo || || n. || dying person || ''notspu''
|-
| nowɛ || || n. || flawless, top-quality || ''nuwe'' "smooth"
|-
| noxa || {{sc|vn}} noxatsa || v. || trade || ''nugats''
|-
| noxala || || n. || goods || (''noxa'' + ''-la'': "that which is traded")
|-
| nudɛ || || n. || snail || ''nunde''
|-
| numi || || v. || exaggerate || {{Ndd|numye}}
|-
| numo || || n. || spearhead, arrowhead || ''*nurmu'' < ''nurimu''
|-
| nuve || || n. || proud, self-assured || (back-formed from ''nuve’ə'')
|-
| nuve’ə || || n. || arrogant, rude || {{NAis|nubeheu}} "proud"
|-
| nta || || n. || end || ''nta'' "stop"
|-
| ntada || || v. || stop, finish || ''nta ta''
|-
| ntalu || || n. || death || ''ntalau''
|-
| ntaskɔ || || n. || dressed; respectable || (back-formed from ''ntaskɔda'')
|-
| ntaskɔda || || v. || wrap, cover; pack; surround, encircle; (reflexive) get dressed || ''ntatsn kota'' "cover all around"
|-
| ntɛ || {{sc|1p}} nte, {{sc|2p}} ntɛ’ɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || with, like, by (adverbial/instrumental) || ''nte''
|-
| ntɛga || || adv. || then, next, subsequently || ''nte gua'' "followingly"
|-
| ntɛv{{IPA|ɔ́}}ve || || adv. || in vain; (in negated clauses) not at all || ({{sc|ger}} of ''bɔve'' "fail")
|-
| ntɛxavu || || adv. || also, furthermore || ''nte gâ bau'' "with that again"
|-
| nte’a || || adv. || really, truly, indeed || ''ntia'' "true"
|-
| ntənánɔ || || adv. || violently || ({{sc|ger}} of ''nanɔ'' "cut")
|-
| ntəspo || || n. || boat || ''ntetspu'' "floater"
|-
| ntətsa || || v. || forge || ''ntindo ta'' "metal-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| ntəwa || || n. || tail || ''ntêwâ''
|-
| ntidə || || adv. || apparently, seemingly || ({{sc|ger}} of ''idə'' "be perceived as")
|-
| ntise || || adv. || directly; immediately || ''nte isi'' "with suddenness"
|-
| ntɔh || || n. || forest || ''ntâug''
|-
| ntɔnadɛ || || v. || stop for; have a closer look at || ''nta on ande'' "stop and stand"
|-
| ntɔvu || || n. || turtle || ''ntobau''
|-
| Ntɔysa || || n. || the [[Miw]]an peoples || (''ntɔh'' + ''-sa'': "those from the forest")
|-
| ntɔ’e || || n. || arrow || ''ntodi''
|-
| ntomada || || n. || complex, convoluted || ''ntomatn''
|-
| ntowa || || n. || peaceful, reliable || ''ntupa''
|-
| ntuya || || n. || fake; copy, imitation || ''ntausia'' "false"
|-
| ntsa || || adv. || very || ''ntsand'' "greatly"
|-
| ntsago || || n. || roof (of a house) || ''ntsadgot''
|-
| ntsəbe || || n. || menstruation || ''ntse imbi'' "moon blood"
|-
| ntsəlo || || n. || belt || ''ntsîlu''
|-
| ntsətə || {{sc|vn}} ntsətəma || v. || discuss, debate || ''ntsertim''
|-
| ntsətəmla || || n. || point of disagreement || ''ntsertimla'' "that which is debated"
|-
| nzaga || || n. || unclean, tainted || ''ndabwa'' "dirty"
|-
| nzaləd || || n. || energy, enthusiasm || ''ndalidn''
|-
| nzata || || n. || pig || {{Ad|zathan}}
|-
| nzawe || || n. || smart, wise || ''ndapi''
|-
| nzaysa || || n. || (name of the language) || ''Ndak Ta''
|-
| nzɛ || || v. || do, tackle || ''nde'' "touch"
|-
| nzɛda || || v. || tease, be playful, flirt || ''nde ta'' "touch-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| nzɛdaga || || adv. || temptingly, provocatively || (''nzɛda'' + ''-ga'': "playfully")
|-
| nzɛtsa || || v.erg || be typical, be predictable, follow a pattern, work out as expected || ''ansetra'' "prototypical"
|-
| nzɛwə || {{sc|vn}} nzɛwɛsa || v. || receive, be given sth. || ''ndepes'' "gather"
|-
| nzɛwəslu || || n. || autumn || ''ndepeslau'' "harvest time"
|-
| nzɛwəspo || || n. || recipient, addressee || ''ndepespu''
|-
| nzeda || || n. || wrist, forearm || ''nditn''
|-
| nzesoño || || v. || change one's mind || (''nzesu'' + ''oño'': "guess differently")
|-
| nzesu || || n. || different || ''ndisau'' "not normal"
|-
| nzesu’ə || || n. || incompatible || (''nzesu'' + ''-’ə'': "very different")
|-
| nzi || || n. || tree || ''ndai''
|-
| nzəmo || || n. || mercy || ''ndimu''
|-
| nzəna || {{sc|vn}} nzənama || v.erg || breathe; be alive || ''ndenam''
|-
| nzəwo || || n. || safety, shelter || ''ndêwu'' "safe"
|-
| nzəwoga || || adv. || safely || (''nzəwo'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| nzəxrə || {{sc|vn}} nzəxrɛda || v. || yell, shout || ''ndegret''
|-
| nzɔ || {{sc|acc}} nzo || det. || as for (topic marker) || ''ndo''
|-
| nzɔnə || || n. || good, pleasant, favorable || ''ndaun'' "pure"
|-
| nzɔnəga || || adv. || fortunately || (''nzɔnə'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| nzɔñu || || n. || virtue; righteous action; advantage || ''ndaun gau'' "the pure way"
|-
| Nzok || || n. || the [[Ndok]] people || {{NAis|Ndok}}
|-
| nzolab || {{sc|vn}} nzolava || v. || arrange, sort, classify || ''ndulabm''
|-
| nzolavlu || || n. || counter (of a shop or market stand) || (''nzolab'' + ''-lu'': "place for arranging things")
|-
| nzolayə || {{sc|vn}} nzolañə || v.refl || be busy || (''nzolab'' + ''-yə'')
|-
| nzowə || {{sc|acc}} nzowa || pron. || why (interrogative pronoun) || ''nduwa''
|-
| nzugi || {{sc|vn}} nzugira || v. || devour, eat greedily; use up || {{Miw|zugīr}} "swallow"
|-
| nzukatu || || n. || tomato || {{Miw|zukatun}} "red fruit"
|-
| nzuma || || n. || coffee || (unknown) 
|-
| ñababa || || n. || rumor, word of mouth || {{Ndd|ñababa}} "small talk"
|-
| ñabo || || n. || one who does not pay attention || ''ngadbu'' "sleeping person"
|-
| ñada || || v.erg || sleep || ''ngata''
|-
| ñadalu || || n. || bed || ''ngatalau''
|-
| ñad{{IPA|ə́}}nzo || || n. || skill, dexterity, sleight of hand || (''ña-'' + ''dənzo'': "handling")
|-
| ñagísa || || n. || competition || (''ña-'' + ''gisa'')
|-
| ñagɔsta || || n. || (light) armor || {{NAis|ngagôstad}} "leather"
|-
| ñalə || || n. || rage, frenzy || (back-formed from ''ñaləga'')
|-
| ñaləga || || adv. || frantically, excessively || ({{Fá|ŋalər}} "excessive" + ''-ga'')
|-
| ñalisa || || qu. || too many || ({{Fá|ŋalər}} "excessive" + ''isa'' "most")
|-
| ñal{{IPA|ɔ́}}nzi || || n. || speed, velocity, acceleration || (''ña-'' + ''lɔnzi'')
|-
| ñalta || || adv. || indeed, actually || ''ngal ta'' "very-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| ñalvo || || n. || berserk; one who is mad with rage || (''ñalə'' + ''-vo'')
|-
| ñam{{IPA|ɛ́}}da || || n. || opinion, conviction, credo || (''ña-'' + ''mɛda'')
|-
| ñamúra || || n. || decision || (''ña-'' + ''mura'')
|-
| ñanɛ || || n. || link, connection || ''ngane'' "neck"
|-
| ñanɛvo || || n. || relative || ''nganebu'' "connect-person"
|-
| ñanzɔmɛ || || n. || canal, waterway || ''ngane saungwe'' "water-neck"
|-
| ñañəvi || || v. || connect || ''ngane kîbai'' "tie a connection"
|-
| ñañɔ || || v. || laugh || ''ngango''
|-
| ñar{{IPA|ɛ́}}na || || n. || greed, avarice || (''ña-'' + ''rɛna'')
|-
| ñatsi || || n. || tool || {{NAis|ngatseu}}
|-
| ñauvo || || n. || mug, bowl || ''nggawibu'' "thing for putting into"
|-
| ñavo || || n. || adult || ''ngâbu'' "adult person"
|-
| ñavra || || n. || broad, wide, large || ''ngabra'' "thick"
|-
| ñawe || || v. || put, place; (reflexive) settle down || ''nggawi''
|-
| ñax{{IPA|ɛ́}}mɛ || || n. || research; education; knowledge || (''ña-'' + ''kɛmɛ'' "study")
|-
| ñay{{IPA|ɔ́}}sko || || n. || happiness, satisfaction, well-being || (''ña-'' + ''yɔsko'' "glad, fortunate")
|-
| ñayo || || n. || hope, optimism || (''ña-'' + ''ayo'')
|-
| ñaysə || || n. || slave; servant || ''ngaktìs''
|-
| ña’éxu || || n. || patience, tolerance || (''ña-'' + ''exu'')
|-
| ñɛdu || || n. || infinity || (''ña-'' + ''ədu'' "ocean")
|-
| ñɛlmɔ || || n. || beauty, perfection || (''ña-'' + ''əlmɔ'' "beautiful")
|-
| ñɛvre || || n. || destruction, damage, loss || (''ña-'' + ''əvre'')
|-
| ñe || || num. || two || ''ngi''
|-
| ñeda || || v. || share || ''ngi ta'' "two-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| ñedɛlu || || v. || accompany || (''ñeda'' + ''əlu'': "share a bend in the road")
|-
| ñegatatsi || || n. || bireme || {{Fá|ŋigatač}}
|-
| ñesova || || n. || amber || {{Ndd|jezova}} < {{Miw|djēzuf}}
|-
| ñəba || || n. || toe || ''ngemba''
|-
| ñəbo || || n. || knife, blade || ''ngimbu'' "sharp"
|-
| ñədɛ || || v. || wipe || ''ngende''
|-
| ñəmona || || n. || conscience; responsibility || (''ña-'' + ''əmona'': "realization; turning and seeing")
|-
| ñiku || || n. || crisp, well-roasted (of food) || {{Fá|jiəku}} "hard"
|-
| ñire || {{sc|1p}} ñiredə, {{sc|2p}} ñirədo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || as far as, until, before (terminative/anterior) || ''nggairit''
|-
| ñitsɔrə || || n. || sweet potato || Forest Hitatc ''*ñičoṭə''
|-
| ñɔlna || || n. || state of affairs, setting, situation, circumstances || ''*nggaulna'' < ''nggawilna'' "that which has been put"
|-
| Ñɔlu || || top. || [[Kasca#Ñolo|Ñolo]] || ''Ngaurlau''
|-
| ñɔri || || v. || emphasize; become aware || {{Fá|jori}} "wake up"
|-
| ño || {{sc|1p}} ñe, {{sc|2p}} ño’ɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || as, like (essive) || ''ngu''
|-
| ñolu || || v. || match, be comparable to || (back-formed from ''ñoluvo'')
|-
| ñoluvo || || n. || equivalent; rival || ''ngu lu bot'' "as the same"
|-
| ñova || || v. || plan || {{Ndd|jova}}
|-
| ñovaña || || v. || control; be pedantic || (''ñova'' + ''-ña'': "plan excessively")
|-
| ñovla || || n. || project, proposal, plan || (''ñova'' + ''-la'')
|-
| ñoxubo || || n. || adventurer || ''miukurbu'' "one who tries"
|-
| ñudɔ || || n. || the future || [''nga-'' + ''oto'': "that which is coming"]
|-
| ñufɛ || || n. || cat || {{NAis|ngufeu}}
|-
| ñugɛ || {{sc|1p}} ñugɛmə, {{sc|2p}} ñugɛdo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || around; about; concerning || ''ngu au kwaim'' "as a circle"
|-
| ñunɛ || || n. || middle, center || ''ngune'' "moderate"
|-
| ñunɛmo || || n. || city center || (''ñunɛ'' + ''mo'')
|-
| ñurɔ || || n. || old; ancient || ''ngauro''
|-
| ñuylu || || n. || marketplace || ''ngguklau''
|-
| ñu’əmo || || n. || headache || (''ñu’o'' + ''əmo'')
|-
| ñu’o || || n. || pain || [''nga-'' + ''udu'': "that which is cruel"]
|-
| ŋkana || || n. || the world || ''ngkana''
|-
| ŋkayfɔy || || n. || result, outcome || {{NAis|ngkaifoig}} "aftereffect"
|-
| Ŋkɛla’ad || || top. || the city of [[Ngahêxôldod]] || ''Ngkeladadn''
|-
| ŋkɛtsa || || v. || wilt, wither, fade, decay, erode || ''ngket ta''
|-
| ŋkə || || n. || same, identical, -self; ({{sc|indef}}) such, of that sort || ''ngkin'' (reflexive copula)
|-
| ŋkili || || n. || egg || ''ngkai lai'' "bird's egg"
|-
| ŋkɔwa || || n. || cart, wagon || ''ngkopa''
|-
| ŋkunɛ || || n. || cautious; conservative || {{Fá|ŋuəne}}
|-
| ŋkura || || n. || cloves || {{Fá|ŋura}}
|-
| ŋkwaxa || || n. || dirt || ''nukwàkâ'' "slime, mucus"
|-
| ŋkwayfo || || n. || body || ''ingkwakpu'' "that which perceives"
|-
| ɔdɛ || || v. || take, pull || ''oto nde'' "come-touch"
|-
| ɔdɔ- || || aux. || {{sc|res.aux}} ("have become") || ''oto'' "come"
|-
| ɔdɔl-/ɔdol- || || aux.pass || {{sc|res.pass.aux}} ("have had done to oneself") || ''oto-'' "come" + ''-l'' (passive)
|-
| ɔdɔvo || || n. || event || ''otobu'' "come-thing"
|-
| ɔgi || || n. || sculpture, statue || ''âukwai''
|-
| ɔlatsa || || v. || tire, exhaust oneself || ''olanta'' "do too much"
|-
| ɔlmɔ || || v. || steal || ''aulmu''
|-
| ɔlɔdɔ || {{sc|vn}} ɔlɔdɔxə || v.refl || be rewarded; deserve || ''oloto'' "deserve a place"
|-
| Ɔltu || || top. || the [[Oltu]] river || {{Fá|Oltu}}
|-
| Ɔlts{{IPA|ɛ́}}vɔ || || top. || [[Lasomo]] || {{NAis|Axôltseubeu}}
|-
| ɔlu || || n. || place, location, territory || ''olau''
|-
| ɔnɛ || || n. || unclear, hard to understand || ''aurne'' "muddy, murky"
|-
| ɔnzayo || || n. || goal, purpose, function || {{Ndd|ånzayo}}
|-
| ɔpso || || n. || deep || ''ompu''
|-
| ɔpsoga || || adv. || deeply, solidly || (''ɔpso'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| ɔra || || qu. || all, each, every || ''or''
|-
| ɔrɛ || || v. || stand || {{Ndd|åddë}}
|-
| ɔro || || n. || sign, notice, display || ''oru'' "visible"
|-
| ɔrovo || || n. || mirror || ''orubu'' "that which makes visible"
|-
| ɔsínə || || v.erg || choke || {{Fá|eosíən}}
|-
| ɔspah || || n. || status symbol || ''ospàk'' "throne"
|-
| ɔspe || || n. || green || ''auspi''
|-
| Ɔstáte || || top. || the [[Milīr]] river || ''aunti Itati'' "Hitatc river"
|-
| ɔtse || || n. || river || ''aunti''
|-
| ɔtso || || n. || rich, wealthy || ''auntu''
|-
| ɔvɔdɛ || || n. || beetroot || {{Ndd|åvwëjë}} < NT ''apwi ntse'' "blood fruit"
|-
| ɔyal || {{sc|vn}} ɔyana || v. || sell || ''obial'' "offer"
|-
| ɔyalsi || || n. || marketwoman || (''ɔyal'' "sell" + ''-si'' "female")
|-
| ɔyalu || || n. || market stand || ''obialau'' "offer-place"
|-
| ɔyalvo || || n. || trader, merchant || ''obialbu'' "one who offers"
|-
| ɔyənɔ || {{sc|vn}} ɔyənɔna || v. || be unfair || ''olkenaun'' "trespass"
|-
| ɔyrol || {{sc|vn}} ɔyrona || v. || stand out; behave conspicuously || {{Ndd|oirwïl}} "seek attention"
|-
| ɔyrolvo || || n. || entertainer, performer || (''ɔyrol'' + ''-vo'': "one who draws attention")
|-
| ɔyvinza || || n. || insect || {{Ndd|oivïnza}}
|-
| ɔ’a || || n. || right side || ''odam''
|-
| ɔ’i || || n. || salt || ''odai''
|-
| o || || cj. || and || ''on''
|-
| o || {{sc|1p}} ɔvə, {{sc|2p}} odo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || at, on (locative) || ''ob''
|-
| oba || || qu. || many || ''omba''
|-
| obada || || v. || be numerous || ''omba ta'' "many-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| Obáse || || n. || the Mother Goddess (name) || ''Ombàsi''
|-
| ogab || {{sc|vn}} ogava || v. || suffer, feel pain || ''odgabm''
|-
| ogava || || n. || misery, suffering, agony || ({{sc|vn}} of ''ogab'')
|-
| ogavla || || n. || trouble, hardship, sorrow || ''odgabmla'' "that which is suffered"
|-
| ogo || || n. || early || ''ubwu'' "soon"
|-
| ogó’ə || || n. || history || {{NAis|o-got}} "the eras"
|-
| ogu || {{sc|1p}} ogau, {{sc|2p}} ogu’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || in order to, for the purpose of, in preparation of || ''ob gau'' "on road"
|-
| oke || || n. || luxury || {{NAis|ok'eu}} "wealth, splendor"
|-
| ol- || || aux. || {{sc|obl.aux}} ("must") || ''ol-'' (obligative mood prefix)
|-
| ola || || v. || rise, swell || ''ula''
|-
| olda || {{sc|vn}} oldasa || v. || be armed, be equipped with || ''oldas'' "should fight"
|-
| oldɛbi || || n. || one who lacks foresight || ''oldau imbai'' "blind eye"
|-
| olduwa || || v. || hit the target || ''oldau wapa'' "hit the eye"
|-
| olmat || {{sc|vn}} olmada || v. || be familiar with; be accustomed to || ''olmatn'' "be expected to know"
|-
| olna’a || || v. || find, discover || ''olina'' "be blind to" + ''-da'' (past perfect)
|-
| olnon- || || aux. || {{sc|obl{{--}}int.aux}} ("should") || (''ol-'' "must" + ''non-'' "want")
|-
| oltəña || || v. || be delighted, be blissful, be fascinated || ''[nte au] oldau tingiâ'' "with a shining eye"
|-
| olto || || n. || thin, slender, skinny || ''oltu'' "be starving"
|-
| oma || || adv. || also, additionally || ''ongwâ'' "and" (object-gapping)
|-
| omla || || v. || talk, chat, gossip || ''omula''
|-
| omɔ || || n. || mother || ''omo''
|-
| omɔl || {{sc|vn}} omɔna || v. || weave || (back-formed from ''omɔlvo'')
|-
| omɔlvo || || n. || weaver || {{Ndd|womwålvo}} "weave" (reanalysed as containing agentive ''-vo'')
|-
| omɔyo || || n. || 6th day of the week || ''[lu airti] omo'' "day of the mother goddess" + ''-yo''
|-
| Om{{IPA|ɔ́}}yxɔy || || n. || the Mother Goddess (epithet) || ''omɔ'' + {{NAis|oigoi}} "divine light"
|-
| omva || || n. || corpse, dead body || {{Ndd|omva}} "dead"
|-
| onopsa || || n. || papyrus || ''*wənopsa'' < ''wedn ompa'' "flat herb"
|-
| oñe || || v. || embrace, hug || ''orngi'' "squeeze"
|-
| oñelu || || n. || mill || ''orngilau'' "squeeze-place"
|-
| oñevo || || n. || crayfish, crustacean || ''orngibu'' "squeezer"
|-
| oño || || v. || guess, suppose, think || ''ongiu''
|-
| opsa || || n. || flat; lowlands, plains || ''ompa''
|-
| opsi || || n. || grandmother || ''omo pai'' "big mother"
|-
| orani || || n. || diet; abstinence; modesty || (''oro'' + ''ani'': "hunger-cure")
|-
| ore’e || || n. || master craftsman || {{Ndd|odde'e}}
|-
| oro || || v. || heal, cure || ''uru''
|-
| orono || || n. || medicine (potion, medical drug) || (''oro'' + ''əno'': "cure for a disease")
|-
| orovo || || n. || doctor || ''urubu''
|-
| oskə || || v. || come, approach, move towards "here" || ''oto keng'' "come-walk"
|-
| osu || || v. || promise || {{Fá|oušu}}
|-
| otɛ || || v. || run || ''orte''
|-
| otsevo || || n. || experienced, knowledgeable || ''ondisibu'' "expert"
|-
| ovla || || v. || explain, elaborate, describe || {{Ndd|ovla}}
|-
| owa || {{sc|1p}} owɛ, {{sc|2p}} owa’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || from, after, since (ablative/posterior) || ''uwa''
|-
| oxitso || || v. || plead || ''ukaitsu'' "want to promise"
|-
| oxɔtɔ || || v. || anticipate || ''ukoto''
|-
| oxola || {{sc|vn}} oxolaxə || v.refl || enroll in the priesthood || ''ukula''
|-
| oxumɛ || {{sc|vn}} oxumɛ || v. || ask for a second chance; plead || ''ukumâi'' "want to repair"
|-
| palda || || n. || valley || ''palda''
|-
| Palɛ || || top. || [[Kasca#Påwe|Påwe]] || ''Palwe''
|-
| palmayo || || n. || 1st day of the week || ''[lu airti] palmambi'' "day of the secret one" + ''-yo''
|-
| palɔh || || n. || boot || {{Gez|palàuk}} "shoe" (K)
|-
| pasi || || n. || socket, niche || {{Fá|paš}}
|-
| pato || || n. || nasty, evil, vicious, terrible || {{NAis|pat}} "foul, undesirable, bad"
|-
| paudába || || n. || amnesty, pardon || (''pawu'' + ''daba'': "declare sb. clean")
|-
| pauvo || || n. || acrobat; person with skillful movement || ''popubu'' "dancer"
|-
| pawaymó || || n. || city walls || ''pap âk mos''
|-
| pawu || || v. || name, assign, label || ''papau''
|-
| payu || || v. || worry, be concerned about || {{NAis|paihoi}} "fear, be afraid"
|-
| pɛga || || adv. || finally || ''pekwa'' "last"
|-
| pɛgavo || || n. || the last one || ''pekwabu''
|-
| pɛlbɛ || || n. || sand; beach || ''pailbe''
|-
| pɛlɔ || || n. || chair, seat; (fig.) throne || {{Fá|epélo}}
|-
| pɛmo || || v.erg || fear || ''paingkwu''
|-
| pɛnə || || v. || bite || {{Fá|pæn}}
|-
| pɛnɔra || || n. || jaw, chin || (''pɛnə'' + ''-ɔra'': "bite-thing")
|-
| pɛpɔy || || v. || dance || {{NAis|peupoi}}
|-
| pɛpɔyga || || adv. || lively || (''pɛpɔy'' + ''-ga'': "dancingly")
|-
| pɛsa || || v. || defecate || ''pesa''
|-
| pɛsala || || n. || feces, excrements || (''pɛsa'' + ''-la'')
|-
| pɛsi || || v. || lose, misplace || {{Fá|peše}} "drop, let go of"
|-
| pelvo || || n. || hourglass || {{Fá|peilbu}}
|-
| perɛ || {{sc|vn}} perɛna || v. || manage, organize || ''pirain'' "plan"
|-
| perɛdo || || n. || leader, executive || ''piraindu'' "one who makes plans"
|-
| petse || || n. || gray || ''pitsi'' "become pale"
|-
| petu || || n. || separation || {{Fá|peitu}} "apart"
|-
| petuvo || || n. || refugee, exiled person || (''petu'' + ''-vo'')
|-
| petsɔda || || v. || knit || ''pitsâu ta'' "wool-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| pewada || || v. || use (for a purpose) || ''pipm ta'' "useful-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| pewəlu || || n. || beginning; earlier place of residence || ''piwellau'' "early-place"
|-
| pə || {{sc|vn}} pema || v.erg || fall || ''pim'' "low"
|-
| pə’águ || || n. || pack horse || {{Fá|pragu}} "tamed"
|-
| pida || || v. || stretch, reach out, expand, enlarge, increase || ''pai ta'' "big-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| piga || || adv. || initially, at first || {{Fá|pigəl}} (reanalysed as containing adverbial ''-ga'')
|-
| pili || || v. || send || ''pilai''
|-
| pilila || || n. || letter || (''pili'' + ''-la'': "that which is sent")
|-
| pimə || || v. || sacrifice, cede, abandon || {{Fá|piəm}}
|-
| pinzi || || v. || give in, acknowledge defeat || {{Fá|piəmči}} "submit oneself"
|-
| pisoño || || n. || crab || {{Ndd|piswogïño}}
|-
| pɔ- || || aux. || {{sc|cond.aux}} ("might, would") || ''pâu-'' (conditional mood prefix)
|-
| pɔl- || || aux.pass || {{sc|cond.pass.aux}} ("would get done to oneself") || ''pâu-'' (conditional mood prefix) + ''-l'' (passive)
|-
| polu || || n. || island || ''ponlau'' "island-place"
|-
| ponaba || || n. || small island || ''pon nambam''
|-
| ponə || || n. || vegetation; plants || ''ponî''
|-
| posmu || {{sc|vn}} posmuna || v. || escape || ''posmun'' "flee"
|-
| Po’ásə || || top. || the [[Poráš]] river || {{Fá|Poráš}}
|-
| puh || {{sc|1p}} poxe, {{sc|2p}} podɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || for (benefactive) || ''puk''
|-
| puma || || n. || nose || ''pungwa''
|-
| punzalu || || n. || chimney || ''pumâsalau'' "smoke outlet"
|-
| putsi || || n. || nail, peg || {{Aff|puttsi}}
|-
| puysa- || || aux. || {{sc|cont.aux}} ("continue") || ''puk ta'' "to.each-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| rabɛ || {{sc|1p}} rabə, {{sc|2p}} rabɛ’o || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || at the time of, while, during (temporal) || ''rambe''
|-
| rabəga || || adv. || at the same time, simultaneously || (''rabɛ'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| radɛna || {{sc|vn}} radɛnama || v. || cough; gasp || ''erandenam'' "fail to breathe"
|-
| radə || || n. || jar || ''rander''
|-
| rafa || || n. || valuable, expensive, precious || {{NAis|rafeu}} "rich, luxurious"
|-
| ramɛ || {{sc|vn}} ramɛ || v. || confuse, mix up || ''erangwâi'' "fail to think"
|-
| ramobo || || n. || nomad || ''rabmodbu'' "one who walks regularly"
|-
| rañavo || || n. || insane, crazy, lunatic || ''eralniabu'' "one who fails to fly"
|-
| rapsə || {{sc|1p}} rapsənə, {{sc|2p}} rapsədo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || instead of, rather than || ''rampen''
|-
| Rasɛda || || top. || the [[Rathedān]] || {{Fá|Rasedán}}
|-
| ratsɔ || || v. || work for hire; obey || ''ranto'' "hear"
|-
| rauru || || n. || old person; senior || ''râwa rud'' "mature man"
|-
| raxo || {{sc|vn}} raxona || v.erg || fill || ''ragol''
|-
| raxolbo || || n. || cask, barrel || ''ragolbu'' "that which is filled"
|-
| rɛbɛ || || n. || fertile; fruitful; appropriate; compatible || {{Ndd|rëbë}}
|-
| rɛlga || || n. || warm, hot || {{Fá|relga}}
|-
| rɛməl || || n. || quay (of a port), deck (of a ship) || {{Fá|rewŋəl}}
|-
| rɛna || || v. || be greedy || (back-formed from ''rɛnavo'')
|-
| rɛnavo || || n. || miser, scrooge || ''raitnabu'' "one who is accustomed to keeping things"
|-
| rɛtsə || || n. || nature (of a thing/person), characteristic attribute || ''retsen''
|-
| rɛtsisa || || v. || bleed || {{Fá|rečiəs}} "bleeding, menstruation"
|-
| rɛvle || || v. || resist || ''rebli'' "oppose"
|-
| rɛvlevo || || n. || opponent, antagonist || ''reblibu''
|-
| rɛyrɔ || || n. || winter || ''rikraun''
|-
| resti || || v. || choose, make up one's mind; vote || {{Ndd|resti}}
|-
| retsad || || n. || loom || ''ritsadn''
|-
| revɔ || || v. || lose control of sth. || {{Ndd|rïvwa}}
|-
| reyo || || n. || fox || {{Ad|rēo}}
|-
| re’abo || || n. || student; apprentice || ''riambu'' "one who learns"
|-
| re’atsa || || v. || teach || ''riam ta'' "learn-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| rəbu || {{sc|vn}} rəbora || v. || drown || ''rembur''
|-
| rəga || || v. || fit in, be suitable || ''rimbwa'' "be used regularly"
|-
| rələh || {{sc|vn}} rəlɛxa || v. || ride || ''rêlek'' < {{Gez|rêːleko-}} (K)
|-
| rəlse || || n. || hot weather || ''relsi'' "be hot"
|-
| rəpsɛ || || n. || relic, remnant, ruin || ''rimpe'' "tree stump"
|-
| rəstə || || n. || scar || ''risten'' "have bad luck"
|-
| ri || || cj. || that (complementizer) || ''rai''
|-
| rifə || || n. || ugly; scary || {{Fá|rifəs}}
|-
| rima || || n. || a type of meal consisting of stir-fried meat and vegetables || {{Me|rima}}
|-
| rimavo || || n. || pan, wok || (''rima'' + ''-vo'': "rima-thing")
|-
| rɔ || rol- || num. || ten || ''ro''
|-
| rɔgə || || v. || show off || {{Fá|rogə}} "act, perform"
|-
| rɔma || || pron. || which, that (relative pronoun) || ''roma''
|-
| rɔnzo || || n. || sound || {{Ndd|rånzo}}
|-
| rɔnzobe || || n. || voice || (''rɔnzo'' + ''mve'': "that which speaks sounds")
|-
| rɔva || || n. || feather || ''robm''
|-
| rɔyla || || v. || adore, be impressed by || {{NAis|roileu}}
|-
| rɔ’o || || n. || peninsula || ''rorop''
|-
| rol-/rul- || || aux.pass || {{sc|hab.pass.aux}} ("regularly get done to oneself") || ''ru-'' (habitual mood prefix) + ''-l'' (passive)
|-
| romoldu || || n. || peacock || ''robm oldau'' "eye-feather"
|-
| roni || || v. || dwell, live (at a place) || ''ruwim nai'' "regularly live in"
|-
| rosa’o || || n. || citizen (person with full civic rights) || {{Ad|rozarō}}
|-
| rovani || || n. || devout, faithful || (''ro-'' habitual + ''bani'' "pray")
|-
| rowastɔ || || n. || angry, furious || ''rupasto'' "be aggressive"
|-
| ru || || n. || man; person || ''rud''
|-
| rube || || v. || keep on talking (without making a point) || ''rumbi''
|-
| rudi || || n. || giant; very tall person || ''rud ndai'' "a man like a tree"
|-
| rudɔ || || n. || model, prototype, example || ''rud ndaun'' "a pure man"
|-
| rugɛ || || v. || be misguided; get tricked into sth. || {{NAis|rugeu}} "be naïve"
|-
| rulɛwi || || n. || writer, poet || ''rud lewai'' "man of words"
|-
| rulsi || || n. || prostitute || ''raulasai'' "love-woman"
|-
| rumɛ || {{sc|vn}} rumɛ || v. || know, be sure of || ''rungwâi'' "be intelligent"
|-
| rumimɔra || || v. || recommend || (''rumiya'' + ''mɔra'': "trust-select")
|-
| rumiya || || v. || trust || {{Fá|rumia}} "have confidence in"
|-
| runah || || n. || priest || ''runnak''
|-
| ruña || || n. || uncle; male cousin || ''rud ngane'' "connected man"
|-
| ruñasta || || v. || make it through, succeed || ''rungkasta''
|-
| ruñɔxɔ || || n. || liar, hypocrite, double-dealer || ''rungguko'' "deceive habitually"
|-
| ruyfɔ || || n. || peculiar, weird || ''rukpokpo'' "be stubborn"
|-
| ruyɔ || || v. || invent, solve a problem || (back-formed from ''ruyɔvo'')
|-
| ruyɔvo || || n. || inventor, creative person || ''rudiobabu'' "one who regularly imagines"
|-
| s-/so- || || aux. || {{sc|null.aux}} ("do") || ''su'' (proverb)
|-
| sade || {{sc|1p}} saderə, {{sc|2p}} sadedo || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || outside of, behind, beyond || ''sa tiri'' "outdoors"
|-
| salaspo || || v. || dispose of, put away || ''salatpu''
|-
| saldɛnɔ || || n. || parade, procession || {{NAis|saldêneu}} "public, official"
|-
| salɔ || || v.erg || have a rich taste, be delicious (of food) || ''sadlo''
|-
| salɔvo || || n. || delicacy, tidbit || ''sadlobu''
|-
| salu || || n. || hole, outlet, exit || ''salau'' "out-place"
|-
| same || || v. || bring down, hunt down, slay, prey upon (usually said of animals) || ''sapmi'' "force"
|-
| sanu || || n. || village || {{Me|sanu}}
|-
| sanzáta || || n. || pork || (''*sa'' + ''nzata'': "pig meat")
|-
| sañawe || || v. || take out, retrieve, extract || ''sa nggawi'' "put out of"
|-
| sasalgɔ || || n. || sugar cane || ''sarsâ algo'' "sweet tube"
|-
| sasama || || n. || baron, lord || ''sasamas'' "crown" (v.)
|-
| sasanzi || || n. || baroness || (''sasama'' + ''-si'' "female")
|-
| sasɔmɛ || || n. || reed || ''sarsâ saungwe'' "water tube"
|-
| satsi || || n. || arrogant, haughty, snobbish || {{Fá|sačin}} "rich, wealthy"
|-
| satsu || || n. || crime || ''santau'' "illegal"
|-
| sauke || || n. || blood || {{NAis|sauk'e}}
|-
| savla || || v. || drink || ''sab'' + ''-l'' (antipassive)
|-
| savrɛdi || || n. || feud; serious rivalry || {{Ndd|savreadi}} "grudge; vendetta"
|-
| sawabo || || n. || spoon, scoop (used mainly for lifting things) || ''*sâpambu'' < ''sâpabmbu'' "one who lifts"
|-
| sawamə || || n. || nepotism, corruption || ''sâpabm wimès'' "lift up the neighbors"
|-
| saxə || || n. || garlic || {{Gez|sakits}} (K)
|-
| sɛbo || || n. || gift || {{Ndd|sëbo}}
|-
| sɛga || || v. || lie, deceive, play tricks on sb. || ''sebbwa''
|-
| sɛgaxə || {{sc|vn}} sɛgañə || v.refl || indulge in illusions, fool oneself || (''sɛga'' + ''-xə'': "lie to oneself")
|-
| sɛpsɔ || || n. || unique || ''saimpo'' "alone"
|-
| sɛpsɔya || || n. || significant other || (''sɛpsɔ'' + ''-ya'')
|-
| sɛtsasa || || n. || good luck, good fortune || {{Fá|sečas}}
|-
| sɛtsa’ɔk || || n. || emperor || {{Fá|serčaok}}
|-
| sɛvɛsɛtɔy || || n. || monk, hermit, ascetic || {{NAis|sêbêsêt'oi}}
|-
| sɛvɔ || || n. || drum || ''sebaur''
|-
| sɛwə || {{sc|vn}} sɛwəna || v. || whisper || ''sepen'' "murmur, mumble"
|-
| sera || || n. || copper || {{Ad|zēra}} < {{Gez|zɛmraː}} (W)
|-
| sewe || || n. || tall, high || {{Ndd|zewe}}
|-
| sexad || || n. || storm || ''sikadn'' "hurricane"
|-
| sexaspi || || n. || hurricane || (''sexad'' + ''-wi'': "big storm")
|-
| se’ə || {{sc|vn}} se’ɛsa || v. || jump; insist on || ''sides'' (influenced by ''sien'' "prove")
|-
| se’əspo || || n. || frog || ''sidespu'' "jumper"
|-
| sədə || || n. || another || ''sîteng'' "different"
|-
| sədəlsa || || n. || clothing || ''[lus] wirdelsa'' "those which are worn" ({{sc|obj.pl}})
|-
| səlu || || n. || sky || ''simlau''
|-
| səma || || v. || wait || ''sema''
|-
| səmaga || || adv. || next || (''səma'' + ''-ga'': "waiting")
|-
| səmə || {{sc|vn}} səməna || v. || deny || ''semen''
|-
| səmədo || || n. || headstrong, stubborn, tenacious, obstinate || ''semendu'' "one who denies"
|-
| səmi || || n. || mildew || ''simwai'' "rotten"
|-
| səmvo || || n. || next in line; successor || (''səma'' + ''-vo'': "one who is waiting")
|-
| səŋkəye || || v. || counter-attack || (''səma'' + ''kəye'': "wait and challenge")
|-
| sətsa || || v. || concentrate, focus on, specialize in || ''sête ta'' "tidy-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| səyo || {{sc|vn}} səyona || v. || be hostile || ''selkon''
|-
| si || || num. || six || {{Ndd|ïshï}}
|-
| sili || || v. || pierce, stab || (back-formed from ''silvo'')
|-
| silvo || || n. || dagger || {{Miw|sīlvo}} "cut"
|-
| simvo || || n. || one who prefers to be alone || {{Ndd|simvo}} "alone"
|-
| sisu || || n. || left side || ''saisung''
|-
| sivɔy || || n. || cloud || {{NAis|usiboi}}
|-
| sivo || || n. || female || ''saibu'' "female person"
|-
| sixɛdɔ || || v. || curse, condemn || {{NAis|sihêdeu}}
|-
| skɛ || || n. || equal || ''iske''
|-
| skɛga || || adv. || likewise, in the same way || (''skɛ'' + ''-ga'': "equally")
|-
| skɛsul || || n. || scales || (''skɛ'' + ''ɛsul'': "that which takes equal parts")
|-
| smada || || adv. || recently || ''osma ta''
|-
| smalu || || n. || last week; last month || ''osmalau'' "recent-place"
|-
| smɛnɔ || || n. || gall || ''saungwe eno'' "bitter water"
|-
| sɔda || || n. || flatbread, tortilla || {{Ndd|saodwa}} < {{Miw|saχudwa}}
|-
| sɔdɔ || || v. || stick out, protrude || ''sa oto'' "come out of"
|-
| sɔga || || n. || ears || ''[lus] okwa'' ({{sc|obj.du}})
|-
| sɔmɛ || || n. || water || ''saungwe''
|-
| sɔmɛlu || || n. || well, fountain || ''saungwelau'' "water-place"
|-
| sɔmpɛ || || v.erg || float || (''sɔmɛ'' + ''mpɛ'': "sit on the water")
|-
| sɔnolah || || n. || vision, idea, concept || ''sonulak'' "imaginary"
|-
| Sɔntale || || top. || the Tali river || ''saungwe tali'' "Tali water"
|-
| sɔntu || || n. || carrot || {{Gez|zomatùb}} (K)
|-
| sɔnza || || n. || doctrine, theory; explanation || {{Ndd|sånza}}
|-
| sɔño || || n. || juice (of fruit) || ''saungwe gor'' "juice-water"
|-
| sɔŋkele || || n. || beer || ''saungwe kil'' "barley-water"
|-
| sɔpi || || v. || force || {{NAis|sopeu}}
|-
| sɔsa || || n. || slut, whore || {{Fá|sossa}} "nubile girl"
|-
| soldu || || n. || eyes || ''[lus] oldau'' ({{sc|obj.du}})
|-
| solə || {{sc|acc}} sola || pron. || when (interrogative pronoun) || ''sola''
|-
| solvo || || v. || bring, carry || {{Ndd|solvon}}
|-
| sopsə || || v. || conquer, defeat, surpass || ''sompìs''
|-
| sose || || n. || mouse, rat || ''susi''
|-
| soslu || || n. || annals, chronicles || ''susilau'' "archive"
|-
| sp-/spɛ- || || aux.pass || {{sc|pass.aux}} ("get done to oneself") || ''ispe'' "feel, experience"
|-
| spɛ || || v.erg || experience (of physical sensations) || ''ispe''
|-
| spɛ’ayla || || n. || nation, ethnicity || ''[lus] bwed âk [lu] lats'' "sons of the land" ({{sc|obj.pl}})
|-
| spɛspo || || n. || hero; strategist || ''sompìspu'' "conqueror"
|-
| spexətsa || || n. || spring (season) || ''[lu] auspikintsa'' "the greening"
|-
| stasavo || || n. || changed person; convert || ''estasabu''
|-
| stɛla || || v. || burn || ''estela''
|-
| stɛlavo || || n. || flame || ''estelabu'' "burner"
|-
| ste- || || aux. || {{sc|prog.aux}} ("be doing") || ''sti'' (imperfective copula)
|-
| stonza || || n. || needle, spike, thorn || {{Ndd|stonza}} "needle"
|-
| su || || n. || shore, coast (of a lake or ocean) || ''sau''
|-
| sud || || num. || eight || ''sudn''
|-
| sudusa || || n. || meat (as food) || ''sa wetulsa'' "to-be-eaten meat"
|-
| sumɔ || || n. || wrong, false; counterfactual statement || ''sumo''
|-
| suni || || n. || apple || (ultimately < {{PPI|*sumnip}})
|-
| suña || {{sc|vn}} suñara || v. || support, help, assist || ''sungiar''
|-
| suñabo || || n. || ally; one who cooperates || ''sungiarbu''
|-
| susu || || v. || notify || {{Fá|susu}} "whistle" (v.)
|-
| susuvo || || n. || messenger || (''susu'' + ''-vo'': "one who notifies")
|-
| suwɛda || || n. || soup; broth || {{Ndd|suwëda}} "liquid"
|-
| ta- || || aux. || {{sc|inch.aux}} ("start") || ''ta'' (dynamic particle)
|-
| tagɔvo || || n. || rebel; traitor || ''targobu''
|-
| tali || || n. || hawk, falcon || {{Miw|utalju}}
|-
| tamlu || || n. || south || ''tamlau'' "south-place"
|-
| tara || || n. || daughter || ''tarang''
|-
| taro || || n. || steady, determined, diligent || ''taròt'' "hard-working" < {{Gez|taròːt}} "courage, energy" (K)
|-
| tasku’u || || n. || waterfall, rapids || {{Miw|twāksuru}}
|-
| taspa || {{sc|vn}} taspama || v. || hint at, point out || ''tasbam'' "imply"
|-
| tavlɛ || || n. || far away; outside the Edák sphere || {{NAis|tableu}} "foreign"
|-
| tɛde || || n. || wing || ''taindi''
|-
| tɛdol || || n. || canopy, marquee, canvas roof || ''taindi tol'' "sun-wing"
|-
| tɛfta || || v. || join, combine with || ''taibm ta'' "together-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| tɛka || || n. || threat; enemy || {{Fá|teka}} "army"
|-
| tɛnɔ || || v. || delay, postpone || {{Fá|twæno}} "avoid"
|-
| tɛxáli || || n. || brick || {{NAis|têhagleu}}
|-
| tere || || n. || door, gate, entrance || ''tiri''
|-
| teseñu || || n. || beehive || {{Miw|tēsenju}}
|-
| tewalu || || n. || furrow, trench, groove, notch, indentation || ({{Ndd|tewa}} "tiller" + ''-lu'')
|-
| te’ani || || v. || marry || ''tianai''
|-
| te’i || || n. || willow tree || {{Miw|twēʔi}}
|-
| te’o || || n. || milk || ''tidu''
|-
| təña || || n. || light, brightness || ''tingia'' "flash, shine" (v.)
|-
| təñu || || n. || stone || ''tingkàu''
|-
| təpsa || || n. || shelf || ''tempa''
|-
| təska || || n. || flax || ''tiska''
|-
| tətsɔ || || n. || big, fat || ''tento'' "wide"
|-
| tikasa || || n. || llama || {{Ad|tīkas}}
|-
| tilɛ || || n. || tiger || (ultimately < {{PPI|*ktiçi-laha}})
|-
| tilka || || n. || worthless; low-quality || {{NAis|tilkeu}} "disgusting, rejectable"
|-
| tivo || || n. || friend, companion || ''taibm'' "together" + ''-bu''
|-
| ti’aga || || n. || net (especially for fishing) || {{Ndd|ti'aga}}
|-
| tɔdɔle || || v. || act involuntarily || ''totoli'' "be clumsy"
|-
| tɔdɔlga || || adv. || accidentally, inadvertently || (''tɔdɔle'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| tɔfu || || n. || owl || (ultimately < {{PPI|*txahu-pxuçu}} "night-falcon")
|-
| tɔwi || || n. || horn || ''topai''
|-
| to || || n. || hand || ''ton''
|-
| tokə’anti || || n. || gemstone || {{Tl|tuq’antis}}
|-
| tol || || n. || sun || ''tol''
|-
| tola || || n. || meal, food || ''tula'' "that which is eaten"
|-
| tolbɔ || || n. || evening; dusk || ''tol erbo'' "rest of the sun"
|-
| tolma || || n. || morning; dawn || ''tol mowâ'' "dawn of the sun"
|-
| tolnaba || || n. || lamp, lantern || ''tol nambam'' "little sun"
|-
| tolta || || n. || sunburn || ''tol ta'' "sun-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| tolu || || n. || table || ''tulau''
|-
| toma || || n. || fist || ''ton mab'' "blunt hand"
|-
| toñɔ || || n. || strict, authoritative || ''ton gingko'' "hard hand"
|-
| toro || || n. || apron || {{Gez|tuːru}} "shirt, tunic (work clothing)" (K)
|-
| totsɛ || || n. || washbowl || (''to'' + ''tsɛ'': "that which washes hands")
|-
| tovo || || n. || assistant || (''to'' + ''-vo'': "hand-person")
|-
| toxasa || || n. || large quantity, myriad, multitude || {{Miw|tuχas}} "no number"
|-
| toyo || || n. || 7th day of the week || ''[lu airti] tol'' "day of the sun" + ''-yo''
|-
| to’anu || || v. || impede, obstruct, block || ''tuanau'' "avoid"
|-
| tu || || n. || lake || ''tau''
|-
| tul || {{sc|vn}} tuna || v. || eat || ''tu'' + ''-l'' (antipassive)
|-
| tulsu || || n. || cinnamon || {{Ad|thulus}} < {{Xsh|t'uluš}}
|-
| tuse || || intj. || well, I guess, you know || {{Ndd|tuze}} < {{Miw|tūzi}} (hearsay particle)
|-
| tutsi || {{sc|vn}} tutsixə || v.refl || commit suicide || {{Fá|utúči}}
|-
| tuyasa || || n. || good weather || {{Ndd|twïasa}}
|-
| Tuysafa || || top. || [[Tuysáfa]] || {{Fá|Tuysáfa}}
|-
| tu’o || || adv. || somewhat, slightly, to a small extent || ''taudu''
|-
| tsa || || cj. || yes || {{Ndd|ca}}
|-
| tsada || || v. || become engaged || {{Ndd|canida}} "marry on a trial basis"
|-
| tsaftɛ || || n. || fire || {{Miw|traften}} "bonfire"
|-
| tsapse || || v. || give, provide, supply || ''tsampi''
|-
| tsatsa || || v. || sneeze || ''tsatsa''
|-
| tsɛ || {{sc|vn}} tsɛñə || v.refl || wash || ''tsaing''
|-
| tsɛga || || adv. || only || {{Fá|čega}}
|-
| tsɛla || || n. || laundry, freshly washed clothes || (''tsɛ'' + ''-la'': "those which are washed")
|-
| tsɛlo || || n. || spear || ''tselô''
|-
| tsɛñɛru || || n. || mutual agreement; win-win situation || ''intaing ewe rud'' "in favor of everyone"
|-
| tsɛsə || {{sc|vn}} tsɛsera || v. || be born || ''tsesir''
|-
| tsɛsəbo || || n. || baby, infant || ''tsesirbu''
|-
| tsɛvo || {{sc|vn}} tsɛvɔra || v. || pour || ''tsebor''
|-
| tsɛvobo || || n. || innkeeper || ''tseborbu'' "one who pours"
|-
| tsɛxənə || || n. || chain || {{Gez|tseginig}} (K)
|-
| tse || {{sc|acc}} tsə || det. || that (demonstrative) || ''tsi''
|-
| tselɔ || || n. || tooth || ''tsilâu''
|-
| tselu || || pron. || there || ''tsilul'' or ''tsi lau''
|-
| tsena || || v. || be in love with || {{Ndd|cïn}}
|-
| tsen{{IPA|ɛ́}}ña || || n. || scholar || (''tsena'' + ''nɛña'': "one who loves the scrolls")
|-
| tseru || || pron. || that person || ''tsi rud'' "that man"
|-
| tsetsu || || pron. || then || ''tsitsau''
|-
| tsexɛ || || pron. || that thing || ''tsige''
|-
| tsə || || n. || dog || ''tsis''
|-
| tsədo || || adv. || for that reason || ''tsindu''
|-
| Tsənaxa || || n. || the emperor [[Tsinakan]] || ''Tsinakan''
|-
| tsəñe || || n. || unlikely, far-fetched; having a non-obvious connection || ''tsingki'' "separate"
|-
| tsətse || || n. || louse || ''tsêtsi''
|-
| tsə’ə || || adv. || that way || {{Ndd|cï'n}}
|-
| tsi || || n. || seed || (back-formed from ''mvotsi'')
|-
| tsiba || || v. || attach, fix, put together || {{Fá|čiəba}} "tie"
|-
| tsilɔ || || n. || basket || {{Fá|čilo}}
|-
| tsisi || || v.erg || develop; (intr.) appear || ''tsaisai'' "arise"
|-
| tsiso || || v. || sow || (''tsi'' + ''-so'': "do with seeds")
|-
| tsɔbo || || n. || shepherd || ''tsobibu'' "one who watches"
|-
| tsɔdəñɛ || || n. || surprise; amazing, stunning, compelling || ''tso-'' (hyberprobabilitive) + ''tingke'' "compel, coerce"
|-
| tsɔmɔla || || n. || cunning; intelligent || ''tso-'' (hyperprobabilitive) + ''molan'' "awake, alert"
|-
| tsɔmva || || v. || drop, let go of, set free, untie || {{Ndd|cåmva}} "set free"
|-
| tsɔska || || n. || queen || {{Fá|čaoksa}}
|-
| tsɔve || || v. || watch, observe, lurk, look out for || ''tsobi'' "control"
|-
| tsɔvlu || || n. || tower || ''tsobilau'' "watch-place"
|-
| tsɔvruyɔ || || v. || improve, optimize || (''tsɔve'' + ''ruyɔ'': "observe and solve")
|-
| tsɔxe || || n. || wilted, limp, flaccid || ''tsâuki'' "soft"
|-
| tsɔxevo || || n. || fungus, mushroom (in general) || ''tsâukibu'' "one who is soft"
|-
| tsɔyɔspe || || n. || moss || ''tsâuki auspi'' "soft and green"
|-
| tso || || n. || knee; corner || ''tsong''
|-
| tsodɔ || || n. || dust, dirt || ''tsondo''
|-
| tson- || || aux. || {{sc|hab.aux}} ("be always") || ''tso-'' (hyperprobabilitive) + ''-n'' (perfective)
|-
| tsoñeta || || n. || elbow || ''tsong itwam'' "arm-knee"
|-
| tsoñəba || || v. || kick || ''tsong on ngemba'' "knee and toe"
|-
| tsore || || n. || tomorrow || ''tsuri''
|-
| tsu || || n. || vicinity, surroundings || ''tsuts''
|-
| tsugə || || v. || press, squeeze, pinch || ''tsurgî'' "pressure"
|-
| tsugɔra || || n. || clamp || (''tsugə'' + ''-ɔra'': "squeeze-thing")
|-
| tsula || || v. || be curious; investigate || ''tsulwa'' "be determined to taste"
|-
| tsuto || {{sc|vn}} tsutɔra || v. || insult; spit || ''tsurtor'' "insult" + {{Fá|čutu}} "spit"
|-
| tsuyo || || n. || 8th day of the week || ''[lu airti] lêtsau'' "day of the cold one" + ''-yo''
|-
| u || {{sc|acc}} ɔ || det. || a (indefinite article) || ''au''
|-
| u || {{sc|1p}} ome, {{sc|2p}} obɔ || pp. {{sc|+nom}} || of, from, relating to (genitive) || ''um''
|-
| ubarɛ || || v. || lack, be absent || ''ugbâre''
|-
| uflava || || v. || fry || {{Miw|uplāf}}
|-
| ulbo || {{sc|vn}} ulbɔra || v. || crouch, kneel || ''ulbor''
|-
| ulmi || || n. || yellow || ''ulmài''
|-
| ulpi || || n. || size || ''ula pai'' "rise big"
|-
| ulɔ || || n. || rope || ''ulwo''
|-
| uma || || v. || play, have fun; pretend || ''unma'' "play (a game)"
|-
| umɔra || || n. || toy || {{Ndd|omår}} "play-thing" (reanalysed as derived from ''uma'')
|-
| unzə || {{sc|vn}} unzəma || v. || bet, wager, gamble || ''unma sim'' "play luckily"
|-
| uño || || n. || lame, crippled || ''unggu''
|-
| usa || || intj. || hello (casual) || (same source as {{Ndd|usa}})
|-
| usɔ || || n. || yesterday || ''auso''
|-
| utse || || v. || blow || ''untsi''
|-
| uvi || || v.erg || happen, occur, come to pass || ''aubai'' "active"
|-
| uviga || || adv. || sometimes, occasionally || (''uvi'' + ''-ga'')
|-
| uvɔ || || n. || courage, confidence || ''aubo'' "easy, happy"
|-
| uvo || || adv. || soon || {{Ndd|uvwo}}
|-
| uyayso || {{sc|vn}} uyaysɔ’a || v. || invite; bring along || ''ukkaktod'' "want to greet"
|-
| uylospo || || n. || inexperienced; amateur || ''uklusitpu'' "one who is eager"
|-
| uyɔl || {{sc|vn}} uyɔna || v. || doubt || {{Ndd|uvyål}}
|-
| uyɔlvo || || n. || philosopher || (''uyɔl'' + ''-vo'': "one who doubts")
|-
| uysa || {{sc|vn}} uysava || v. || wish, want, desire || ''uksab'' "look forward to"
|-
| uysapse || || v. || owe || ''uktsampi'' "want to give"
|-
| uysavla || || n. || wish, prospect || ''uksabla'' "that which is looked forward to"
|-
| uyse’abo || || n. || bride, fiancée || ''uktianaibu'' "one who is engaged to be married"
|-
| Uysɔ || || top. || [[Ussor]] || ''Uksaur''
|-
| uysɔlɛ || || v. || wonder || ''ukotole'' "anticipate" + {{sc|dim}}
|-
| uysɔbo || || n. || jealous person || ''uktsobibu'' "one who covets"
|-
| uysutsi || {{sc|vn}} uysutsixə || v.refl || be depressed || (''uy-'' + ''tutsi'' "commit suicide")
|-
| ve || || n. || son || {{Ndd|vï}}
|-
| vi || || n. || star || {{Ndd|vi}}
|-
| vono || || n. || aggressive person || {{Ndd|vwornon}} "thunder" (v.)
|-
| wa || {{sc|1p}} wɛ, {{sc|2p}} wado || pp. {{sc|+acc}} || against, to the detriment of || ''wapa'' "hit"
|-
| wa || || qu. || a few || ''ngwa''
|-
| wano || {{sc|vn}} wanona || v. || follow || ''uwa non'' "go after"
|-
| wapsu || || n. || pot, kettle || ''wampum'' "hollow"
|-
| waslu || || n. || grave, tomb || ''watslau'' "hole (in the ground)"
|-
| waubo || || n. || hammer || ''wapabu'' "that which hits"
|-
| way || {{sc|vn}} wayxa || v.erg || relax; be confident || ''wawaik'' "calm"
|-
| wayfo || || n. || confident, even-tempered, prudent || ''wawaikpu'' "one who is calm"
|-
| wayo || {{sc|acc}} waño || pron. || {{sc|3pl.inan}} || (same source as {{Ndd|wajon}})
|-
| wɛmodo || || n. || iteration; instance || ''wai mondu'' "this numbering"
|-
| wɛna || || n. || vegetable || ''wedn'' "herb"
|-
| wɛñɔ || {{sc|acc}} wɛño || pron. || {{sc|2pl}} || (by analogy with ''lɛñɔ'')
|-
| wɛtə || || n. || topic, subject (of a story) || {{Fá|wætə}} "about, concerning"
|-
| wɛtuldɔ || || adv. || even || ''wetutul do'' "you will be amazed"
|-
| wemə || || n. || neighbor || ''wimès''
|-
| wesi || || v. || scream || ''wisai'' "yell, cry out"
|-
| we’ɔ || || v. || expect || ''awio'' "hope"
|-
| we’ɔvo || || n. || optimist; ambitious person || ''awiobu'' "one who hopes"
|-
| wə- || || aux. || {{sc|fut.aux}} ("will") || ''we-'' (futurative mood prefix)
|-
| wədəl || {{sc|vn}} wədəna || v. || wear || ''wirdel''
|-
| wəlu || || n. || garden, orchard || ''wenlau''
|-
| wəñə || || v.erg || be wet || ''wing'' "wet"
|-
| wəru || {{sc|acc}} waru || pron. || {{sc|3pl.anim}} || ''ngwa rud'' "a few men"
|-
| wəsku || || n. || turmeric, curcuma || {{Mer|*wərəziku}} < {{PPI|*huarn-sikçu}} "red spice"
|-
| wi || {{sc|acc}} wɛ || pron. || {{sc|1pl}} || ''wai'' "(these) near me"
|-
| wilu || || pron. || here || ''wailul'' or ''wai lau''
|-
| wimvɔ || || v. || vomit || {{Ndd|wimvång}}
|-
| witsu || || pron. || now || ''waitsau''
|-
| wo || || num. || three || ''wos''
|-
| womva || || n. || pattern, mosaic || {{Ndd|womwa}}
|-
| woskatatsi || || n. || trireme || {{Fá|wozgatač}}
|-
| woxlu || || n. || courtroom || ''wukulau'' "blame-place"
|-
| xabe || || n. || law || ''ukàmbi'' "announce" (v.)
|-
| xadalu || || n. || woodland || ''gatnlau'' "wood-place"
|-
| xaga || || v. || distribute || ''gabbwa'' "share"
|-
| xagala || || n. || portion, fraction, part, piece || ''gabbwala'' "that which is shared"
|-
| xalu || || n. || black pepper || {{Fá|hadlu}} "spicy"
|-
| xamɛ || || n. || sickle || ''gan kwaim'' "round blade"
|-
| xananɔ || || v. || carve || ''gatn narno'' "cut wood"
|-
| xañɔ || || v. || move || ''gangio''
|-
| xañɔvo || || n. || muscle || ''gangiobu'' "mover"
|-
| xapɛ || || v. || order, command || {{Fá|hape}} "force, coerce"
|-
| xapsɛ || || n. || axe || ''gan mepwaip'' "heavy blade"
|-
| xara || || n. || the Isthmus peoples || {{Fá|haran}} "Faraghin"
|-
| xaru || || pron. || this person || ''gâ rud'' "this man"
|-
| xat || || n. || wood (the material) || ''gatn''
|-
| xawaxa || || n. || bridge || ''gau âka'' "air road"
|-
| xaw{{IPA|ə́}}be || || n. || month || ''gau imbi'' "road of the moon"
|-
| xaxɛ || || pron. || this thing || ''gâge''
|-
| xɛpu || || n. || alone, on one's own, solitary || {{Fá|hewpu}}
|-
| xɛrɔ || || n. || a type of mushroom || {{Kib|hero'}}
|-
| xɛsɔ || || n. || season; period of time || {{NAis|hêseu}}
|-
| xɛtɔy || || n. || property || {{NAis|êheutoi}}
|-
| xɛtu || || v. || retire || {{Fá|hætud}} "veteran"
|-
| xɛvra || || n. || sheep || ''gaibra''
|-
| xɛvrine || || n. || wool || ''gaibra aini'' "sheep-hair"
|-
| xɛwə || {{sc|acc}} xɛwa || det. || who, what (open interrogative) || ''gewa''
|-
| xə || {{sc|acc}} xa || det. || this (demonstrative) || ''gâ''
|-
| xəlna || || n. || slow || ''gilna''
|-
| xəme || || v. || stand up straight || ''gingwi'' "tall"
|-
| xəpsa || || v. || cheat; get the better end of a bargain || ''gempa'' "injure"
|-
| xəsta || || v. || provide favorable conditions, promote, foster || ''gets ta'' "likely-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| xə’ə || || adv. || this way, so, thus || {{Ndd|gï'n}}
|-
| xida || {{sc|ger}} ntəñída || v. || climb, go upward || ''nggai ta'' "upward-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| xiso || || n. || coriander || {{Vyl|*hísso}} < {{PPI|*sikçu}} "spice, herb"
|-
| xi’ɔ || || n. || rabbit || ''gaido''
|-
| xɔmátsi || || v. || guide || ''gau matautsi'' "unbend the road"
|-
| xɔpsah || || n. || trade route || ''gau mpag'' "far road"
|-
| xɔsɔ || || n. || difficulty; obstacle; challenge; riddle || ''goso'' "difficult"
|-
| xoba || || n. || crowd (of people) || ''gomba''
|-
| xobɔra || || n. || visible, overt, obvious, public || (''xoba'' + ''-ɔra'': "crowd-thing")
|-
| xodah || {{sc|vn}} xodaxa || v. || rest, relax || ''gondag'' "dream"
|-
| xol || || n. || foot || ''nggol''
|-
| xolnálo || || n. || hoof || (''xol'' + ''nalo'': "horse-foot")
|-
| xolu || || n. || slope || ''gomlau'' "high place"
|-
| xoñi || || v. || break, tear apart || ''gonggai''
|-
| Xopɔváwɛ || || top. || [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] || {{NAis|Oigop'oibauxeu}}
|-
| xorɔ || || n. || guts || ''guro''
|-
| xowa || || v. || write; sign || ''gubab'' "mark"
|-
| xo’a || || v. || hunt, chase || ''gua'' "follow"
|-
| xo’avo || || n. || hunter || ''guabu'' "one who follows"
|-
| xuñe || || n. || crossroads || ''gau ngi'' "two roads"
|-
| xutsɔ || || cj. || so, therefore || ''gunto''
|-
| xuvəda || || n. || culture, lifestyle || ''gubm ta'' "life-{{sc|dynamic}}"
|-
| Xuyfá’ah || || top. || [[Huyfárah]] || {{Fá|Huyfárah}}
|-
| xu’ɛ || || n. || book || {{NAis|huxeu}}
|-
| yaba || || n. || bad, faulty || {{Ad|iaba}}
|-
| yabataspa || || v. || improve; correct || (''yaba'' + ''taspa'': "point out mistakes")
|-
| yalma || || n. || blue || {{Miw|jalma}} "light blue"
|-
| yana || || v. || cling to, hold fast, retain || {{Tl|yan}}
|-
| yanavo || || n. || grip, handle, knob, loop, lug, hook (any holding device) || (''yana'' + ''-vo'': "that which is held on to")
|-
| yarəska || || n. || linen (cloth) || {{Ndd|yaddïska}}
|-
| yastɛ || || n. || pumpkin, gourd || {{Ndd|vyastë}} < {{Miw|vijaste}}
|-
| ya’iga || || v. || tie, bind || {{Miw|jārik}} "twine, string"
|-
| ya’ɔwa || || n. || summer || ''iadopm''
|-
| yɛni || || n. || wine || {{Gez|jain}} (K)
|-
| yɛski || || n. || bird (excluding poultry) || {{Miw|jeskju}} "whistler; songbird"
|-
| yəlu || {{sc|acc}} yalu || pron. || where (interrogative pronoun) || (by analogy with ''yəru'')
|-
| yəma || || n. || symbol, sign, mark, character (of a script) || {{Fá|iəma}}
|-
| yəru || {{sc|acc}} yaru || pron. || who (interrogative pronoun) || (same source as {{Ndd|yaro}}; includes ''rud'' "man")
|-
| yɔrápɔ || || n. || vinegar || {{Fá|ior apo}} "sour fruit"
|-
| yɔsa || || n. || lady; woman of high prestige || {{Fá|ioza}}
|-
| yɔsko || || n. || glad, happy, joyous; fortunate || {{Ndd|vyåsko}} "be joyous"
|-
| yɔti || || n. || week (of the Fáralo calendar) || (back-formed from ''yɔti xara'' < {{Fá|eioti haran}} "the Faraghin way of naming days")
|-
| yɔ’{{IPA|ɔ́}}pso || || n. || essential, indispensable || (''iyɔ'' + ''ɔpso'': "deeply important")
|-
| yovla || || n. || superstition; unfounded reasoning || {{Ndd|yovla}} "explanation"
|-
| yubuso || || n. || oppossum || {{Ndd|yubuswo}}
|-
| yuləh || || n. || cheese || {{Gez|jubleg}} (K)
|-
| yumu || || n. || neat, pretty, cute || {{Fá|iwmu}} "beautiful"
|-
| yuska || || n. || a legendary creature that eats people || {{Miw|bjūzga}}
|-
|}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Proto-Eigə-Isthmus

2025-02-01T12:11:03Z

Cedh:

{{Language
| language = Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
| date = 5th millenium [[YP|BP]]
| place = [[Huyfárah]]
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
| word-or = VO
| mor-type = agglutinative
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]], with help from [[User:Cedh|Cedh]], [[User:Radius|Radius]], and others
}}
{{Article}}
'''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]. It was spoken in eastern Peilaš, probably in the region that later became [[Huyfárah]], during the 5th millenium [[YP|BP]].

The reconstruction of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus is based primarily on comparison of [[Miwan languages|Eastern and Forest Miwan]], [[Ngauro]] loans found in [[Ndak Ta]], and [[Faraghin]] and its ancestor [[Proto-Isthmus]].

= Phonology =

== Syllable structure ==

The Proto-Eigə-Isthmus syllable may be conceived in terms of the following structure:

# an '''onset''' consisting of an initial consonant '''''*Ci''''', which may be followed by an optional liquid or glide '''''*(G)''''' (one of ''*r *l *j *w'');
# a '''vocalic nucleus''' consisting of a vowel '''''*V'''''; and
# an optional '''coda''', consisting of a final consonant '''''*(Cf)''''', which may optionally be preceded by one of '''''*s *n *r *l *j *w''''' to form a coda cluster.

The syllable structure is thus '''''*Ci(G)V((s,n,G)Cf)'''''.

There are of course some further restrictions on possible syllables; for example, the combinations ''*ji *wu'' do not occur (although ''*ij *uw'' do). For restrictions on onset and coda clusters, see the more detailed discussions below.

Many PEI roots consist of a single syllable with this structure. However, no attested EI language is as monosyllabic as this might suggest; compounding and affixation are highly productive derivational processes in all branches of the family, and have been for thousands of years. Indeed, the difficulties of reconstructing PEI arise in large part from the multiple layers of prefixes and suffixes that have attached themselves to roots over time, often causing changes in the root itself before wearing away and being replaced by new affixes.

A prevocalic glide ''*(G)'' sometimes acts as part of the vocalic nucleus rather than the onset. For example, in the changes leading to Proto-Isthmus, sequences of [''*w'' + vowel] have distinct vocalic reflexes when they follow an initial consonant (e.g. PEI ''*Cwa'' > PIsth. ''*Co''). Similarly, postvocalic glides form diphthongs with distinct reflexes in the daughter languages.

== Onsets ==

=== Onset consonant inventory ===

The following onset consonants are reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| *ʔ
|-
|
| *θ *ð
| *s *z
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | *w
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | *j
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

Plosives are reconstructed at three places of articulation: labial '''''*p *b''''', coronal (possibly dental) '''''*t *d''''', and dorsal (presumably velar) '''''*k *g'''''.

There are also coronal affricates '''''*ts *dz''''', and two pairs of coronal fricatives: sibilant '''''*s *z''''' and non-sibilant (probably dental) '''''*θ *ð'''''. These sounds have tended to shift around in the descendant languages, making them considerably more difficult to reconstruct than the plosives. (Labial fricatives are not reconstructed for PEI, although many descendant languages have one or both of /f v/; the Miwan labial fricatives are mainly descended from ''*θ *ð'', while Proto-Isthmus ''*f'' descends from ''*w'' word-initially and ''*θ'' elsewhere.)

Nasals are reconstructed at the same three places of articulation as plosives. The labial and coronal nasals '''''*m *n''''' are perhaps the easiest to reconstruct of the PEI onsets, as they remain unchanged in most of the descendant languages and are found in many clear cognates. By comparison, the evidence for the dorsal nasal '''''*ŋ''''' is extremely murky: it seems to be uncommon, and has merged with other phonemes in many languages.

Liquids '''''*r *l''''' and glides '''''*j *w''''' are reconstructed as well. Of these, ''*l'' survives unchanged in most of the descendant languages; the others are preserved most clearly in the Miwan branch. A number of Eigə-Isthmus languages do not contrast /r l/ with each other, having deleted ''*r'' or shifted it to something else; on the other hand, several Isthmus languages (including Faraghin and Doroh) have innovated new /r/ despite its absence in Proto-Isthmus.

A glottal stop '''''*ʔ''''' is reconstructed for what would otherwise be vowel-initial syllables; this simplifies the syllable structure by making the onset obligatory, and explains some developments in the daughter languages. Most notably, the final consonants of verbal roots regularly develop as codas, even though they're nearly always followed by a stem vowel; this makes sense if the stem vowel was preceded by an onset ''*ʔ''. Further evidence may be found in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages: it's been suggested that ''*ʔ'' induced glottalization or creaky voice on nearby vowels. It's also possible that the phonemic glottal stop found in some Eigə Valley languages is partly descended from PEI ''*ʔ''.

Finally, a second glottal onset '''''*h''''' has been suggested to account for some words which unexpectedly show breathy voice in Eigə Valley languages. However, since it has no consonantal reflexes and only affects one branch of the family, it may make more sense to simply reconstruct this as a tonal distinction in Proto-Eigə Valley.

=== Voicing ===

A simple two-way voicing contrast is reconstructed for all PEI obstruents (plosives, affricates, and fricatives). In plosives and affricates this contrast seems to have been somewhat unstable in the early Eigə-Isthmus family; the regular correspondences in onset position are:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="row" | Proto-Isthmus
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *ts
| *dz
|-
! scope="row" | Proto-Eigə Valley
| *b
| *d
| *g
| *p
| *t
| *k
| *ts
| *ts
|}

That is, Proto-Isthmus voiceless plosives correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiced plosives and vice versa, while Proto-Isthmus voiced and voiceless affricates both correspond to Proto-Eigə Valley voiceless ones.

The evidence (notably from the affricates ''*ts *dz'', whose PIsth. reflexes are not predictable from the merged PEV form) suggests that Proto-Isthmus preserves the original voicing, and that Proto-Eigə Valley onsets underwent the following changes:

# *b *d *dz *g > *bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ > *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ
# *p *t *k > *b *d *g
# *pʰ *tʰ *tsʰ *kʰ > *p *t *ts *k

The murmured or breathy-voiced onsets ''*bʱ *dʱ *dzʱ *gʱ'' induced breathy voice on the following vocalic nucleus before being devoiced to aspirates. This may have been the first step in the process of tonogenesis among the Eigə Valley languages.

Fricatives did not undergo these changes. The voiced fricatives ''*ð *z'' are reconstructed where Proto-Isthmus ''*d *dz'' correspond to Miwan ''/v z/'': e.g. Faraghin ''daradan'' and Miwan ''varja(:)'' 'dance', both from PEI ''*ða(r)j-ʔa''.

=== Onset clusters ===

Onset consonants may form clusters with a following liquid or glide (''*r *l *j *w''). Miwan preserves more of these clusters than the other branches; the following table shows the clusters found in wordlists from three Miwan languages:

{|
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
| rowspan="2" |  
! scope="col" | Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| ''pl''
|  
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
| bl
|
|
|-
| tr
|
|
| tw
| ''dr''
|
|
| ''dw''
|-
|
| kl
|
| kw
| gr
| ''gl''
|
| gw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| fl
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
| sl
|
| sw
|
|
| ''zj''
| ''zw''
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
|
|
|
|
| rowspan="11" |
|
|  
| bj
|
|-
| tr
|
| tj
| tw
| dr
|
| dj
| dw
|-
| ''kr''
|
| ''kj''
| kw
|
|
| ''gj''
| gw
|-
|
|
|
| qw
|
|
|
|
|-
| fr
| ''fl''
| fj
| fw
| ''vr''
|
|
| ''vw''
|-
|
|
| sj
|
|
|
|
| ''zw''
|-
|
|
| ''χj''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''nj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| pr
| pl
| pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
|  
|  
|
|
|-
| ''tr''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| fw
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| zw
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''rj''
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''lj''
| ''lw''
|}
|}
(The entries in ''italics'' are attested only medially, and thus some of them might not represent original onset clusters.)

The set observed in the reconstructed lexicon for Proto-Isthmus is somewhat different:
{|
! Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *pl
| *pj
| rowspan="6" |
| *bl
|
|-
| *tl
| *tj
| *dl
|
|-
|
|
|
| ''*dzj''
|-
| *kl
| *kj
|
|
|-
|
| ''*sj''
|
|
|-
|
|
|
| *nj
|}
|}

Comparing these two sets, we can see that Proto-Isthmus has entirely lost ''*r'' and ''*w''; other interesting differences include PIsth.'s lack of clusters beginning in ''*f'' (because this corresponds to Miwan ''w''), and its very frequent ''*tl *dl'' (which have simplified to ''d t'' in Miwan).

Based on this comparison, a probable set of onset clusters may be reconstructed for Proto-Eigə-Isthmus (those in parentheses are unattested in any reconstructable vocabulary so far):

{|
! Proto-Eigə-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| (*pr)
| *pl
| *pj
|
| rowspan="11" |
| *br
| *bl
| *bj
|
|-
| *tr
| *tl
| *tj
| *tw
| *dr
| *dl
| *dj
| *dw
|-
|
| (*tsl)
| (*tsj)
| *tsw
|
| (*dzl)
| *dzj
| (*dzw)
|-
| *kr
| *kl
| *kj
| *kw
| *gr
| *gl
| *gj
| *gw
|-
| *θr
| *θl
| *θj
| *θw
| *ðr
| (*ðl)
| (*ðj)
| *ðw
|-
|
| *sl
| *sj
| *sw
|
| (*zl)
| *zj
| *zw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*mj)
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *nj
| (*nw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| (*ŋj)
| *ŋw
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *rj
| (*rw)
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *lj
| *lw
|}
|}

A few phonotactic restrictions can be discerned here: onset clusters of [labial + ''*w''] are forbidden, as are [sibilant (''*ts *dz *s *z'') + ''*r'']; ''*r *l'' cannot cluster with each other, nor with nasals. On the other hand, the absence of ''*pr'', ''*tsj'', and ''*dzw'' is doubtless just an accident of our incomplete knowledge of these languages. In between these extremes, it's difficult to tell what the status of such unattested clusters as ''*tsl *dzl'', ''*ðl *ðj'', or ''*mj *ŋj'' is. Further work is needed here; it may also be that some of the clusters found only in one branch or the other are innovations.

Another question worth exploring is whether there are onset clusters ''*ʔr *ʔl *ʔj *ʔw'': if so, they would contrast with plain ''*r *l *j *w'', and would develop differently in some instances (for example ''*wa *ʔwa'' would become ''*fa *o'' respectively in Proto-Isthmus).

=== Proposed correspondences ===

The charts below show the development of onset consonants and clusters in three early daughters of Proto-Eigə-Isthmus: [[Proto-Isthmus]], [[Ngauro]], and [[Miwan languages|Proto-Miwan]]. It will be updated as comparative work continues.

(NB: Correspondences in '''bold''' are attested in fairly certain cognate pairs; those in ''italics'' are postulated to exist but currently unattested. Entries in (parentheses) are not actually found in the relevant lexicon at all. Particularly uncertain correspondences are marked with a "?", whether attested or not. As-of-yet unknown reflexes are left blank.)

==== Onset consonants ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| *p
| (''b'')
| *b
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''d'''
| '''*d'''
|-
| *ts
| '''*ts'''
| '''s'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *k
| *k
| (''g'')
| *g
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| '''*b'''
| ''p''
| '''*p'''
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ''s''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| '''k'''
| '''*k'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| ''*t''¹, ''*f''²
| (''h'')
| ''*f''
|-
| *s
| ''*s''
| (''ś'')³
| ''*s''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ð
| '''*d'''
| (''∅'')
| '''*v'''
|-
| *z
| '''*dz'''
| '''z'''
| '''*z'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| '''*m'''
| '''m'''
| '''*m'''
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| '''n'''
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*nj''¹, ''*jn''²
| ?(''ŋ'')
| ''*ŋ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ''∅''
| (''j'')
| ''*r''
|-
| *l
| '''*l'''
| ''l''
| '''*l'''
|-
| *j
| ''*j''
| ''z''
| ''*j''
|-
| *w
| ''*f''¹, ''∅''²
| (''w'')
| ''*w''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *ʔ
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
| (''∅'')⁴
| ''∅''⁴
|}
1. Initial.

2. Medial.

3. Possibly pronounced [θ].

4. Presumably with tonal effects.

==== Onset clusters ====

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| (*pr) *br
| ''*ʈ *ɖ¹''
|
| (''*br'') ''*pr''
|-
| *pl *bl
| ''*pl *bl''
|
| ''*bl *pl''
|-
| *pj *bj
| ''*pj *bj''
|
| ''*bj *pj''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *tr *dr
| '''*ʈ''' *ɖ
| '''dj''' (''tj'')
| ''*dr'' *tr
|-
| *tl *dl
| '''*tl *dl'''
|
| '''*d *t'''
|-
| *tj *dj
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*dj *tj''
|-
| *tw *dw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*dw *tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*tsl *dzl)
| (''*tsl'' ''*dzl'')
|
|
|-
| (*tsj) *dzj
| (''*tsj'') ''*dzj''
|
| ''*tj *tj''
|-
| *tsw (*dzw)
| '''*ts''' ''*dz''¹
|
| '''*tw''' ''*tw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *kr *gr
| ''*ʈ *ɖ''
|
| ''*gr *kr''
|-
| *kl *gl
| *kl (''*gl'')
|
| *g(l) ''*kl''
|-
| *kj *gj
| ''*kj'' (''*gj'')
|
| ''*gj *kj''
|-
| *kw *gw
| ''*k'' '''*g'''¹
|
| ''*gw'' '''*kw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θr *ðr
| ''*ʈ''² ''*ɖ''
|
| ''*fr *vr''
|-
| *θl (*ðl)
| ''*tl *dl''
|
| ''*fl'' (''*vl'')
|-
| *θj (*ðj)
| ''*tj'' (''*dj'')
|
| ''*fj'' (''*vj'')
|-
| *θw *ðw
| ''*t *d''¹
|
| ''*fw *vw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *sl (*zl)
| (?''*sl *dzl'')
|
| ''*sl'' (''*zl'')
|-
| *sj *zj
| ''*sj *dzj''
|
| ''*sj *zj''
|-
| *sw *zw
| ''*s'' '''*dz'''¹
|
| ''*sw'' '''*zw'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*mj)
| (''*mj'')
|
| (''*mj'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *nj
| '''*nj'''
| '''z'''
| ''*nj''
|-
| (*nw)
| ''*n''¹
|
| (''*nw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ŋj)
| ?''*nj''
|
| (''*ŋj'')
|-
| *ŋw
| ?''*nj''¹
|
| ''*ŋw''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *rj
| ?''*j''
|
| ''*rj''
|-
| (*rw)
| ?''∅''¹
|
| (''*rw'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *lj
| (''*lj'')
|
| ''*lj''
|-
| *lw
| ''*l''¹
|
| ''*lw''
|}
1. With w-coloring of the following vowel; see vowel correspondences below.

2. Medially > ''*f'', possibly with w-coloring of the following vowel.

== Vowels ==

=== Vowel inventory ===

The vowel systems of the Eigə-Isthmus family show a large amount of variation, even among closely related languages:

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Faraghin
|  
! scope="col" | Feråjin
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
| rowspan=2 | eu
|
| rowspan=2 | oi
|
|-
|
| e
|
| o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
|
|
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
| o oː
|-
|
|
| æ æː
|
| ɒ ɒː
|}
|}

The Miwan languages tend to have particularly small inventories (which they make up for by having length and tone distinctions):

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Forest Miwan
|  
! scope="col" | Old Eastern Miwan
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|  
|
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i iː
| iw iːw
|
| u uː
|-
|
| e eː
|
|
|-
|
|
| a aː
|
|}
|}

Comparison of Ngauro with the reconstruction of Proto-Isthmus is particularly important for understanding the PEI vowel system.

{|
|-
! scope="col" | Ngauro
|  
! scope="col" | Proto-Isthmus
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| i
|
|
|
| u
|-
|
| e
| colspan=2 | aü
|
|-
|
|
| ai~ɛ
|
| au~o
|-
|
|
|
| a
|
|}
|
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| *i *ij
|
|
| *u *uj
|-
|  
| rowspan=2 | *e *ej
|
| rowspan=2 | *o *oj
|-
|  
|
|-
|
|
| *a *aj
|
|}
|}

A simple 4-vowel system is reconstructed for PEI, but with a full inventory of diphthongs formed by following semivowels:

{|
! '''Proto-Eigə-Isthmus'''
|-
|
{| {{softtable|c}}
| '''*i''' *ij *iw
|
|
| '''*u''' *uj *uw
|-
|
| '''*e''' *ej *ew
|
|
|-
|
|
| '''*a''' *aj *aw
|
|}
|}

The open vowel '''''*a''''' and close vowels '''''*i *u''''' are quite easy to reconstruct, being unchanged in many of the descendant languages. The front mid vowel '''''*e''''' appears somewhat less frequently, and seems to occur only in roots, not in affixes.

All of the diphthongs have tended to merge with monophthongs in many descendant languages, again making them somewhat difficult to reconstruct. In particular, only Isthmus languages distinguish between ''*e'' and ''*aj'' or ''*i'' and ''*ej''; and only Eigə Valley languages distinguish between ''*a'' and ''*aw'', ''*e'' and ''*ew'', or ''*u'' and ''*uw''. (On the other hand, ablaut patterns in the verbal morphologies of the EI languages help quite a bit to clarify the picture.)

===Proposed correspondences ===

Here Old Eastern Miwan and Forest Miwan are listed separately, as they seem to have simplified the vowel system in slightly different ways. Vowels with preceding ''*w-'' are included to show their distinctive reflexes in Proto-Isthmus. There are many points of uncertainty here; the bold, italics, and parentheses have the same meanings as in the consonant charts above.

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | OEMiw
! scope="col" | FMiw
|-
| *a
| '''*a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
|-
| *e
| '''*e'''
| ai~ɛ
| '''e'''
| i
|-
| *i
| '''*i'''
| '''i'''
| i
| '''i'''
|-
| *u
| '''*u'''
| ''u''
| u
| '''u'''
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *aj
| (''*aj'')
| ai~ɛ
| ''e''
| i
|-
| *ej
| ''*ej''
| ''i''
| ''i''
| ''i''
|-
| *ij
| *ij
| ''e''
|
| ?a, u
|-
| *uj
| '''*uj'''
| '''aü'''¹
| a
| i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
|-
| *aw
| '''*a'''
| ''au''~'''o'''
| ''u''
| ''u''
|-
| *ew
| '''*e'''
| '''e'''
| '''iw'''
| ''iw''
|-
| *iw
| ''*(j)u''
| e
| ''iw''
| ''iw''
|-
| *uw
| *u
| ?aü¹
|
| ?i
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
| *wa
| '''*o'''
| (''wa'')
| ''wa''
| '''wa'''
|-
| *we
| '''*o'''
| (''wai~wɛ'')
| ''we''
| '''wi'''
|-
| *wi
| *ji
| wi
| wi
| ''wi''
|}
1. Borrowed as /au/ in Ndak Ta, but /oi/ in Faraghin; probably pronounced something like [œy] in early Ngauro.

== Codas ==

=== Coda inventory ===

Most consonants may be found in coda position:

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
| *p *b
| *t *d
| *ts *dz
| *k *g
| (*ʔ)
|-
|
| *θ
| *s
|
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (*h)
|-
| *m
| colspan="2" | *n
| *ŋ
|-
| rowspan="2" | (*w)
| colspan="2" | *r
| rowspan="2" | (*j)
|-
| colspan="2" | *l
|}

There is no evidence for a voicing contrast in coda fricatives. On the other hand, although ''*ŋ'' is not well attested in codas, it seems clear that it must have existed. Coda glottals ''*ʔ *h'', like the glottal onsets, might be reflected in the tonal systems of the Eigə Valley languages; there is no other evidence for them.

Postvocalic ''*j *w'' form diphthongs, which are discussed with vowels in the previous section. Coda ''*ts *dz *s'' seem to have merged to ''*s'' in PEV; when followed by a consonant in Proto-Miwan, this usually becomes breathy voice on the preceding vowel (indicated by ''*ʱ'' in the correspondence charts). (However, Forest Miwan does contrast coda /s z/, so it may be that coda ''*dz'' sometimes remained voiced in that branch.)

Coda clusters, consisting of a final consonant (usually a stop or affricate) preceded by one of ''*s *n *r *l *j *w'', are well attested. In this prefinal position, ''*n'' assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, giving ''*mp *mb *ŋk *ŋg''. However, ''*s'' does not assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant: in clusters of ''*s'' + a voiced consonant, the voicelessness of ''*s'' is preserved. Again, ''*j'' and ''*w'' produce diphthongs which are discussed above. The other coda clusters behave differently in different daughter languages, with the prefinal consonant sometimes affecting the vowel (as in Proto-Miwan, where ''*sC'' clusters were one source of breathy-voiced vowels) and sometimes the final consonant (as in Proto-Isthmus, where ''*rC'' clusters became retroflex stops).

Codas were not affected by the changes that reversed the voicing of onset stops and affricates in Proto-Eigə Valley, so voicing in codas is normally consistent across the entire family.

=== Proposed correspondences ===

==== Coda consonants ====
(For coda ''*j *w'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *p
| '''*p'''
| ?(''p'')
| '''*p'''
|-
| *t
| '''*t'''
| '''t'''
| '''*t'''
|-
| *ts
| ''*ts''
| ''s''
| ''*s'', ''*ʱ''
|-
| *k
| '''*k'''
| '''k'''
| ?''*k''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *b
| *b
| ?(''b'')
| ?(''*b'')
|-
| *d
| '''*d'''
| '''d'''
| ?''*d''
|-
| *dz
| '''*dz'''
| ?s
| ?''*s'', '''*ʱ'''
|-
| *g
| '''*g'''
| ?(''g'')
| '''*g'''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *θ
| *f
|
| *f
|-
| *s
| '''*s'''
| '''s'''
| '''*s''', ''*ʱ''
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *m
| *m
| m
| *m
|-
| *n
| '''*n'''
| (''n'')
| '''*n'''
|-
| *ŋ
| ''*j''
| (''*ŋ'')
| (''*ŋ'')
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| *r
| ?''∅''
|
| *r
|-
| *l
| *l
|
| *l
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
| (*ʔ)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ˀ''
|-
| (*h)
| ''∅''
|
| ?''*ʱ''
|}

==== Coda clusters ====

(For ''*jC *wC'', see the diphthongs under Vowels.)

{| {{bluetable|softbg c}}
! scope="col" | PEI
! scope="col" | PIsth.
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | PMiw
|-
| *sC
| '''*sC'''
| '''sC'''
| '''*ʱC'''
|-
| *nC
| '''*nC'''
| '''nC'''
| '''*nC'''
|-
| *rC
| *ʈ, *ɖ, ?''*C''¹
| ?*jC
| ?*rC
|-
| *lC
| *lC
| ?C
| ''*lC''
|}
1. Plosives > ''*ʈ *ɖ''. Medial ''*rp *rb'' trigger w-coloring of a following vowel; word-finally, they become ''*ʈu *ɖu''.

== Sound changes ==

These are partly tentative and definitely incomplete.

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Isthmus ===

* Fricative changes:
** ð z > d dz
** initial θ > t
** remaining θ > f

* Retroflexion:
** tr, kr, rt, rk > ʈ
** dr, gr, rd, rg > ɖ
** pr, rp > ʈw
** br, rb > ɖw
** rts rs > ʂ
** rdz > r
** fr, rf > ʂw
** rn, rŋ > ɳ
** rm > ɳw
** rl > ɭ (if this cluster occurs)
* Retroflexion is blocked when the cluster is immediately followed by l, j, or w.

* initial r > ∅
* remaining r > w

* initial w > f

* geminate consonants simplify

* ʔ, (h) > ∅
* intervocalic w > ∅ (probably not including /Vj_V)

* Hiatus reduction: before any vowel, or after a stressed vowel
** first, unstressed a, e > ∅
** then unstressed i u > j w

* W-coloring:
** wa, we > o
** wi > ji
** wo wu > o u

* iw > ju
* remaining coda w > ∅

* w > u when not adjacent to a vowel

*ŋ changes:
** initial ŋ > (ɲ) > nj
** intervocalic ŋ > (ɲ) > jn
** coda ŋ > (ɲ) > j (except perhaps before k g)

* j > ∅ after a retroflex consonant, an onset Cl cluster, or another j

* i e > u o between a labial consonant and a following retroflex consonant

* ʂ ɳ ɭ > s n l

(For subsequent changes in the Isthmus family, see [[Proto-Isthmus]].)

=== Proto-Eigə-Isthmus > Proto-Eigə Valley ===

* onset voicing shift (and rise of breathy voice on vowels)
** b d dz g > bʱ dʱ dzʱ gʱ > pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ + breathy voice on following vowel
** p t k > b d g
** pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ > p t ts k
** (this shift is blocked in medial clusters of two stops with the same voicing, e.g. PEI ''gasd~gasd'' ‘stream~PL’ > PEV ''kasd~ga(s)d'' > Ng. ''kasdgad'' > NT ''kasadgad'')
(Since *ts doesn't become voiced, *ts and *dz merge: cf. EMiw ''tun'' 'red' < ''*dzusn-'', ''timpi:za'' 'necklace' < ''*tsimp-''.)

* coda ts dz > s z
* ? z > s /V_C

* vowel mergers: e ej ew > aj i iw (although maybe ej > ij in some environments)

* intervocalic ʔ h (if they both existed) induce phonation—creaky voice and breathy voice respectively—on adjacent syllables, then are deleted

* the preposition ''ʔum'' > a prefix ''m-'', which then assimilates to the POA of a following stop (perhaps some other unstressed initial vowels are deleted too; but ''ʔas-'' seems to be preserved as Miwan ''as-'')

* onset tl dl > tɬ dɮ > ts dz (I think it'd be fun to have some hints of the lateral affricate stage in the daughters)
(This change has to happen after the merger of original *ts *dz > *ts; cf. FMiw ''dimbal'' 'wife' < ''*tlujb-''.)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Ngauro ====

(Not all these changes occur before the beginning of Ngauro writing.)

* *aj *aw > ai au in open syllables, > ɛ o in closed syllables
* *iw, *ij > e (maybe [ei])
* *uw, *uj > aü (maybe [œy])

* ? *ɛl > a before a coda consonant
* (other changes involving coda liquids)

* ? *s > θ in onsets
* *ts *dz > s z

* *nj > *ɲ > *j
* *j > z (at least initial)
* *r > j (at least /C_V)

* *m > n /_[+coronal]

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Meshi ====

The order of these changes is not completely certain. However the /*kw *gw/ > /fw zw/ change must take place before ca. 2250 BP.

* *a̤j *a̤w > *əj *əw
* phonation contrast becomes non-phonemic
* *aj *aw > e o
* *ʔ > ∅ / (if this is still present in PEV)
* *ts *dz → t d / in onsets
* *ts *dz → s z / elsewhere
* *w > v / #_ , V_V
* *a *e *o > ∅ / _#
* nasals assimilate in place to a following obstruent
* C > ∅ / _# in most polysyllabic words; some clusters are simplified rather than deleted
* C > ∅ / C_#
* *e *o > i u
* *kw *gw > fw zw
* [+obstruent] > ∅ / [+nasal]_, [+obstruent]_
* t d s z > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ / _i
* *iw *uj > *ø > e / _C, _#
* *uj > *øj > ej / _V
* *ij *uw > *əj *əw > aj aw
* *θ *ð > s z
* *ŋ → g / V_V
* *ŋ → j / u_, a_
* *ŋ → Ø (elsewhere)
* *r *l > j w / C_
* tj dj sj zj > ʧ ʤ ʃ ʒ (persistent)

==== Proto-Eigə Valley > Proto-Miwan ====

* *ts *dz > *t *d (only occurs in onsets)
* *θ *ð > *f *v

* *aj *aw > *e *o
* *o > *u
* ? *uw > *uj (maybe)

* *s > *ʱ (breathy voice on preceding vowel) /V_C$
(This change may be blocked by morpheme boundaries in the dialect that led to Forest Miwan.)

Breathy voice is now phonemic and found in at least a third of Proto-Miwan roots.

* ? *t, *d > *s~z /_[+plosive] (voicing assimilates to the following consonant)

* tonogenesis

===== Proto-Miwan > Forest Miwan =====

* *e > i
* ? *ij *uj > i/a/u (depending on environment)
* *ŋ > n

===== Proto-Miwan > Old Eastern Miwan =====

* ? some instances of *k *g > q χ (possibly due to early Hitatc influence)
* intervocalic ʔ develops (maybe *wu *ji > ʔu ʔi; possible Hitatc influence here too)
* *z > *s in codas (if this hasn't happened already)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Eastern Miwan ======

* loss of e (probably > i)
* ? u > o /_m (maybe not)
* loss of q χ ʔ (maybe χ > ʁ)
* loss of ŋ (mostly > n)
* loss of coda obstruents
* ? loss of b d g (maybe by lenition to v z ʁ; or by devoicing to p t k, with tonal effects on adjacent vowels; or maybe both: devoiced word-initially, lenited medially?)

====== Old Eastern Miwan > Southern Miwan ======

* r > ʀ
* ? χ > ʀ
* ? other uvulars merge into velars except adjacent to /a/
* ʔ > h
* v > w / #_
* l > w / _C, _#
* word-final obstruents become voiced and acquire a trailing short echo vowel, e.g. *dje:zuf > dje:zuvu (this last change is areal; Pirikõsu also inserted vowels after word-final consonants around 500 YP)
* sj > ʃ
* o develops from a variety of sources (< u adjacent to original uvulars, < a /Vw_, < am, etc.)

= Morphosyntax =

== Verbal morphosyntax ==

There are two layers of morphology that can be securely reconstructed for PEI verbs, traditionally known as the '''grades''' and the '''stem vowel'''.

=== Aspect: the grades ===

Aspect in PEI was marked by a somewhat heterogeneous set of inflections applied directly to the verb stem; the resulting forms are called '''grades'''. In the descendant languages, the grades have produced ablaut patterns and even, in the case of Miwan, derivational tone.

Aside from the unmarked '''Zero-grade''' and the '''Reduplicated grade''', the grades were marked by infixes in some verbs and suffixes in others (dividing the verbs into two conjugational classes). These infixes and suffixes were clearly allomorphs of one another, but were not necessarily identical in form. Both infixes and suffixes could be syllabic or non-syllabic, depending on the phonological shape of the stem to which they were attached (the nonsyllabic forms were apparently the result of a reduction of unstressed syllables sometime before the PEI stage).

In infixing verbs, the infixes were inserted immediately before a stem-final consonant. When the stem ended with a single consonant, the infix was normally non-syllabic and a coda cluster was formed. The behavior of infixes in stems that already ended with coda clusters was more complex; syllabic infixes were used here, and probably came between the two consonants of the stem coda, but the details are still being worked out.

In suffixing verbs, the suffix immediately followed the stem. When the stem ended in a consonant, the suffix was normally syllabic. Verbs whose stems ended in a vowel were always suffixing, with a non-syllabic suffix normally forming a coda consonant.

(The infixing verbs were apparently descended from forms in which another set of suffixes followed the aspect suffixes; verb forms marked with these secondary suffixes became lexicalized, leaving the aspect markers trapped inside the newly formed stems. The suffixing verbs were descended from verb forms without the secondary suffixes. The function of the lexicalized secondary suffixes can only be guessed at; one possibility is that they marked something like a telicity distinction.)

Many originally suffixing verbs (if their stems ended in a consonant) could become infixing by analogy. In this way, the infixing pattern gradually spread through the lexicon, leaving fewer suffixing verbs in the descendant languages.

The original system is further obscured by the incomplete preservation of the grades: no one EI language seems to preserve all of them, and they have tended to become derivational. As a result the precise forms and meanings of some of them are difficult to reconstruct, and even the existence of others remains uncertain.

The following grades can be reconstructed with some assurance:

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
! scope="col" | Grade
! scope="col" | Marking
! scope="col" | Aspect
|-
! scope="row" | Zero-grade
| unmarked
| perfective
|-
! scope="row" | Reduplicated grade
| partial reduplication (first *CV of stem)
| iterative and/or intensive
|-
! scope="row" | S-grade
| ''*-(u)s''
| resultative
|-
! scope="row" | N-grade
| ''*-(i)n''
| imperfective or continuous
|-
! scope="row" | J-grade
| ''*-i ~ *-j''
| inceptive, inchoative
|}

In addition to those listed above, there may have been up to three more infixing-suffixing grades (the R-, L-, and W-grades).

=== Voice and valency: the stem vowel ===

PEI verbs were obligatorily marked for voice with a suffix traditionally called the '''stem vowel''': this suffix, consisting of a vowel with a glottal stop onset, marked the verb as either '''active''' (''*-ʔa''), '''causative''' (''*-ʔi''), or '''detransitive''' (''*-ʔu''). These suffixes could also be combined with each other to recursively change the valency of verbs (''*-ʔi'' increases valency, while ''*-ʔu'' decreases it); when combined the vowels were not separated by another glottal stop, but merged into diphthongs (''*-ʔaj *-ʔaw *-ʔij *-ʔiw *-ʔuj *-ʔuw'').

This system is easiest to see in Ngauro, where it produces chains of derived verbs; for example, ''kaima'' 'learn, know' → causative ''kaimi'' 'teach' → middle of causative ''kaime'' 'study' (< PEI ''*gajm-ʔiw'' or ''*gem-ʔiw''). It's also reflected (in a more limited way) in Faraghin: most verbs end in ''-an'' (< ''*-ʔa + *ŋwaw''), but causatives are derived with ''-oin'' (< ''*-ʔaj + *ŋwaw'') and past participles with ''-od'' (< ''*-ʔu-di-ʔa'' or ''*-ʔu-di-ha'').

=== Deverbalization ===

PEI had several ways of forming nouns from verbal roots, with at least one acting at each layer of verbal morphology. At the innermost layer, the S-Grade very frequently forms resultative nouns in both branches of the family.

At the next layer, there seems to be an old nominalizing suffix ''*-ga'' that could be added to the root in place of a stem vowel. The semantics of this suffix are somewhat obscure, and it seems to have become unproductive early on; nouns derived with it were already lexicalized in PEI. Examples include ''*njadz-ga'' 'war', and possibly ''*na-ga'' 'lord, chief'.

Finally, there was a newer deverbalizing suffix ''*-di'' which followed the stem vowel. This suffix was quite regular, and remained productive in many descendant languages into the historical period. It is reflected in the Faraghin past participles in ''-od'' and the Ngauro and OEMiw action nominalizer ''-ti''. (The latter was borrowed from Ngauro into Proto-Ferogh or Early Faraghin, producing the Faraghin action nominalizer ''-č''.)

=== Other verbal marking ===

Most other verbal markers seem to be restricted to one group or another of descendant languages. A few examples are discussed here.

==== Agreement in Faraghin ====

Faraghin verbs agree with their subjects; agreement is marked by suffixes that are clearly derived from the personal pronouns. For example, the citation form of Faraghin verbs is the third person singular, marked with the suffix ''-n'' which is clearly related to the 3SG pronoun ''ni'' (both < PIsth. ''*njo'', < PEI ''*ŋwaw''). These agreement suffixes apparently date to Proto-Isthmus; it's still unknown whether any Eigə Valley languages have subject agreement.

(It seems that third person agreement affixes are often grammaticalized later than first and second person ones, if at all. So we could easily posit an older, more fusional pattern for first and second person agreement, maybe dating back to before Proto-Isthmus.)

==== Verbal markers in Miwan ====

The following is a list of verbal affixes (both inflectional and derivational) that appear in attested Miwan words:

* '''''*d-''''' appears to form patientive nouns in OEMiw, cf. '''''d'''re:χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together" ~ ''*re:'' "to speak", possibly ''saχu'''d'''wa'' "flat-food" ~ ''*wa'' "to eat"
* '''''*-ju''''' (very productive in OEMiw) forms agentive nouns
* '''''*sa:v-''''' marks a reciprocal action in OEMiw '''''sa:v'''re:χati'' "not speaking to each other"
* '''''*-s''''' might be an exhaustive plural, cf. OEMiw ''*re:'''s'''ti'' "election" (lit. "everyone speaking").
* '''''*-stu''''' appears to form a cessative aspect, cf. FMiw/OEMiw ''gwa'''stu''''' (n. or v.) "(to) dump" ~ FMiw ''gwa:'' "to use", FMiw ''nidri:'''stu''''' "to regret" ~ ''nidri:'' "to feel warm towards"
* '''''*-χa(s)''''' negative suffix (OEMiw)
* '''''*-ʔi''''' privative (with nouns) or non-potential (with verbs) suffix in OEMiw, cf. ''gwa:'''ʔi'''ti'' "not important, useless" (becomes ''-hi'' in Southern)

In addition to this, Old Eastern Miwan had a hearsay marker ''tu:zi'', which apparently was a free-standing particle (loaned into Naidda as ''tuze'' "I guess"). This appears to be an inflected verb meaning something like "(it) is told", from PEI ''*dlum'' "to tell".

== Nominal morphosyntax ==

=== Number ===

There seem to be two ways of forming plurals in Eigə-Isthmus languages:

* A PEI suffix ''*-wa'' is the source of the plural marker in Faraghin (where it's usually realized as ''-a'').

* Reduplication marks plurals in Ngauro (maybe with the additional meaning 'many', as in ''kasd~ga(s)d'' 'many streams'). It's possible that this is an innovation in the Eigə Valley branch.

=== De-nominalization ===

PEI had a suffix ''*-ʔa'' or ''*-ha'' that derived adjectives from nouns. This suffix was quite regular and remained productive in both branches of the family: it can be seen in Ngauro ''dyaka'' 'kingly, royal' (< PEI ''*trelk-ʔa'' or ''*trelk-ha''), and in the Isthmus participles formed with Proto-Isthmus ''*-dja'' (< ''*-di-ʔa'' or ''*-di-ha'').

=== Case and adpositions ===

==== Case prefixes ====

PEI had two morphemes that were either prepositions or case prefixes: ''*ʔas(-)'' and ''*za(-)''.

In Proto-Isthmus they are definitely case prefixes (genitive-accusative ''*as-'' and dative ''*dza-''), and they still fill this role in the Faraghin pronoun system; some other Isthmus languages also retain an oblique noun stem reflecting the ''*as-'' prefix.

Elsewhere they seem to have become derivational:

* Several FMiw nouns and adjectives begin with ''as-'', likely < PEI ''*ʔas(-)''. There are also a good number of Faraghin nouns that exhibit the consonant mutation caused by PIsth. ''*as-''.

* It's also been proposed that the Meshi-derived word ''zafwi(:)ta(:)'' 'bird's nest' should be interpreted as < ''*za-gwenta'' 'LOC-bird', with a locative ''*za-'' < PEI ''*za(-)''. The reflexes of PIsth. ''*dza-'' also form locative adverbs in Doroh, and directional ones in archaic Boésin.

==== Other adpositions ====

There is at least one other morpheme that becomes a nominal affix in both branches of the family: the name ''Miw'' seems to be formed from PEI ''*pews'' with a nasal prefix derived from the same ''*ʔum'' that becomes a genitive case ''suffix'' in Faraghin and Feråjin. (The first syllable of ''Meshi'' is cognate with ''Miw'', so this word—including the prefix—apparently goes back to Proto-Eigə Valley.) It seems that ''*ʔum'' was a preposition in the branch that led to the Eigə Valley languages, and a postposition in Isthmus.

===== Isthmus =====

The oldest case markers in the Isthmus languages are the two prefixes mentioned above. But newer case markers (at least in Faraghin, Feråjin, and Doroh) are suffixes derived from postpositions. This suggests that the language changed from prepositional to postpositional early on—certainly before the Western Isthmus stage. Since postpositions are pretty strongly (though not exclusively) associated with OV order, that order is the most likely for Proto-Isthmus; but the old prefixes hint at an earlier VO, head-initial stage of the language.

===== Miwan =====

FMiw ''di:za:'' "to wilt" might be formed from ''za:'' "to die" (attested in OEMiw) by prefixing a morpheme possibly meaning "away". If this is derived from an adposition, it would support the assumption that PEI was prepositional.

=== Compounding and noun-phrase syntax ===

Aside from this, there are some other similar developments in both branches, and analysis of noun-noun compounds has proved fruitful for understanding the changes to word order that have happened in the EI family.

==== Compounding in Faraghin ====

In Faraghin compounds, a genitive follows its head noun (NG), but adjectives precede (AN). (These compounds are probably not very old, since they include semantic fields like political, military, and nautical terminology that were probably developed after the Faraghin conquest of Huyfárah. On the other hand the compounding rule may be older than the rule used for clauses.)

In any case, NG order normally coincides with VO order; NG with OV is much rarer, especially when combined with AN (WALS, out of a sample of 1099 languages, lists only one—Tigré—with this combination of features). Since Faraghin compounds are AN, it seems that the NG order should be associated with an earlier VO order. So once again we have evidence for an early head-initial stage.

==== Compounding in Miwan ====

In Miwan, compounds with both head-initial (NA/NG) and head-final (AN/GN) order are attested. However, the distribution of these compound patterns gives a fairly clear picture:

* Old Eastern Miwan, the best-attested language of the family, is overwhelmingly head-final. The only known compound in OEMiw that might possibly be head-initial is ''dre:-χurfi:'' "speech-flow.together", which is reflected in Naidda ''jeorvi'' "chorus, harmony", but it seems rather likely that ''*χurfī'' is actually a nominalised verb form, which would make the compound one of the common GN type.
* Later forms of Eastern Miwan seem to also contain head-initial compounds, including NA compounds such as EMiw ''zuka-tun'' "fruit-red" > "tomato" and ''pa:n-tun'' "music-red" > "guitar". This might be an indication that these dialects switched their compound order at some point during the 1st millennium YP (possibly through influence from Edastean).
* Both genitive compounds attested in Late Eastern Miwan, ''fur-zin'' "tree-life" > "elm tree" and ''za-fwita:'' "nest-bird", follow NG order and, interestingly, have almost identical cognates in western Miwan: FMiw ''fur-zi:n'' and ''za-fwi:ta'', respectively. If these are not borrowings, one can conclude that genitives followed the noun in Proto-Miwan or earlier, and that this ordering was changed later on at least in the eastern dialects. A strong argument in favour of this is presented by the word ''za-fwita:/-fwi:ta'', whose second element is clearly cognate to FMiw ''kwintas'' "bird", but exhibits - in both dialects! - several sound changes not present in the uncompounded form, and therefore appears to be a very old formation. The lenition process turning ''*kw'' into ''fw'' seems similar to the Western Isthmus change of ''*p t k > f s x'' after the genitive preposition ''*as-'', but the word can't be a loan from WI since it would have been ''*ɣonta'' there. It is probably a borrowing from proto-Meshi ''*fwinta'', whose classical Meshi reflex is ''fwina''.
* Forest Miwan does have a head-final AN compound, ''ti:-vur'' "funny-tree" > "hickory tree", but this does not prove that FMiw also switched to head-final compounding because it is identical to a Late Eastern word and might be a borrowing.

As a summary, it seems likely that PEV (pending evidence from Ngauro and/or Meshi) or a slightly later form of the language (i.e. Proto-Miwan) had head-initial compounds, with at least Old Eastern Miwan—but quite possibly all Miwan languages—later switching to head-final order. My guess is that this would have happened before -2000 YP because the strong superstratum influence of Ndak Ta (which is head-initial) would certainly not have encouraged this change.

Furthermore, if PEV was probably head-initial, and a head-initial ancestral stage underlies PIsth., then it seems almost certain that PEI was head-initial.

However, if we allow that the proto-languages need not have been entirely either head-initial or head-final, a slightly different scenario emerges which may provide a simpler explanation. The attested compounds in Forest Miwan show the same orders as Faraghin: NG and AN. It may be that both languages inherited these compound orders from PEI, and that only Eastern Miwan has changed its compound orders—first shifting from NG to GN (to become more consistently head-final), and then later shifting to NG and (mostly) NA under Edastean influence.

If this scenario is correct, PEI turns out to have had a somewhat mixed word-order pattern (but not a particularly rare one according to WALS): NG, VO, and prepositions, but AN.

= Proposed roots =

:{{main|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus/Lexicon}}

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Eige-Isthmus]]

Proto-Eigə-Isthmus/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:10:49Z

Cedh: cat

{| cellspacing="4" class="softtable i"
|
*There's one variable: '''*O''' = '''{*o, *wa, *we, *wo}'''.
*Words given in '''{{red|red}}''' are attested in both Isthmus and Eigə Valley; words in '''black''' are currently only attested in Isthmus; words in '''{{green|green}}''' are currently only attested in Eigə Valley.
*A little semantic change has been applied here and there, but not enough for realism.
|}

* {{red|'''*-ʔa''' (active voice suffix)}}
* {{red|'''*ʔas(-)''' (?genitive marker)}}
* '''*ʔat''' 'great(ly), strong(ly)'
* {{red|'''*-ʔi''' (causative voice suffix)}}
* {{green|'''*ʔij[s/z], *ŋij[s/z]''' ? 'speak, talk, word, tongue' [> Meshi ''aysu'' 'speak, communicate' - includes stem *-ʔaw (middle of active) or *-ʔu (middle)]}}
* '''*ʔiwt, *ju(w)t, *riwt''' 'hold, own'
* {{red|'''*-ʔu''' (middle/anticausative voice suffix)}}
* {{red|'''*ʔum''' (?genitive marker)}}

* '''*bad''' 'father'
* {{red|'''*bas''' 'smooth, flat'}}
* '''*beŋ''' 'what'
* '''*bin''' 'nothing'
* '''*blen''' 'face'
* '''*bru(w), *dru(w), *gru(w)''' 'little' [> Proto-Isthmus diminutive suffix ''*-ɖu'']

* '''*da''' 'I' (1SG)
* {{green|'''*d(z)alg, *tsalg''' 'think, know, be aware of' [> FMiw ''talgu:'' 'remember' - includes stem *-ʔaw (middle of active) or *-ʔu (middle)]]}}
* {{green|'''*d(l/z)aw''' number, count}}
* {{green|'''*d(l)en, *d(l)ajn''' 'many, large quantity' [> OEMiw ''-ten'' 'many', Meshi ''chima'']}}
* {{red|'''*-di''' (deverbal suffix) [> Faraghin participial ending ''-d'', Ngauro & OEMiw action nominalizer ''-ti'']}}
* {{red|'''*dik''' ? 'make, form'}}
* '''*dim''' 'give' (with causative voice)
* '''*dludz''' '(be) awake'
* {{red|'''*dlum''' 'tell about' [> Faraghin ''druman'' 'denounce (to the king)', OEMiw hearsay particle ''tu:zi'']}}
* {{red|'''*drujθ''' 'move suddenly, flare' [> Faraghin ''rifan'' 'scare', OEMiw ''traf'' 'fire']}}

* '''*dzim''' ? (second element of a Faraghin compound meaning 'honor')
* {{red|'''*dzusn''' '(be) red'}}

* '''*ða, *ðe''' ? 'girl, daughter'
* {{red|'''*ða(r)j''' 'dance'}}
* '''*ðog''' 'set down'
* {{green|'''*ðuθ, *ðawθ''' honour}}

* {{red|'''*-ga''' ? (nominalizing suffix)}}
* {{red|'''*gad''' 'flow, float' [> Faraghin ''gars'' 'boat', Ngauro ''kasd'' 'stream']}}
* '''*gewd, *gwed''' ? 'young, younger brother'
* {{red|'''*gi''' (element in a compound meaning 'the moon'; related to the following)}}
* {{red|'''*gijr''' 'powerful, numinous'}}
* '''*gop''' 'take, carry'
* {{red|'''*gwent''' 'to fly'}}
* {{green|'''*gug, *gawg''' ? 'jar, cup, container; clay' [> Meshi ''kug'' 'jar']}}
* {{red|'''*guj''' 'sharp, hurt'}}
* {{red|'''*gu(r/w)n''' 'old, ?honored'}}
* '''*gurk, *gurt(s)''' 'we' (1PL)
* '''*gu(w)d''' 'grandchild; descend (from an ancestor)'

* '''*-k''' (?nominalizer)
* {{red|'''*kard(z), *karg, *kOrd(z), *kOrg''' 'good'}}
* '''*kat''' 'amuse'
* '''*kej, *ke(r/w)ŋ''' 'who' (interrogative)
* '''*kid''' '(be) angry'
* '''*kijb''' 'eat'
* {{green|'''*ke(j)[(t)s/(d)z]-, *ki[(t)s/(d)z]''' ? 'soil, defecate' [> Meshi ''gise'' 'defecate', possibly j-grade and probably includes stem *-ʔuj (causative of middle)]}}
* '''*kit''' ? (first element of a Faraghin compound meaning 'honor')
* '''*kju(r/w)s, k(w)irs, *k(w)iws''' ? (first element of a Faraghin compound meaning 'bequeath')
* {{red|'''*k(l)ijl''' 'seize, capture, ?defeat'}}
* {{red|'''*klo(w)n''' 'guts, ?boldness'}}
* '''*kra, *pra, *tra''' ? 'repeat, do repeatedly'
* '''*kri(ts), *pri(ts), *tri(ts)''' ? 'over, cover'
* '''*kruk, *pruk, *truk''' 'clench, make a fist'
* '''*ku(r/w)n''' 'malevolent spirit'

* '''*lab/d/gru(r/w), *larb(u(r/w)), *lard/gu(r/w)''' ? '(be) free'
* {{red|'''*li''' 'song, sing'}}
* '''*lu(w)dz''' 'they' (3PL)
* '''*lu(w)p''' 'lie, deceive'

* {{red|'''*mag, *meg''' 'boil' [> Far. ''du'''magh''''' 'glass', OEMiw ''qwa:'''me'''ti'' 'leaf-boiling, tea'; possibly related to ''*meg'' 'behave badly' (see below)]}}
* {{red|'''*maws, *mos''' 'house'}}
* {{red|'''*meg''' ? 'behave badly' [> Faraghin ''maghačan'' 'loot, take as booty', OEMiw ''me:g'' 'be loud, be rowdy'; possibly a metaphorical use of ''*mag, *meg'' 'boil' (see above)]}}
* {{green|'''*m[ew/iw/uj]t''' ? 'female, woman' [> Meshi ''met'' 'woman']}}
* '''*min''' 'son'
* '''*mis''' 'this' (deictic)
* {{red|'''*mun''' 'soft'}}
* '''*mu(w)dz''' 'blood'

* {{red|'''*na-ga''' 'lord, chief'}}
* '''*nak''' ? 'outside'
* {{red|'''*nidz''' 'weak'}}
* '''*nij, *niŋ''' ? 'place'
* {{red|'''*njadz-ga''' 'fighting, war'}}
* '''*njo(r/w), *ŋO(r/w)''' 'he/she' (3SG)
* '''*nO(w)-po(w)l''' ? 'be bored' (possibly a Faraghin compound)

* {{red|'''*pat''' 'one'}}
* {{red|'''*pew''' 'people'}}
* '''*piw(ts), *pju(w)(ts)''' ? 'not' (> Faraghin negative prefix)
* '''*pleg''' 'meet'
* '''*plu(r/w)n''' ? 'stab, slash'
* '''*puj''' 'clean, be clean'
* {{red|'''*puw(s)g''' 'make' (? cf. FMiw ''bizgi:'' 'sacrifice')}}

* '''*ridz''' ? '(domestic) animal'
* '''*rits''' ? (> Isthmus locative postposition)
* '''*rujn''' ? 'like, similar'

* {{green|'''*sanu(C), *sam[t(s)/d(z)]u(C)'''}} ? 'village, house, home' [> Meshi ''*sanu'' 'village']
* {{red|'''*siŋ''' 'holy' [> Meshi ''Meshi'' from ''*(ʔu)m-pew-siŋ'']}}
* '''*s-its''' ? 'holder, user'
* '''*sO(r/w)n''' 'fire'
* '''*sud''' 'circle, go around'
* '''*su(r/w)''' ? (second element of a PI compound 'lord of X' meaning 'bear'-- maybe 'forest' or 'hills'?)

* '''*te(w)t, *θe(w)t''' 'rule, method'
* '''*tidz, *θidz''' 'great'
* '''*til, *θil''' ? (second element of a Faraghin compound meaning 'bequeath')
* '''*tjo(r/w)n(t)''' 'left hand'
* {{red|'''*tlujb''' 'marry' (possibly j-grade of a root ''*tlub'' 'be married')}}
* {{green|'''*tsw[i/ej], *dzw[i/ej], *dlw[i/ej]''' hot}}
* '''*tartar, *terter, *tortor, *θarθar, *θerθer, *θorθor''' ? 'sister'
* '''*tow''' ? 'sand'
* {{red|'''*trelk''' 'king, chief'}}
* '''*tujn, *θujn''' 'thou' (2SG)
* '''*tu(n)d, *θu(n)d''' 'watch, tend'
* '''*twik, *ts(w)ik, *θwik''' 'call, name'

* {{red|'''*tsimp''' 'twist'}}
* {{red|'''*tswa''' 'gold'}}
* {{red|'''*tsujθ''' 'sea, coast'}}
* {{red|'''*tsurn''' 'two'}}

* {{green|'''*θur, *θawr''' tree}}

* '''*-wa''' (plural suffix)
* '''*we(r/w)''' 'you' (2PL)

* {{red|'''*za(-)''' (dative/locative marker)}}
* {{red|'''*zant''' 'decide, judge'}}
* {{red|'''*zwir(k/t/ts)''' ? (element in a compound meaning 'the moon'; maybe by itself it means 'star')}}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Eige-Isthmus]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Category:Reconstructed languages

2025-02-01T12:09:55Z

Cedh:

Languages that were reconstructed by participants of the Akana project. This may have been for two different reasons:
# the original protolanguage had been secret, as in the families created during the various reconstruction relays (Isles, T1, Dumic, Leic, Ronquian)
# the protolanguage had never been created, and was thus retroactively reconstructed from its supposed descendants (Eigə-Isthmus, Isthmus, Talo-Edastean)

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Category:Reconstructed languages

2025-02-01T12:09:37Z

Cedh:

Languages that were reconstructed by participants of the Akana project. This may have been for two different reasons:
# the original protolanguage had been secret, as in the families created during the various reconstruction relays (Isles, Dumic, T2, Leic, Ronquian)
# the protolanguage had never been created, and was thus retroactively reconstructed from its supposed descendants (Eigə-Isthmus, Isthmus, Talo-Edastean)

[[Category:Languages|*]]

Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:07:48Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon to Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon

#REDIRECT [[Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon]]

Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:07:48Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon to Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon

{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg sortable l}}
|-
! class="l"| PR reconstruction !! meaning !! reconstructed on the basis of !! notes
|-
|'''*agim '''||reflect (light) ||RTJ '''jè ''' ''reflect (of light, images) '', MT '''alim ''' ''reflect (light) '', RTI '''ačey ''' vt. ''reflect '', ƏD '''ajen ''' vt. '' reflect '' , RNW '''uŋe ''' v. ''reflect, shine ''||see also *ŋgim
|-
|'''*agjam'''||fresh-water salmon ||RT '''dźaon ''' pl htśaon ''salmon '', RTJ '''ĕjà ''' ''fresh-water salmon '', MT '''alam ''' ''fresh-water salmon '', RTI '''acam ''' n. an. ''salmon ''||
|-
|'''*ak'''||return, come back ||RT '''ec ''' attr kec ''return, come back '', RTJ '''ág ''' ''return, come back '', MT '''akh ''' ''return, come back '', RTI '''aš ''' vi. ''return, come back '', RRK '''ak ''' dur agak v.it ''return, come back '', ƏD '''akon ''' vt. '' return to '' , RNW '''uk ''' v. ''return to one's origin ''||
|-
|'''*am '''||lake ||RT '''yaon ''' pl yáon ''lake '', RTJ '''àù ''' ''lake, inland sea '', MT '''am ''' ''lake '', RRK '''aa ''' pl raa n.a ''lake '', ƏD '''əmoh ''' n. dyn. '' sea '' , RNW '''u ''' n. sa. ''lake ''||
|-
|'''*an'''||vase, amphora||RT '''an ''' pl nan ''amphora, flask (ceramicware for liquids) '', RTJ '''ràì ''' ''vase, ceramicware for holding liquid '', MT '''anggó ''' ''vase, amphora, ceramicware for liquids '', RRK '''ıtal ''' pl rıtal n.i ''amphora '', ƏD '''ən ''' n. port. '' vase '' ||
|-
|'''*aɴɢ'''||be right, be correct, guess correctly ||RT '''onc ''' attr konc ''be right, guess correctly '', RTJ '''ágh ''' ''be right, guess correctly '', MT '''ang ''' ''be right, be correct, guess correctly '', RTI '''aň ''' vi. ''be right, guess correctly '', RNW '''uẋ ''' v. ''guess; identify ''||
|-
|'''*aq '''||rock(s), stone(s) ||RT '''oc ''' sgv moc ''rock(s), stone(s) '', RTJ '''ágh ''' ''rock(s), stone(s) '', MT '''ac ''' ''rock(s), stone(s) '', ƏD '''ak ''' n. port./stat. '' rock '' ||
|-
|'''*aqɬi'''||gypsum ||RTJ '''ĕhlrĕ ''' ''gypsum '', MT '''asca ''' ''gypsum '', RTI '''eeši ''' n. in. ''gypsum '', ƏD '''aqlı ''' coll, no pl n. stat. '' gypsum '' , RNW '''uqɬə ''' n. in. ''gypsum ''||
|-
|'''*aqpʔul'''||knuckle, knuckle bone ||RT '''pyù ''' pl hpyù ''knuckle, wrist, joint '', RTJ '''ĕpú ''' ''knuckle '', MT '''ap'ú ''' ''knuckle, knuckle bone '', RTI '''oomol ''' n. an. ''knuckle '', RRK '''vamıl ''' pl rıvamıl n.a ''knuckle '', , RNW '''uqbjil ''' n. an. ''knuckle; pebble ''||
|-
|'''*aqsik'''||ankle, talus bone, dice ||RTJ '''ĕhxíg ''' ''ankle '', MT '''ascikh ''' ''ankle, talus bone, dice '', RTI '''eehiš ''' n. an. ''ankle '', RRK '''vašik ''' pl rıvašik n.a ''ankle '', , RNW '''uqsek ''' n. an. ''ankle ''||
|-
|'''*ar'''||want ||RT '''ao ''' pass hao, attr kao ''want '', RTJ '''á ''' ''want '', MT '''ai ''' ''want '', RTI '''ar ''' vt. ''want '', RRK '''ıl ''' dur šol v.tr ''want, desire '', , RNW '''ul ''' v. ''want, desire ''||
|-
|'''*aʀ '''||sandstorm ||RTJ '''á ''' ''sandstorm '', MT '''ārófu ''' ''sandstorm '', , RNW '''oà ''' n. an. ''dust cloud; sandstorm ''||
|-
|'''*asaq '''||eagle ||RT '''zoc ''' pl hsoc ''eagle '', RTJ '''ságh ''' ságh ''eagle '', MT '''asac ''' ''eagle '', RTI '''ahak ''' n. an. ''eagle '', RRK '''ašak ''' pl našak n.a ''eagle '', , RNW '''usui ''' n. an. ''eagle ''||
|-
|'''*asek'''||wolf ||RT '''zac ''' pl hsac ''wolf '', RTJ '''srég ''' srég ''wolf '', MT '''asakh ''' ''wolf '', RTI '''aheš ''' n. an. ''wolf '', RRK '''kıtšık ''' pl rıkıtšık n.a ''wolf '', , RNW '''usək ''' n. an. ''wolf ''||
|-
|'''*aw '''||swallow ||RT '''wòu ''' pass fwòu, attr kwòu ''swallow '', RTJ '''áú ''' ''swallow '', MT '''au ''' ''swallow '', RTI '''uu ''' vt. ''swallow '', RNW '''u ''' v. ''swallow ''||
|-
|'''*ba '''||be similar to, be like, resemble ||RT '''pa ''' ''as, like '', RTJ '''bă ''' ''be similar to, be like, resemble '', MT '''ba ''' ''be similar to, be like, resemble '', RTI '''pa ''' vt. ''be similar to, be like, resemble ''||
|-
|'''*baga'''||stingray ||RTJ '''bĕgă ''' ĕgă ''stingray '', RTI '''mača ''' n. an. ''ray (animal) '', ƏD '''b’aga ''' n. liv. '' stingray '' ||
|-
|'''*baj '''||depart, leave, go away (from somewhere other than speaker or listener) ||RT '''pei ''' attr gwei ''depart, leave, go away (from someone other than speaker or listener) '', RTJ '''báí ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from somewhere other than speaker or listener) '', MT '''pai ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from somewhere other than speaker or listener) '', RTI '''pay ''' vt. ''depart, leave, go away (from somewhere other than speaker or listener) ''||
|-
|'''*bajraɴɢ '''||||RT '''bronc ''' pass hpronc attr gubronc ''regret '', RTJ '''báíyĕzragh ''' ''regret '', RRK '''peeyaŋ ''' dur pepeeyaŋ v.tr ''regret, repent, suffer (emotionally) ''||
|-
|'''*bdej '''||||RT '''blei ''' pass hpsei, attr giblei ''imitate '', RTJ '''bĕzí ''' ''imitate ''||
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|'''*be '''||beer ||RT '''pe ''' sgv pye ''beer '', RTJ '''bĕ ''' ''beer '', MT '''pe ''' ''beer '', RTI '''pe ''' n. in. ''beer ''||
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|'''*bej'''||son ||RT '''pei ''' pl pwéi ''boy, son '', RTJ '''bí ''' ''son '', MT '''fífí ''' ''son ''||
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|'''*bek '''||not, be not ||RT '''pec ''' attr gwec ''not, be not '', MT '''pekh ''' ''not, be not '', ARŊ '''pʲek''' ''not''||
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|'''*beŋg'''||thank ||RT '''dwenc ''' attr gudwenc ''appreciate, be grateful '', RTJ '''bég ''' ''thank '', MT '''peng ''' ''thank '', RTI '''peň ''' vt. ''thank '', RRK '''p’eŋ ''' dur bembeŋ v.tr ''thank ''||
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|'''*bəba'''||maternal uncle ||RT '''mbyè ''' pl mpyè ''maternal uncle '', RTJ '''bĕbă ''' ''maternal uncle '', MT '''pwa ''' ''maternal uncle '', RTI '''pupa ''' n. hu. ''maternal uncle '', RRK '''bagyù ''' pl basù, cnstr bılù, cnstr.pl bıglù n.h ''maternal uncle (brother of mother) '', ƏD '''bəba ''' n. sen. '' maternal uncle '' ||
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|'''*bədʔan'''||children (collective plural) ||RTJ '''bĕnà ''' hnà ''children (collective plural) '', MT '''pándan ''' ''group of children, all the children, ones children ''||
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|'''*bəlawχ'''||weather ||RT '''myòu ''' (no sgv) ''sky, weather '', RTJ '''bráú ''' màù ''weather '', MT '''baulā ''' ''weather ''||
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|'''*bəpek'''||sick ||RTJ '''bĕprég ''' brég ''be sick '', MT '''pakh ''' ''sick ''||
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|'''*bəpek '''||refuse, deny ||RTJ '''bĕpég ''' ''refuse, deny '', MT '''pwekh ''' ''refuse, deny '', RTI '''pupeš ''' vt. ''refuse, deny '', RRK '''kambek ''' dur kaŋambek v.tr ''refuse, deny, block, obstruct ''||
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|'''*bəpiŋ'''||love ||RT '''bwín ''' pass hpwín, attr gubwín ''love, be fond of '', RTJ '''bĕpè ''' ''love '', MT '''pwing ''' ''love '', RTI '''pupey ''' vt. ''love ''||
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|'''*bəpou'''||discover, invent ||RT '''bwóu ''' pass hpwóu, attr gubwóu ''come up with, invent '', RTJ '''bĕpáú ''' ''discover, invent '', RTI '''pupuu ''' vt. ''discover, invent ''||derivation from *baw
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|'''*bəpRəCfi'''||have a fever ||RT '''bwác fwi ''' ''have a fever '', RTJ '''bĕprĕhfĭ ''' ''have a fever ''||
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|'''*bəpʔek '''||maybe ||RT '''mbèc ''' ''maybe, possibly '', RTJ '''bĕp’ég ''' ''maybe '', MT '''bap’ekh ''' ''maybe '', RRK '''mıvek ''' adv ''perhaps, maybe, possibly ''||
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|'''*bgand'''||child ||RT '''pwanc ''' pl dànc ''child '', RTJ '''blád ''' dlád ''child '', MT '''pán ''' ''child '', RTI '''šan ''' n. hu. ''child '', RRK '''p’yan ''' pl swan, cnstr san, cnstr.pl skan n.h ''child ''||
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|'''*bi '''||peas ||RT '''pi ''' (no sgv) ''peas '', RTJ '''bĭ ''' ''peas '', MT '''maiwi ''' ''peas ''||
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|'''*bij'''||jump, leap ||RT '''tswi ''' attr gudzwi ''jump, leap '', RTJ '''bí ''' ''jump, leap '', MT '''pí ''' ''jump, leap '', RTI '''pii ''' vi. ''jump, leap '', RRK '''p’ii ''' dur bibii v.it ''jump ''||
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|'''*bim'''||be talented, have talent ||RTJ '''bè ''' ''be talented '', MT '''pim ''' ''be talented, have talent ''||
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|'''*biŋ'''||like ||RT '''maenc ''' pass máenc, attr baenc ''like, consider attractive '', RTJ '''bè ''' ''like '', MT '''ping ''' ''like '', RTI '''pey ''' vt. ''like '', RRK '''pwɛɛ ''' dur pımbɛɛ v.tr ''like, love ''||
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|'''*biŋg'''||be private, be personal ||RTJ '''bíg ''' ''be private, be personal ''||see also *pʔiŋg
|-
|'''*bɬal'''||eclipse||RT '''blao ''' (no pl) ''eclipse '', MT '''bsauyān ''' ''lunar eclipse '', RRK '''psal ''' pl rıpsal n.a ''eclipse ''||see also MT bsaumwi
|-
|'''*bɬand'''||orphan ||RT '''pienc ''' (no pl) ''orphan '', RTJ '''bád ''' dlyád ''orphan '', MT '''púyan ''' ''orphan '', RTI '''šuyan ''' n. hu. ''orphan '', RRK '''syan ''' pl suyan, cnstr hyan, cnstr.pl huyan n.h ''orphan ''||
|-
|'''*bɬo '''||reply, respond ||RT '''pwo ''' pass pwó, attr gubwo ''answer '', RTJ '''blŏ ''' ''reply, respond '', MT '''pó ''' ''reply, respond '', RTI '''šo ''' vt. ''reply, respond '', RRK '''p’yo ''' dur bıbyò v.tr ''answer ''||
|-
|'''*bmaq'''||flint, chert || MT '''bumac ''' ''flint, chert '', RTI '''miwak ''' n. in. ''(piece of) flint ''pl. muwak, RRK '''mıvak ''' pl rımıvak n.i ''flint ''||
|-
|'''*bow '''||find, discover, invent ||RT '''pou ''' pass póu, attr gwou ''find, discover '', RTJ '''báú ''' ''find '', MT '''pau ''' ''find, discover, invent '', RTI '''puu ''' vt. ''find '', RRK '''hlɛbuu ''' dur lɛhlɛbuu v.tr ''reach, arrive at, find ''||
|-
|'''*brek'''||nobleman, hero||RT '''pwec ''' attr gubwec ''be heroic, be famous, be noble '', RTJ '''úbreg ''' ''noblewoman, clan matriarch ''||
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|'''*bri / let'''||grove of beech trees ||RTJ '''brĭ ''' ''grove of beech trees '', MT '''pílath ''' ''grove of beech trees '', RTI '''let ''' n. in. ''beech tree ''pl. lat, RRK '''let ''' pl lat n.i ''beech tree ''||
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|'''*brit'''||fragile, delicate ||RT '''bzìc ''' attr gibzìc ''be delicate, be fragile '', RRK '''brit ''' adj ''fragile, delicate ''||
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|'''*bsju'''||daisies ||RTJ '''hxú ''' hnyú ''daisies '', MT '''basú ''' ''daisies ''||
|-
|'''*bum'''||stand ||RT '''pùn ''' attr gùn ''stand '', RRK '''bum ''' dur mbum v.tr ''stand beside, go along, move parallel to ''||
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|'''*burel'''||enemy (a person) ||RTJ '''bĕré ''' ''enemy (a person) '', MT '''púyú ''' ''enemy (a person) '', RTI '''puyel ''' n. hu. ''enemy, rival '', RRK '''p’il ''' pl p’anil, cnstr sil, cnstr.pl sanil n.h ''enemy, opponent ''||
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|'''*bVj'''||friend, companion ||RT '''fyao ''' pl fwáo ''friend '', RTJ '''bré ''' ''friend, companion '', MT '''pú ''' ''friend, companion '', RTI '''pii ''' n. hu. ''friend '', RRK '''p’ii ''' pl p’wii, cnstr sel, cnstr.pl skel n.h ''friend, companion ''||possibly not cognates
|-
|'''*bwal'''||fingertip ||RTJ '''bá ''' ''fingertip '', MT '''wau ''' ''fingertip '', RRK '''ıbal ''' pl rıbal n.a ''fingertip ''||
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|'''*bwaq '''||suffer (from an illness) ||RT '''bwác ''' attr gubwác ''suffer '', MT '''bwác ''' ''suffer (from an illness) ''||
|-
|'''*byat'''||greet, welcome ||RT '''bźec ''' pass hpśec, attr gibźec ''greet, welcome '', RRK '''pyat ''' adj ''welcome ''||
|-
|'''*bʔa'''||father, paternal uncle ||RT '''myè ''' pl pyé ''father, paternal uncle '', RTJ '''bă ''' mâ ''father, paternal uncle '', MT '''bamba ''' ''father, paternal uncle '', RTI '''ma ''' n. hu. ''father '', RRK '''mamà ''' pl hmamà n.h ''father ''||
|-
|'''*bʔaj '''||seed(s) (of plants), semen (of animals) ||RT '''mèi ''' sgv myèi ''grain, seed(s) '', RTJ '''báí ''' màì ''seed (of a plant), semen (of an animal) '', MT '''bai ''' ''seed(s) (of plants), semen (of animals) '', RTI '''may ''' n. in. ''semen ''||
|-
|'''*bʔamb'''||stop, halt, cease, come to an end ||RT '''màonc ''' attr bàonc ''stop, cease '', MT '''bam ''' ''stop, halt, cease, come to an end ''||
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|'''*bʔaw'''||horn (of an animal) ||RT '''myào ''' pl pyáo ''horn (of an animal) '', RTJ '''bó ''' mò ''horn (of an animal) '', MT '''bau ''' ''horn (of an animal) '', RTI '''maw ''' n. an. ''horn (of an animal) '', RRK '''moo ''' pl hmoo n.a ''horn (of an animal) '', ARŊ '''bʲo''' ''horn''||
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|'''*bʔekŋen'''||fletching (of an arrow) ||RTJ '''bĕhnyè ''' mĕhnyè ''fletchings (of an arrow) '', MT '''bik'én ''' ''fletching (of an arrow) '', RTI '''meyňey ''' n. in. ''fetching (of an arrow) ''||
|-
|'''*bʔel'''||yellow, green ||RTJ '''bé ''' mè ''yellow color, yellow pigment, yellow dye, urine (euphamistic) '', MT '''búyāth ''' ''yellow color, yellow pigment '', RTI '''mel ''' adj. ''yellow, green '', RRK '''mel ''' adj ''yellow, green ''||see the other entry
|-
|'''*bʔi '''||have reached mastery (of a craft or art), be a master ||RT '''mì ''' attr bì ''be skilled '', RTJ '''bĭ ''' ''have achieved mastery, be a master '', MT '''bi ''' ''have reached mastery (of a craft or art), be a master ''||
|-
|'''*bʔik '''||||RT '''mìc ''' ''once '', RRK '''sımik ''' adv ''once (a single time) ''||
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|'''*bʔir'''||hint, suggest ||RT '''myèi ''' pass pyèi, attr byèi ''hint, suggest '', RTJ '''bé ''' ''hint, suggest '', MT '''bí ''' ''hint, suggest '', RTI '''mir ''' vt. ''hint, suggest '', RRK '''mir ''' dur mimir v.tr ''suggest, advise, encourage ''||
|-
|'''*bʔjat'''||house, building ||RT '''uvyèc ''' pl mbyèc ''representative building; house of the chieftain '', MT '''báth ''' ''house, building '', RRK '''šivɔɔ ''' pl nıšivɔɔ n.i ''building '', ƏD '''b’ıət ''' n. stat. ''house '' ||
|-
|'''*bʔoŋ'''||fruit(s) ||RT '''màen ''' sgv myàen ''fruit '', RTJ '''màù ''' ''fruit '', MT '''bong ''' ''fruit(s) ''||
|-
|'''*bʔrV'''||castrate ||RTJ '''brĕ ''' ''castrate '', RTI '''mu ''' vt. ''castrate ''||bʔV ?
|-
|'''*bʔuɬ'''||hand ||RT '''myù ''' pl myùc ''hand '', RTJ '''bú ''' mò ''hand '', MT '''bú ''' ''hand '', RTI '''mul ''' n. an. ''hand '', RRK '''mıl ''' pl mıt, cnstr vıl, cnstr.pl vıt n.a ''hand '', ARŊ '''bʲuʃ''' ''hand''||infixation in RT
|-
|'''*bʔuŋ '''||fate, destiny ||RT '''fwin ''' sgv fyun ''fate, destiny, luck '', RTJ '''bò ''' ''fate, destiny '', MT '''pung ''' ''fate, destiny '', RTI '''pow ''' n. in. ''fate, destiny, luck '', RRK '''p’ɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.a ''fate, destiny, luck ''||
|-
|'''*bʔV'''||yellow ||RT '''mào ''' attr bào ''be yellow '', RTJ '''bé ''' ''be yellow '', MT '''kambú ''' ''yellow ''||see the other entry
|-
|'''*bʔV'''||sunset, sundown, late afternoon ||RT '''mà ''' (no sgv) ''sunset, sundown, late afternoon '', RTJ '''ĕbĕdră ''' ''sunset, sundown, late afternoon '', MT '''ramamwi ''' ''sunset, sundown, late afternoon '', RRK '''migaa ''' pl rımigaa n.a ''sunrise, dawn; sunset, dusk ''||
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|'''*bʔVt'''||switch with, be exchanged for ||RT '''mbàc ''' pass hpàc, attr bàc ''replace, substitute, switch with '', RTJ '''bréd ''' ''be exchanged for, switch with '', MT '''bath ''' ''switch with, be exchanged for '', RTI '''mut ''' vt. ''be exchanged for, switch with ''||RT and RTJ onsets are unaccounted for; affixaation?
|-
|'''*bʔwaw '''||roof(s), roofing ||RT '''mwòu ''' sgv myòu ''roof '', RTJ '''báú ''' báú ''roof '', MT '''bwau ''' ''roof(s), roofing '', RTI '''muwuu ''' n. in. ''roof '', RRK '''muyuu ''' pl rımuyuu n.i ''roof ''||
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|'''*bʔwin'''||penis || MT '''bwin ''' ''penis '', RTI '''muwin ''' n. an. ''penis '', RRK '''mın ''' pl hmın n.a ''penis ''||
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|'''*bχat '''||village, collection of houses ||RT '''màc ''' sgv myèc ''village '', RTJ '''pád ''' hmàd ''village '', MT '''bāth ''' ''village, collection of houses '', RTI '''mat ''' n. in. ''village '', RRK '''mat ''' pl rımat n.i ''village '', ƏD '''b’ant ''' coll n. stat. ''village '' cf. b’ıət||
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|'''*Caseχ'''||goose ||RTJ '''hxá ''' hxá ''goose '', MT '''hasā ''' ''goose '', RTI '''čahee ''' n. an. ''goose '', RRK '''kšaa ''' pl kušaa, cnstr ıkšaa, cnstr.pl rıkšaa n.a ''goose ''||
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|'''*Cəgeŋ'''||problem ||RT '''danggan ''' attr glanggan ''be difficult, be problematic '', RTJ '''grĕjàì ''' ĕhyàì ''problem '', MT '''lang ''' ''problem ''||
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|'''*CgiC'''||face ||RT '''ngglì ''' (no pl) ''head '', RTJ '''qí ''' ''face '', MT '''kíwom ''' ''face '', RTI '''cii ''' n. an. ''face '', RRK '''kii ''' pl kwii n.a ''face '', ƏD '''ciś ''' cnstr jeś n. liv. ''face '' ||
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|'''*Cki'''||||RT '''ndźí ''' ''(3a.pl pronoun) '', RTJ '''qĭ ''' ''they, their '', MT '''gli ''' ''they ''||
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|'''*Ckʔaw ?'''||trick ||RTJ '''k’áú ''' ''trick '', MT '''cau ''' ''trick '', RTI '''hišwii ''' n. in. ''lie, trick, stratagem '', RRK '''nahŋuu ''' dur nanahŋuu v.tr ''trick, fool, deceive ''||
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|'''*Cxa'''||guts, innards ||RTJ '''srĕ ''' ''guts '', MT '''xa ''' ''guts, innards '', RTI '''išey ''' n. in. ''guts, entrails ''||
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|'''*d9tgip'''||commit incest ||RT '''dźìc ''' attr kśìc ''commit incest '', RTJ '''dĕtĕzríb ''' ''commit incest with '', MT '''ténggiph ''' ''commit incest '', RTI '''titriňip ''' vt. ''commit incest with ''||
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|'''*da / dja'''||dig ||RT '''dza ''' pass htsa, attr ksa ''dig '', RTJ '''dă ''' ''dig '', MT '''ta ''' ''dig '', RTI '''tra ''' vt. ''dig up, dig for '', RRK '''t’a ''' dur dadà v.tr ''dig ''||
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|'''*daj '''||say, speak (something) ||RT '''tei ''' pass téi, attr glei ''say, speak '', RTJ '''dáí ''' ''say, speak (something) '', MT '''tai ''' ''say, speak (something) '', RTI '''tray ''' vt. ''say, speak (something) '', RRK '''t’ee ''' dur dedee v.tr ''say, speak (something) '', ARŊ '''ʔote''' ''say (verb)''||
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|'''*dam'''||co-worker||RTJ '''dà ''' ''co-worker, collaborator, colleague '', MT '''tambú ''' ''collaborator, colleague ''||
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|'''*daɴɢ'''||talk to, chat with ||RT '''tonc ''' pass tónc, attr glonc ''talk to, chat with '', RTJ '''dágh ''' ''talk to, chat with '', MT '''tang ''' ''talk to, chat with '', RTI '''traň ''' vt. ''talk to, chat with '', RRK '''t’aŋ ''' dur dandaŋ v.tr ''talk to, speak with ''||
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|'''*darəgan ?'''||bury ||RT '''dza ndè ''' ''bury '', RTJ '''dĕrrĕcr’àì ''' ''bury '', RRK '''tarıgaa ''' dur tatarıgaa v.tr ''bury '', ƏD '''darəgən ''' perf torəgən vt. ''bury'' ||
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|'''*daʀ'''||be cunning, sly ||RTJ '''dá ''' ''be cunning '', MT '''dā ''' ''be cunning, sly ''||
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|'''*daw '''||land ||RT '''tou ''' sgv tsou ''land '', RTJ '''dáú ''' ''land, ground, property, territory '', MT '''tauyê ''' ''land '', RTI '''truu ''' n. in. ''land '', RRK '''t’uu ''' pl rıduu n.i ''land, country ''||
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|'''*dawʀ '''||stack, pile up ||RT '''tào zò zò ''' ''stack, pile up '', MT '''tâu ''' ''stack, pile up '', RRK '''dahno ''' dur darahno v.tr ''stack, pile up ''||
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|'''*dCil'''||bat ||RTJ '''dí ''' ''bat '', RTI '''til ''' n. an. ''bat '', RRK '''t’ıl ''' pl t’ul n.a ''bat '', ƏD '''dəl ''' n. liv. ''bat '' ||something blocked palatalisation in RTJ
|-
|'''*deduhek '''||gold ||RT '''twéc ''' (no sgv) ''gold '', RTJ '''zedĕheg ''' ''gold '', MT '''terēkh ''' ''gold '', RTI '''tetruheš ''' n. in. ''gold ''||
|-v
|'''*delu ?'''||rules, laws ||RTJ '''dèlo ''' dèlo ''rules, laws '', RTI '''teyluu ''' n. in. ''tradition, rule, law, requirement '', RRK '''tıluu ''' pl tılanuu, cnstr t’ıluu n.i ''tradition, rule, law, requirement ''||
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|'''*deʀ'''||idea(s), notion(s), purpose(s) ||RT '''dzèa ''' attr ksèa ''be creative, have an idea '', RTJ '''zé ''' ''idea, notion, purpose '', MT '''tī ''' ''idea(s), notion(s), purpose(s) ''||derivation in RT?
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|'''*det'''||rabbit ||RT '''tsec ''' pl tyéc ''rabbit '', RTJ '''zéd ''' ''rabbit '', MT '''tath ''' ''rabbit '', RTI '''tat ''' n. an. ''rabbit, hare '', RRK '''t’at ''' pl t’wat, cnstr šat, cnstr.pl škat n.a ''rabbit, hare ''||
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|'''*detim'''||hostile tribe or village, enemy nation ||RTJ '''zĕcè ''' cè ''enemy nation, rival clan '', MT '''turim ''' ''hostile tribe or village, enemy nation ''||
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|'''*detʔin '''||lamb (sheep offspring) ||RT '''mindzín ''' pl mandźá ''lamb (sheep offspring) '', RTJ '''zĕc’è ''' ''lamb '', MT '''tat’in ''' ''lamb (sheep offspring) '', RTI '''tityey ''' n. an. ''lamb '', RRK '''trɛɛ ''' pl turɛɛ, cnstr drɛɛ, cnstr.pl dıgrɛɛ n.a ''lamb ''||
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|'''*dəbrVl'''||enemy (as a collective group), "the enemy" ||RT '''dyao ''' (no sgv) ''enemies (as a group) '', RTJ '''dĕbré ''' ''enemy (as a collective group) '', MT '''tuwú ''' ''enemy (as a collective group), "the enemy" ''||
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|'''*dəbʔaw'''||cross ||RTJ '''dĕbáú ''' ''cross '', MT '''tambau ''' ''cross '', RTI '''trumuu ''' vt. ''cross ''||
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|'''*dəbʔu '''||swim, keep afloat ||RT '''bù ''' attr kù ''swim, float '', RTJ '''dĕbŭ ''' ''swim, tread water, keep afloat '', MT '''tambu ''' ''swim, keep afloat '', RTI '''trumu ''' vi. ''swim, tread water ''||
|-
|'''*dətaq '''||separate, disconnect ||RT '''dzóc ''' pass htsóc, attr ksóc ''disconnect, loosen, untie '', RTJ '''zĕcágh ''' ''separate, disconnect '', MT '''tac ''' ''separate, disconnect '', RTI '''titak ''' vt. ''separate, disconnect ''||
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|'''*dətraj '''||declare, announce, proclaim ||RT '''dzéi ''' pass htséi, attr kséi ''declare, announce '', RTJ '''dĕtáí ''' ''declare, announce '', MT '''trai ''' ''declare, announce, proclaim '', RTI '''titray ''' vt. ''declare, announce '', RRK '''stee ''' dur tıstee v.tr ''declare, announce ''||
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|'''*dətre'''||try, strive ||RTJ '''dĕtrĕ ''' ''try, strive '', RTI '''titri ''' vt. ''try, strive (to do something) '', RRK '''stı ''' dur tıstî v.tr ''try, attempt ''||
|-
|'''*dətul'''||squid ||RTJ '''dĕtú ''' ''squid '', RTI '''čitrul ''' n. an. ''squid '', ƏD '''ktoal ''' n. liv. '' squid '' ||
|-
|'''*dətʔit '''||earthquake ||RTJ '''dĕtr’íd ''' ''earthquake '', MT '''tat’íth ''' ''earthquake ''||
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|'''*dətʔot '''||any of the three ||RTJ '''dĕt’ód ''' ''any of three '', MT '''tat’oth ''' ''any of the three '', , RNW '''tjitǫt ''' qtf. ''any of three ''||
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|'''*dətʔVm '''||be full of ||RT '''tún ''' attr glún ''be full '', RTJ '''dĕt’è ''' ''be full of '', MT '''tat’am ''' ''be full of '', RTI '''titey ''' vt. ''be full of ''||
|-
|'''*dəwik '''||||RT '''twic ''' pass twíc, attr gudwic ''whisper '', RTJ '''dĕwíg ''' ''whisper ''||
|-
|'''*dga'''||menstrual period ||RT '''danggae ''' attr glanggae ''be cruel, be bloody '', RTJ '''drĕ ''' ngê ''menstrual period '', MT '''gayān ''' ''menstrual period ''||the RT word seems to have the same element even if not an exact cognate
|-
|'''*dgʔi '''||thrush ||RT '''nì ''' pl kwí ''thrush '', RTJ '''jĭ ''' nyê ''thrush '', MT '''gilí ''' ''thrush '', ƏD '''j’i ''' n. liv. '' thrush '' ||
|-
|'''*di '''||food ||RT '''śi ''' pl ndźi ''meal, portion (of edible things) '', RTJ '''zĭ ''' ''food '', MT '''ti ''' ''food ''||
|-
|'''*dij '''||play with; dance ||RTJ '''zí ''' ''play with '', MT '''tí ''' ''play with; dance '', RTI '''tii ''' vt. ''play (a game) '', RRK '''t’ii ''' dur didii v.tr ''play with ''||
|-
|'''*din '''||believe, accept as truth ||RT '''tsin ''' pass tsín, attr gzin ''believe, trust '', RTJ '''zè ''' ''believe '', MT '''tin ''' ''believe, accept as truth '', RTI '''tyey ''' vt. ''believe '', RRK '''t’ɛɛ ''' dur sınɛɛ v.tr ''believe, trust ''||
|-
|'''*dip '''||temporary shelter, tent(s) ||RT '''tsoc ''' pl tsic ''tent '', RTJ '''zíb ''' ''tent '', MT '''tiph ''' ''temporary shelter, tent(s) '', RTI '''tyip ''' n. in. ''tent '', RRK '''t’ip ''' pl rıdip n.i ''tent ''||
|-
|'''*dir'''||arm ||RT '''tsie ''' pl trac ''arm '', RTJ '''zí ''' ''arm '', MT '''tí ''' ''arm '', RTI '''tyir ''' n. an. ''arm '', RRK '''t’ir ''' pl kat, cnstr šir, cnstr.pl gat n.a ''arm ''||
|-
|'''*djaN'''||capture, keep hostage ||RTJ '''záú ''' ''capture, keep hostage '', RTI '''tišuu ''' vt. ''capture, take hostage '', ƏD '''dıəh ''' vt. '' capture '' ||
|-
|'''*djasok '''||pine tree ||RT '''dzoc ''' sgv dźoc ''pine trees '', RTJ '''hsóg ''' hsóg ''grove of pine trees '', MT '''tásokh ''' ''pine tree '', RTI '''šahoš ''' n. in. ''pine tree ''pl. trahoš, RRK '''tšok ''' pl rıtšok n.i ''pine tree ''||
|-
|'''*djaw '''||cut ||RT '''tsao ''' pass tsáo, attr gzao ''cut (into), carve '', RTJ '''zó ''' ''cut '', MT '''tau ''' ''cut '', RTI '''taw ''' vt. ''cut '', RRK '''t’oo ''' dur dodoo v.tr ''cut '', ƏD '''dausri ''' perf teusri vt. '' cut through '' ||
|-
|'''*dje'''||bridge ||RT '''te ''' pl nde ''bridge '', RTJ '''zĕ ''' ''bridge '', MT '''té ''' ''bridge '', RTI '''se ''' n. in. ''bridge '', RRK '''t’e ''' pl rıdè n.i ''bridge ''||infixation in MT
|-
|'''*dɬep'''||river mouth, river delta ||RTJ '''zráb ''' ''river delta '', MT '''léph ''' ''river mouth, river delta '', RRK '''ısıp ''' pl nısıp n.i ''river mouth, confluence ''||
|-
|'''*dlVn'''||again, several times ||RT '''dwao ''' attr gudwao ''do several times, do every now and then '', RRK '''tlin ''' adv ''again, several times ''||
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|'''*dmaw ?'''||ford, river crossing ||RT '''nro ''' (no pl) ''river crossing, ford '', RTJ '''dĕmàù ''' dĕmàù ''river crossing, ford '', MT '''frambau ''' ''ford, river crossing '', RTI '''iňwo ''' n. in. ''ford, river crossing '', RRK '''ŋu ''' pl rıŋù n.i ''river crossing, ford ''||may not be cognates at all, or words are composite
|-
|'''*do '''||||RT '''to ''' ''(3i.sg/coll pronoun) '', RTJ '''dŏ ''' ''it, they, all of it, all of their, its, their '', MT '''to ''' ''it, they, all of it, all of them (inanimate) '', ƏD '''do ''' anaph. verbal '' it '' the verb or clause||
|-
|'''*dok '''||wood (material) ||RT '''toc ''' sgv tsoc ''wood (material) '', RTJ '''dóg ''' ''wood (material) '', MT '''tokh ''' ''wood (material) '', RTI '''troš ''' n. in. ''wood (material) ''||
|-
|'''*don '''||match, be the same as ||RT '''nòn ''' pass tòn, attr dòn ''match, be equal to '', RTJ '''nàù ''' ''match, be identical to, be the same '', MT '''don ''' ''match, be the same as '', RTI '''nuu ''' vt. ''match, be identical to, be the same as '', RRK '''nuu ''' dur nunuu v.tr ''be equal to, be similar to ''||
|-
|'''*doŋ '''||chest ||RTJ '''dò ''' ''chest (body part) '', MT '''tung ''' ''chest '', RTI '''trow ''' n. an. ''chest '', RRK '''t’ɔɔ ''' pl t’wɔɔ, cnstr šɔɔ, cnstr.pl škɔɔ n.a ''body ''||
|-
|'''*doŋg'''||ant ||RT '''taenc ''' sgv tsaenc ''ants '', RTJ '''dóg ''' ''ant '', MT '''tong ''' ''ant '', RRK '''t’oŋ ''' pl rıdoŋ n.a ''ant ''||
|-
|'''*dqer'''||charcoal, coal(s) (of a fire) ||RT '''téi ''' sgv tséi ''coal '', RTJ '''zĕkhă ''' ''coal '', MT '''tíyā ''' ''charcoal, coal(s) (of a fire) '', RTI '''ser ''' n. in. ''coal (piece of) ''pl. ter, RRK '''ser ''' pl ter, cnstr ler, cnstr.pl t’er n.i ''coal (piece of) ''||
|-
|'''*dra'''||be able ||RT '''nrà ''' attr drà ''can, be able '', RTJ '''dră ''' ''be able '', MT '''dá ''' ''be able ''||
|-
|'''*dra'''||be cold, feel cold ||RT '''trae ''' attr grae ''be cold (of weather) '', RTJ '''dĕzrá ''' zá ''be cold, feel cold ''||
|-
|'''*dra'''||lizard ||RT '''raonc ''' pl hrunc ''lizard '', RTJ '''zră ''' ''lizard '', RTI '''tra ''' n. an. ''lizard ''||
|-
|'''*dragaʀ'''||earthworm ||RTJ '''zrĕgá ''' ''earthworm '', MT '''tácā ''' ''earthworm ''||
|-
|'''*draQ'''||lightning, lightning bolt(s) ||RT '''hra-tra ''' (no sgv) ''lightning '', RTJ '''zrá ''' ''lightning '', MT '''tâ ''' ''lightning, lightning bolt(s) '', RRK '''t’yaa ''' pl rıdyaa n.a ''lightning ''||
|-
|'''*draw'''||island(s) ||RT '''trou ''' pl ndrou ''island '', RTJ '''zráú ''' ''island '', MT '''tiyau ''' ''island(s) '', RTI '''tyiruu ''' n. in. ''island '', RRK '''truu ''' pl tranuu, cnstr druu n.i ''island ''||
|-
|'''*draw'''||be eager, be determined ||RT '''dráo ''' attr kráo ''be eager, be motivated '', RRK '''dyaa ''' dur dınyaa v.it ''be eager, be determined ''||
|-
|'''*drek '''||rob, steal; pillage, sack ||RT '''drác ''' pass htrác, attr krác ''pillage, sack '', RTJ '''drég ''' ''rob, pillage, sack '', MT '''takh ''' ''rob, steal; pillage, sack '', RTI '''tritriš ''' vt. ''pillage, sack ''||
|-
|'''*drir'''||fly ||RTJ '''dĕnrè ''' dĕnrè ''fly (insect) '', MT '''tní ''' ''fly '', RTI '''trirer ''' n. an. ''fly '', RRK '''trii ''' pl turii, cnstr drii, cnstr.pl dıgrii n.a ''insect, fly ''||
|-
|'''*dro '''||poison ||RT '''dzùo ''' attr ksùo ''be poisonous '', RTJ '''drŏ ''' ''poison '', MT '''tó ''' ''poison '', RTI '''tru ''' n. in. ''poison ''||
|-
|'''*dru'''||shark||RTJ '''zrŭ ''' zrŭ ''shark '', RTI '''niru ''' n. an. ''shark ''||
|-
|'''*dsal'''||leaves ||RT '''dźao ''' (no sgv) ''leaves '', RTJ '''hxé ''' dĕré ''leaves '', MT '''dsau ''' ''leaves '', RTI '''tihel ''' n. in. ''leaf ''pl. tihal, RRK '''tšel ''' pl tšal, cnstr trii, cnstr.pl trɛɛ n.i ''leaf (of a plant) '', ARŊ '''taʒal''' ''leaf'', ƏD '''tral ''' coll, no pl n. stat. '' leaves '' sg. dəsíyal ||
|-
|'''*dti'''||neck ||RT '''dzí ''' pl ndzí ''necklace '', RTJ '''cĭ ''' ''neck '', MT '''tiwom ''' ''neck '', ARŊ '''on''' ''neck (not nape)''||
|-
|'''*du '''||fin ||RT '''tu ''' pl túo ''fin (of a fish) '', RTJ '''dŭ ''' ''fin '', MT '''tu ''' ''fin ''||
|-
|'''*duji'''||dung, feces || MT '''tuya ''' ''human feces '', RTI '''truyi ''' n. in. ''dung, feces ''||
|-
|'''*dun '''||billygoat (male goat) ||RT '''tun ''' pl túon ''male goat, buck '', RTJ '''dò ''' ''billygoat '', MT '''tun ''' ''billygoat (male goat) ''||
|-
|'''*duɴɢ'''||vomit ||RTJ '''dúgh ''' ''vomit '', MT '''tung ''' ''vomit '', RTI '''truň ''' vi. ''vomit ''||
|-
|'''*dur'''||||RTJ '''dú ''' ''inherit '', RTI '''nur ''' vt. ''inherit '', RRK '''isunur ''' dur sisunur v.it ''inherit ''||see RTJ tú
|-
|'''*duw'''||start, begin ||RT '''tou ''' pass tóu, attr glou ''start, begin '', RTJ '''dó ''' ''start, begin '', MT '''tú ''' ''start, begin '', RTI '''truu ''' vt. ''start, begin '''||
|-
|'''*duχ'''||man, adult male human ||RT '''tao ''' pl mwì ''man '', RTJ '''có ''' hxó ''man, adult male human '', MT '''tû ''' ''man, adult male human '', RTI '''traw ''' n. hu. ''man, husband '', RRK '''t’oo ''' pl mur, cnstr hɛɛ, cnstr.pl hıt n.h ''man, husband '', ƏD '''deanh ''' pl b’us n. sen. ''man (male person) '' ||
|-
|'''*dwa'''||west ||RT '''tuo ''' ''to the west of '', RTJ '''dră ''' dră ''the west '', MT '''twa ''' ''west ''||
|-
|'''*dwi '''||allow, let, permit ||RT '''twi ''' pass twí, attr gudwi ''allow, let, permit '', RTJ '''drĭ ''' ''allow, let, permit '', MT '''twí ''' ''allow, let, permit ''||
|-
|'''*dwind'''||here ||RT '''twinc ''' ''here '', RTJ '''dríd ''' ''here (near the speaker) '', MT '''tín ''' ''here '', ƏD '''duənt ''' deict. '' here '' ||
|-
|'''*dʔa '''||mother, maternal aunt ||RT '''nà ''' pl twá ''mother, maternal aunt '', RTJ '''dă ''' nâ ''mother, maternal aunt '', MT '''danda ''' ''mother, maternal aunt '', RTI '''na ''' n. hu. ''mother '', RRK '''nanà ''' pl hnanà n.h ''mother '', ƏD '''d’a ''' n. sen. '' mother '' ||
|-
|'''*dʔal'''||celebrate, honor ||RTJ '''zé ''' ''celebrate '', MT '''dau ''' ''celebrate, honor '', RTI '''nal ''' vt. ''celebrate '', RRK '''nal ''' dur nanal v.tr ''praise, honor ''||
|-
|'''*dʔaŋg ?'''||be intelligent, be wise ||RT '''nàenc ''' attr dàenc ''be intelligent, be clever '', RTJ '''nà ''' ''be intelligent, wise '', MT '''dang ''' ''be intelligent, be wise '', RRK '''daŋ ''' dur naŋ v.it ''do sth. clever, find a solution (aor); be intelligent, be smart (dur) ''||or nʔaŋg?
|-
|'''*dʔCap '''||pick, select, take ||RT '''nàc ''' pass tàc, attr dàc ''choose, take, use '', RTJ '''cáb ''' ''choose, pick, select, take '', MT '''dāph ''' ''pick, select, take '', RRK '''nap ''' dur nanap v.tr ''choose, select ''||beathiness in MT is unaccounted for
|-
|'''*dʔe '''||every ||RT '''nè ''' ''every '', RTJ '''zĕ ''' ''every '', MT '''de ''' ''every '', RRK '''ne ''' qu ''each, every (human or animate referent) ''||
|-
|'''*dʔek'''||candle(s) ||RTJ '''zég ''' nyég ''candle '', MT '''dakh ''' ''candle(s) '', RTI '''neš ''' n. in. ''candle ''pl. naš, RRK '''nek ''' pl nak n.i ''candle ''||
|-
|'''*dʔi '''||womb, uterus ||RTJ '''zĭ ''' nyê ''womb, uterus '', MT '''di ''' ''womb, uterus '', RTI '''ňi ''' n. an. ''womb, uterus ''||
|-
|'''*dʔil'''||go downstream, go downhill, take the easier course of action ||RT '''nòu ''' attr dòu ''go downstream, follow the flow '', RTJ '''zí ''' ''go downstream, follow the current '', MT '''dú ''' ''go downstream, go downhill, take the easier course of action '', RRK '''nil ''' pp ''down, along, with the flow of ''||
|-
|'''*dʔin'''||nation, tribal confederation ||RTJ '''tè ''' tè ''people, ethnic group (irregular collective plural) '', MT '''din ''' ''nation, tribal confederation ''||
|-
|'''*dʔiq'''||extinguish, destroy ||RT '''ndàc ''' pass handàc, attr gandàc ''extinguish, put out (fire) '', RTJ '''dígh ''' ''extingush, kill, destroy completely '', MT '''dac ''' ''extinguish, destroy '', RTI '''nik ''' vt. ''extinguish '', RRK '''nık ''' dur nınık v.tr ''destroy ''||
|-
|'''*dʔja'''||chimney, smokehole ||RT '''nèa ''' pl ndèa ''chimney '', RTJ '''ză ''' nyâ ''chimney, smokehole '', MT '''dawō ''' ''chimney, smokehole ''||
|-
|'''*dʔor'''||season ||RTJ '''dó ''' nò ''season '', MT '''dí ''' ''season '', RRK '''nor ''' pl nanor, cnstr ınor n.a ''season (of the year) ''||
|-
|'''*dʔri '''||rub ||RT '''ndrì ''' pass trì, attr gindrì ''rub '', RTJ '''zrĭ ''' ''rub '', MT '''dí ''' ''rub '', ƏD '''d’ren ''' vt. ''rub '' ||
|-
|'''*dʔu '''||really, indeed ||RT '''nù ''' ''really, indeed '', RTJ '''dŭ ''' ''really, indeed (emphatic particle) '', MT '''du ''' ''really, indeed ''||
|-
|'''*dʔuq '''||||RT '''nòc ''' ''three times ''||
|-
|'''*dʔVjV'''||midden, waste dump || MT '''duya ''' ''midden, waste dump '', RTI '''niyi ''' n. an. ''midden, waste collection area ''nuyi||
|-
|'''*dχet '''||be angry ||RTJ '''céd ''' ''be angry '', MT '''dāth ''' ''be angry '', RRK '''ndat ''' dur nındat v.tr ''be angry at, be furious about ''||
|-
|'''*e '''||or ||RT '''e ''' ''or '', RTJ '''e ''' ''or '', MT '''e ''' ''or '', RTI '''e ''' conj. ''or ''||
|-
|'''*egCVw '''||oar ||RT '''gáo ''' pl góc ''oar, paddle '', RTJ '''ĕkó ''' ''oar '', MT '''elû ''' ''oar '', RTI '''iihey ''' n. in ''oar '', RNW '''ekhaw ''' n. si. ''lever; oar ''||
|-
|'''*eglu'''||free standing wall(s), fortification(s), barrier(s) ||RT '''dlu ''' pl ndlu ''free-standing wall, fortification, barrier, fence '', RTJ '''ĕdrŭ ''' ''free-standing wall, fortification, dike '', MT '''elú ''' ''free standing wall(s), fortification(s), barrier(s) '', ƏD '''glu ''' n. stat. '' wall '' the thing, the object, RNW '''eklji ''' n. in. ''defensive wall or barrier ''||
|-
|'''*eɢəqʔat '''||travois, sledge to carry goods ||RT '''yàe-kàc ''' pl nyàe-kàc ''travois, sledge '', RTJ '''ĕghĕkh’ad ''' ''travois, sledge '', MT '''ekhcath ''' ''travois, sledge to carry goods '', RTI '''iikat ''' n. in ''travois, sledge '', RRK '''igat ''' pl rigat n.i ''travois, sledge '', , RNW '''ekųt ''' n. si. ''cart, sledge ''||
|-
|'''*ek'''||canine tooth, eye tooth, fang || MT '''akhnath ''' ''canine tooth, eye tooth, fang '', RTI '''iš ''' n. in. ''fang, animal tooth ''||
|-
|'''*ekɬa'''||lacquer, glue ||RT '''dlá ''' (no sgv) ''glue '', RTJ '''ĕhlrĕ ''' ''laquer, glue '', MT '''ekhsa ''' ''lacquer, glue '', RTI '''iiši ''' n. in ''glue, any adhesive '', RNW '''ekɬə ''' n. in. ''lacquer, glue, adhesive ''||
|-
|'''*en '''||fight ||RT '''en ''' pass hen, attr ken ''fight '', RTJ '''àì ''' ''fight '', MT '''en ''' ''fight '', RTI '''ii ''' vt. ''fight '', RRK '''ii ''' dur arii v.tr ''fight against '', , RNW '''a ''' v. ''fight, struggle ''||see also *en
|-
|'''*enjumb'''||wake up ||RT '''rinc ''' pass rínc, attr trinc ''wake up, rouse; warn '', RTJ '''ĕnyúb ''' ''wake up '', MT '''núm ''' ''wake up '', RTI '''yettyum ''' vi. ''wake up '', RRK '''hiiyum ''' dur ɛyum v.it ''wake up '', ƏD '''eniənp ''' vi. ''wake up '' ||
|-
|'''*əla '''||six times ||RT '''la ''' ''six times ''||
|-
|'''*əmaŋg'''||sense of taste ||RTJ '''ĕmàg ''' ''sense of taste '', MT '''mang ''' ''sense of taste ''||
|-
|'''*ənjam '''||excitement ||RTJ '''ĕnyà ''' ''excitement '', MT '''nám ''' ''excitement ''||
|-
|'''*əromb'''||language ||RT '''ronc ''' pl raonc ''language '', MT '''rom ''' ''language ''||see also *somb
|-
|'''*əʀorge'''||menstrual blood ||RTJ '''éwĕdre ''' ''menstrual blood '', MT '''âingga ''' ''menstrual blood '', RTI '''oowooňe ''' n. an. ''menstruation '', RRK '''aawɔŋı ''' (no pl) n.a ''menstruation ''||*ʀor + *ge
|-
|'''*ətraw'''||prisoner, captive, hostage, slave ||RT '''tsóu ''' pl htsóu ''captive, hostage, slave '', RTJ '''ĕcráú ''' ĕcráú ''prisoner, hostage '', MT '''írau ''' ''prisoner, captive, hostage, slave '', RTI '''uušuu ''' n. hu. ''captive, prisoner '', RRK '''usuu ''' pl ugusuu n.h ''captive, prisoner ''||
|-
|'''*ətʔruk '''||sage, priest, shaman ||RT '''trùc ''' pl htrùc ''priest, shaman '', RTJ '''ĕtr’úg ''' ''priest(ess), sage, holy person '', MT '''ít’ukh ''' ''sage, priest, shaman '', RTI '''uutruš ''' n. hu. ''priest '', RRK '''uruk ''' pl uguruk n.h ''priest '', ƏD '''ıdok ''' n. sen. ''sage '' ||
|-
|'''*əwaɴ '''||five times ||RT '''wein ''' ''five times ''||the vocalism is mysterious, maybe it was different in the first place
|-
|'''*fa'''||brother ||RT '''fye ''' pl fwé ''brother '', RTJ '''fă ''' ĕyă ''brother '', MT '''fafa ''' ''brother '', RTI '''ho ''' n. hu. ''brother '', RRK '''hohoo ''' pl hrohoo, cnstr gogoo n.h ''brother ''||infixation in RT
|-
|'''*fal'''||pour, strew ||RT '''fyao ''' pass hfyao, attr givyao ''pour (of liquids), strew (of granular masses) '', RTJ '''fé ''' ''pour (of liquids), strew (of granular solids) '', MT '''fau ''' ''pour, strew '', RTI '''hol ''' vt. ''pour, strew '', RRK '''hol ''' dur huul v.tr ''strew, scatter, sow '', ƏD '''ɬep ''' vt. '' pour '' ||
|-
|'''*fal'''||with||RT '''fa ''' ''with, accompanied by '', RRK '''hol ''' pp ''with (comitative) ''||
|-
|'''*faɴ '''||five ||RT '''fyein ''' ''5 '', RTJ '''fàì ''' ''five '', MT '''fang ''' ''five '', RRK '''huu ''' ord rɛhuu qu ''5 ''||singulative infix optional
|-
|'''*far'''||fall ||RT '''fae ''' attr gwae ''fall '', RTJ '''fá ''' ''fall '', MT '''fai ''' ''fall '', RTI '''hor ''' vi. ''fall '', RRK '''p’ar ''' dur hor v.it ''fall ''||
|-
|'''*far'''||wasp ||RT '''fyei ''' pl hsèi ''wasp '', RTJ '''fé ''' ĕyé ''wasp '', MT '''wait’ā ''' ''wasp '', RTI '''hor ''' n. an. ''wasp '', RRK '''hor ''' pl hwar n.a ''wasp ''||
|-
|'''*faw '''||pass, move on, go forward ||RT '''fou ''' attr gwou ''pass, move on, go forward '', RTJ '''fáú ''' ''pass, move on, move toward '', MT '''fau ''' ''pass, move on, go forward '', RTI '''upuu ''' vt. ''pass, move past, move beyond '', RRK '''p’uu ''' dur hıbuu v.it ''pass, move on, go forward '', , RNW '''faw ''' v. ''pass (by) ''||
|-
|'''*fden'''||cycle, recurring event or process ||RTJ '''fĕzrè ''' fĕsrè ''cycle, recurring event or process '', MT '''frén ''' ''cycle, recurring event or process '', ƏD '''fəden ''' n. dyn. ''cycle, recurring period '' ||
|-
|'''*fe '''||herd ||RTJ '''fĕ ''' ''herd '', MT '''fe ''' ''herd '', , RNW '''fa ''' v. ''herd ''||
|-
|'''*fe + ɴqa'''||spider web ||RT '''ngká ''' pl nangká ''spider web '', RTJ '''fĕ ''' ''spider web '', MT '''welā ''' ''spider web '', RTI '''ihi ''' n. in. ''web ''||
|-
|'''*fet '''||warrior, soldier ||RT '''fec ''' pl fwéc ''warrior '', RTJ '''féd ''' ''warrior '', MT '''feth ''' ''warrior, soldier '', RTI '''hit ''' n. hu. ''warrior '', RRK '''hıt ''' pl hwet n.h ''warrior '', , RNW '''fat ''' n. an. ''warrior ''||
|-
|'''*fədʔet '''||army, militia ||RTJ '''fĕzréd ''' ĕzréd ''warband, militia, gang (collective plural) '', MT '''fandeth ''' ''army, militia '', RTI '''honet ''' n. in. ''army (collection of warbands) '', RRK '''hnet ''' pl rıhnet n.a ''army '', , RNW '''furat ''' n. an. ''army ''||< fet 'warrior'
|-
|'''*fəfaj'''||avalanche, landslide ||RT '''fwae ''' sgv fyae ''landslide '', RTJ '''hfá ''' fá ''landslide, avalanche '', MT '''fafai ''' ''avalanche, landslide '', ƏD '''fəfas ''' cnstr foas n. dyn. '' landslide '' ||
|-
|'''*fgaw '''||trap ||RT '''mbíc kòu bí ''' ''trap '', RTJ '''káú ''' káú ''trap '', MT '''fgau ''' ''trap '', RTI '''hučaw ''' n. in. ''trap, snare ''pl. hučuu, RRK '''hŋuu ''' pl rıhŋuu n.i ''trap ''||
|-
|'''*fgjend'''||carp ||RT '''htśenc ''' (no pl) ''carp '', RTJ '''qéd ''' ''carp '', MT '''fálan ''' ''carp '', RTI '''hocan ''' n. an. ''carp '', RRK '''sagan ''' pl nısagan n.a ''carp ''||
|-
|'''*fhe'''||suffer a seizure, stroke, or similar attack ||RTJ '''fĕhyĕ ''' ''suffer a fit, convulsion, seizure, attack '', MT '''hé ''' ''suffer a seizure, stroke, or similar attack '', RTI '''ňee ''' vi. ''suffer, be in pain '', RNW '''fulha ''' v. ''have a seizure, have a fit ''||
|-
|'''*fi '''||this, that (inanimate) ||RTJ '''fi ''' ''the (inanimate) '', MT '''fi ''' ''this, that (inanimate) '', , RNW '''fe ''' dem. in. ''this ''||
|-
|'''*fi '''||wrap around ||RT '''fi ''' pass hfi, attr gwi ''wrap, cover '', RTJ '''fĭ ''' ''wrap around '', MT '''fi ''' ''wrap around '', , RNW '''fe ''' v. ''wrap, cover, engulf ''||
|-
|'''*fjat '''||happen, occur ||RT '''fyec ''' attr givyec ''happen, occur '', MT '''fáth ''' ''happen, occur '', , RNW '''fjut ''' v. ''happen ''||
|-
|'''*fjow'''||be blind ||RT '''fyou ''' attr givyou ''be blind '', RTJ '''fó ''' ''be blind '', MT '''fú ''' ''be blind '', RTI '''čihyow ''' adj. ''blind '', RRK '''hyɔɔ ''' adj ''blind ''||
|-
|'''*fkiq'''||musical instrument (general category) ||RT '''zinggéc ''' pl dinggéc ''musician '', RTJ '''qígh ''' qígh ''musical instrument '', MT '''flic ''' ''musical instrument (general category) '', RTI '''hušiš ''' n. in. ''musical instrument ''pl. hučiš||see also *kiq
|-
|'''*fɬum '''||melt ||RT '''fun ''' attr gun ''melt '', RTJ '''dlò ''' ''melt '', MT '''fúm ''' ''melt '', RTI '''how ''' vt. ''melt '', RRK '''sɔɔ ''' dur sɔsɔɔ v.tr ''melt ''||
|-
|'''*fɬuŋand ??'''||fish|| ARŊ '''ʃʷakʲas''' ''fish (noun)'', , RNW '''fluŋaz ''' n. an. ''freshwater fish ''||or maybe fɬuŋat?
|-
|'''*fɬaj '''||slap ||RT '''fwei ''' pass hfwei, attr guvwei ''slap, beat, hit '', RTJ '''dláí ''' ''slap '', MT '''fai ''' ''slap '', RTI '''hoy ''' vt. ''slap '', RRK '''see ''' dur sesee v.tr ''slap, spank '', , RNW '''flu: ''' v. ''slap ''||
|-
|'''*fɬand'''||river ||RT '''fwenc ''' pl mbenc ''river '', RTJ '''dlyéd ''' ''river '', MT '''fán ''' ''river '', RRK '''san ''' pl nısan n.a ''river '', , RNW '''fluz ''' n. sa. ''river, stream ''||
|-
|'''*fɬap '''||path, trail ||RT '''fwoc ''' pl mboc ''path, route, road '', RTJ '''dláb ''' ''path, trail, route '', MT '''fáph ''' ''path, trail '', RTI '''hop ''' n. in. ''path, trail, way '', RRK '''sap ''' pl nısap n.i ''road, path ''||
|-
|'''*fɬit '''||stalk, stem ||RTJ '''dlyíd ''' ''stalk, stem '', MT '''fíth ''' ''stalk, stem '', RTI '''wis ''' n. in. ''stalk, stem, shaft ''||
|-
|'''*fo '''||pan ||RT '''fo ''' pl mbo ''pan '', RTJ '''fŏ ''' ''pan '', MT '''fo ''' ''pan '', RTI '''hu ''' n. in. ''pan '', RRK '''hu ''' pl hru n.i ''pan ''||
|-
|'''*fok '''||beetle ||RT '''foc ''' pl fwóc ''bug, beetle '', RTJ '''fóg ''' ''beetle '', MT '''fokht’éph ''' ''beetle '', RTI '''huš ''' n. an. ''insect, beetle ''||second part in MT is insect
|-
|'''*foɬju '''||grove of poplars ||RT '''hlú ''' sgv fyú ''poplar trees '', RTJ '''hlyŭ ''' dlyŭ ''grove of poplars '', MT '''folú ''' ''grove of poplars '', RTI '''hisi ''' n. in. ''poplar tree ''pl. husi, RRK '''hısı ''' pl hnısı n.i ''poplar tree ''||
|-
|'''*foŋ '''||sing ||RT '''faen ''' pass hfaen, attr gwaen ''sing '', RTJ '''fàù ''' ''sing '', MT '''fong ''' ''sing '', RRK '''kɛhuu ''' dur kɛkɛhuu v.tr ''sing, chant '', ƏD '''foan ''' vt. '' sing '' ||
|-
|'''*foQsko'''||counting beans || MT '''fōsó ''' ''counting beans '', RTI '''huko ''' n. in. ''counting beans (collective) ''||
|-
|'''*fot '''||gills ||RTJ '''fód ''' ''gill '', MT '''foth ''' ''gills '', RTI '''hut ''' n. in. ''gill ''||
|-
|'''*frit '''||right side, the right (direction) ||RT '''urìc ''' ''to the right of '', RTJ '''fríd ''' ĕríd ''right (direction) '', MT '''fíthyâi ''' ''right side, the right (direction) '', RRK '''rit ''' pp ''to the east of; to the right of ''||
|-
|'''*fʀa'''||fish skin, fish scales ||RT '''fao ''' sgv fyao ''scales (of fish or reptiles) '', RTJ '''hfă ''' gră ''fish scales '', MT '''wōyî ''' ''fish skin, fish scales '', RTI '''hottyo ''' n. in. ''scale (of an animal) ''||
|-
|'''*fʀomb'''||skin(s), bark (of a tree) ||RT '''faonc ''' pl honc ''skin '', RTJ '''hfáb ''' gráb ''skin '', MT '''fōm ''' ''skin(s), bark (of a tree) '', RTI '''wuum ''' n. an. ''skin '', RRK '''huum ''' pl hruum n.a ''skin '', ARŊ '''fox''' ''bark, skin''||
|-
|'''*fsV'''||coarse, rough ||RTJ '''hfí ''' ''be course, rough '', MT '''kandafú ''' ''coarse, rough ''||prefixation in MT
|-
|'''*ftaw'''||knife ||RT '''htsao ''' pl ntsao ''knife '', RTJ '''ĕcó ''' ''knife '', MT '''frau ''' ''knife '', RTI '''hutaw ''' n. in. ''knife '', RRK '''hıdoo ''' pl hrıdoo n.i ''knife ''||
|-
|'''*fu '''||wind ||RT '''wù ''' pl hú ''wind, storm '', RTJ '''fŭ ''' ''wind '', MT '''fu ''' ''wind ''||
|-
|'''*fudʔal'''||join, be with, bring (a person) ||RT '''hrào ''' pass hahrào, attr dào ''participate, join '', MT '''fundau ''' ''join, be with, bring (a person) '', RTI '''hunal ''' vt. ''join, participate, partake in '', RRK '''hnal ''' dur huunal v.tr ''join, participate '', , RNW '''ful ''' v. ''be a part of ''||
|-
|'''*fwiŋg'''||think about, consider ||RT '''fwinc ''' pass hfwinc, attr guvwinc ''think, reflect, consider, assume '', RTJ '''fĕwíg ''' ''consider '', MT '''fwíng ''' ''think about, consider '', RTI '''huliň ''' vt. ''consider '', RRK '''hlıŋ ''' dur huulıŋ v.tr ''think about, ponder, consider ''||
|-
|'''*ga '''||clap (hands) ||RTJ '''gă ''' ''clap (hands) '', MT '''ca ''' ''clap (hands) ''||
|-
|'''*ga '''||request ||RTJ '''gă ''' ''request '', MT '''ca ''' ''request '', RTI '''ča ''' vt. ''request '', RRK '''k’a ''' dur gagà v.tr ''ask, demand, request ''||
|-
|'''*gCaq'''||lead, govern, rule, control ||RT '''gyác ''' pass hkyác, attr gigyác ''control, manage, rule, govern '', RTJ '''rĕhxĕqáígh ''' ''govern, rule, have power over '', MT '''kakh ''' ''lead, govern, rule, control '', RRK '''ganak ''' dur gaganak v.tr ''lead, guide ''||
|-
|'''*gCej'''||home, shelter ||RT '''nya ''' (no pl) ''dwelling, home '', RTJ '''jáí ''' nyàì ''dwelling, home '', MT '''gê ''' ''home, shelter '', RTI '''ňii ''' n. in. ''house '', RRK '''ŋii ''' pl rıŋii n.i ''house ''||
|-
|'''*gCiŋ '''||threat ||RTJ '''jè ''' dlyè ''threat '', MT '''hing ''' ''threat ''||
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|'''*gCjaj '''||imagine ||RT '''gyáe ''' pass hkyáe, attr gigyáe ''imagine '', RTJ '''í ''' ''be unreal, imaginary '', MT '''gyai ''' ''imagine '', RTI '''čičey ''' vt. ''imagine ''||
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|'''*gCjak '''||liver ||RT '''tlec ''' pl tlíec ''liver '', RTJ '''jég ''' dlyég ''liver '', MT '''hákh ''' ''liver '', RRK '''k’yak ''' pl rıgyak, cnstr sak n.a ''liver '', ARŊ '''tʃʲak''' ''liver''||
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|'''*gCjup'''||straight ||RT '''kyuc ''' attr gigyuc ''be straight '', RTJ '''júb ''' gĕjúb ''be straight '', MT '''klúph ''' ''straight ''||
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|'''*gdok'''||hunt, go hunting, be a hunter ||RTJ '''dróg ''' ''go hunting, be a hunter '', MT '''gókh ''' ''hunt, go hunting, be a hunter '', RTI '''trok ''' vi. ''hunt, go hunting, be a hunter ''||
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|'''*gdʔa '''||firewood ||RT '''glà ''' sgv gzà ''firewood '', RTJ '''dĕt’ă ''' ''firewood '', MT '''kdarokh ''' ''firewood ''||
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|'''*gegatraj'''||catfish ||RTJ '''jĕgĕtráí ''' ''catfish '', MT '''kalalai ''' ''catfish '', RTI '''cačetray ''' n. an. ''catfish ''||
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|'''*gek'''||be pregnant || MT '''kekh ''' ''be pregnant '', RRK '''k’ek ''' dur gegek v.it ''be pregnant ''||
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|'''*gend'''||judge, conclude, decide ||RT '''kenc ''' pass kénc, attr gyenc ''decide, judge '', RTJ '''jéd ''' ''judge, conclude, decide '', MT '''ken ''' ''judge, conclude, decide '', RTI '''cen ''' vt. ''judge, conclude, decide '', RRK '''ugen ''' pl ugugen n.h ''judge (person) ''||
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|'''*geŋ '''||depart, leave, go away (from speaker) ||RT '''kein ''' attr gyein ''depart, leave, go away (from speaker) '', RTJ '''jàì ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from speaker) '', MT '''keng ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from speaker) '', RTI '''cii ''' vi. ''depart, leave, go away (from speaker) '', RRK '''gwee ''' dur gamee v.it ''leave, go away (from somewhere other than here) ''||
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|'''*get '''||fire ||RT '''kec ''' sgv tśec ''fire '', RTJ '''jéd ''' ''fire '', MT '''keth ''' ''fire '', RRK '''k’et ''' pl rıget, cnstr hit n.a ''fire ''||
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|'''*getnow'''||shore, riverbank ||RTJ '''Jĕhnò ''' ''the coastal region inhabited by the Té-Jĕhno '', MT '''kdónâi ''' ''shore, riverbank '', RTI '''ceenow ''' n. in. ''coast (of the ocean) ''||the MT cognate is doubtful
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|'''*geχ'''||dwell in, live in ||RT '''tśa ''' pass tśá, attr gźa ''dwell at, live in '', RTJ '''jáí ''' ''dwell, live in '', MT '''kê ''' ''dwell in, live in '', RTI '''cee ''' vi. ''stay, remain; dwell ''||
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|'''*gəkʔu ?'''||hip ||RT '''nggóu ''' sgv tśù ''hips '', RTJ '''k’ŭ ''' ''hip '', MT '''cusú ''' ''hip '', RTI '''ču ''' n. an. ''hip '', RRK '''gu ''' pl gut, cnstr ŋu, cnstr.pl ŋut n.a ''hip ''||
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|'''*gi '''||brain ||RTJ '''jĭ ''' jĭ ''brain '', MT '''gwi ''' ''brain ''||infixation in MT
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|'''*gi '''||||RT '''tśi ''' ''(3a.sgv pronoun) '', RTJ '''jĭ ''' ''he, she, it; his, her, its '', MT '''ki ''' ''he, she, it ''||
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|'''*gidow '''||disagree with ||RTJ '''jĕzró ''' ''disagree '', MT '''kirú ''' ''disagree with '', RTI '''čitrey ''' vt. ''disagree ''||
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|'''*gij'''||be red ||RT '''pwae ''' attr gèi ''be red '', RTJ '''gí ''' ''be red ''||attr form of RT matches
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|'''*gijgok '''||wife || MT '''kícókh ''' ''wife ''||
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|'''*gijruC'''||husband ||RT '''rúon ''' pl koc ''spouse, partner, husband, wife '', RTJ '''jí ''' ''spouse, husband, wife '', MT '''kírû ''' ''husband ''||
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|'''*giŋg'''||cry, cries ||RTJ '''jíg ''' ''cry, cries, vocalization(s) '', MT '''king ''' ''cry, cries ''||
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|'''*girek '''||spleen ||RTJ '''jĕrég ''' dlyĕrég ''spleen '', MT '''híyakh ''' ''spleen '', RRK '''sırak ''' pl nısırak n.a ''spleen ''||
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|'''*giroŋ'''||room, hall, compartment of a house ||RT '''traen ''' pl ndraen ''room (of a house) '', RTJ '''zràù ''' ''room, hall '', MT '''kiyong ''' ''room, hall, compartment of a house '', RTI '''čiruu ''' n. in. ''room (in a house) '', RRK '''kruu ''' pl nıkruu, cnstr gruu n.i ''room (in a house) ''||
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|'''*git '''||drink ||RT '''tśic ''' pass tśíc, attr gźic ''drink '', RTJ '''jíd ''' ''drink '', MT '''kith ''' ''drink '', RTI '''čis ''' vt. ''drink '', RRK '''k’it ''' dur gigit v.tr ''drink ''||
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|'''*gjal'''||bear ||RT '''tśao ''' pl kyáo ''bear '', MT '''kau ''' ''bear '', RTI '''cal ''' n. an. ''bear '', RRK '''k’al ''' pl k’wal, cnstr hel, cnstr.pl hıgel n.a ''bear ''||
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|'''*gjaʀ '''||sky ||RTJ '''já ''' ''sky '', MT '''kā ''' ''sky ''||
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|'''*gju '''||agree with ||RT '''nggà ''' pass hxà, attr ganggà ''approve, agree '', RTJ '''jó ''' ''agree '', MT '''kú ''' ''agree with '', RTI '''cey ''' vt. ''agree ''||
|-
|'''*gnʔin '''||arrow ||RT '''nrìn ''' sgv nyèn ''arrow(s) '', RTJ '''nyè ''' ''arrow(s) '', MT '''gín ''' ''arrow '', RRK '''ŋɛɛ ''' pl gwɛɛ, cnstr yɛɛ, cnstr.pl ıgyɛɛ n.i ''arrow ''||
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|'''*gŋen'''||different, unusual, another || MT '''ganggen ''' ''different, unusual, another '', RTI '''čiňii ''' adj. ''different, other '', RRK '''gii ''' adj ''different, other ''||< ŋen
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|'''*go '''||touch, come in contact with ||RT '''ko ''' pass kó, attr gyo ''touch, get in contact with '', RTJ '''gŏ ''' ''touch, get in contact with '', MT '''ho ''' ''touch, come in contact with '', RTI '''čo ''' vt. ''touch, come into contact with '', RRK '''k’o ''' dur gogò v.tr ''touch, grasp, catch ''||
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|'''*goŋ '''||place, area, region ||RTJ '''gàù ''' ''place, area, region '', MT '''hong ''' ''place, area, region '', RRK '''k’uu ''' pl rıguu, cnstr hyuu n.i ''area, region ''||
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|'''*got '''||married couple ||RTJ '''gód ''' ''married couple '', MT '''hoth ''' ''married couple ''||
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|'''*gruw'''||dry ||RT '''rùo ''' attr krùo ''be dry, be barren '', RTJ '''rrú ''' ''be dry '', MT '''kí ''' ''dry '', RTI '''čirow ''' adj. ''dry, barren '', RRK '''krɔɔ ''' adj ''dry, barren ''||k- in MT
|-
|'''*gso '''||second ||RT '''gzo ''' ''second '', RTJ '''hsŏ ''' ''second (ordinal) '', MT '''gso ''' ''second ''||
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|'''*guɬ'''||be blue/green ||RT '''ngùo ''' attr gùo ''be blue, be green '', RTJ '''gú ''' ''be blue/green '', ARŊ '''gʷuʃ''' ''green (colour)''||
|-
|'''*gum '''||thunder ||RT '''kun ''' sgv tśun ''thunder '', RTJ '''gò ''' ''thunder '', MT '''hum ''' ''thunder '', RTI '''čow ''' n. in. ''thunder '', RRK '''k’ɔɔ ''' pl rıgɔɔ, cnstr hyɔɔ n.a ''thunder ''||
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|'''*gun'''||sew ||RT '''gundùn ''' pass hkundùn, attr gindùn ''sew '', RTJ '''gà ''' ''sew '', MT '''hun ''' ''sew '', RTI '''čow ''' vt. ''sew '', RRK '''k’ɔɔ ''' dur gyɔɔ v.tr ''sew ''||
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|'''*gut '''||||RT '''kuc ''' ''(3a.du pronoun) '', RTJ '''gúd ''' ''the two of them ''||
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|'''*gV'''||this, that (animate) ||RT '''ki ''' ''this '', RTJ '''gi ''' ''the (animate) '', MT '''ka ''' ''this, that (animate) ''||
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|'''*gV(rə)raj'''||bottom (of a body of water) ||RT '''gréi ''' (no sgv) ''bottom (of a river or lake) '', RTJ '''gĕtráí ''' gĕdráí ''bottom (of a body of water) '', MT '''yaulalai ''' ''bottom (of a body of water) ''||
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|'''*gVl'''||middle ||RT '''kao ''' ''middle, intermediate '', RTJ '''grĕgré ''' gré ''be the middle one, be in the middle '', MT '''kú ''' ''middle '', RTI '''kil ''' adj. ''middle, central ''||
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|'''*gVt '''||parents, same-sex parental siblings ||RT '''ngèc ''' sgv ngì ''parents '', RTJ '''gĭ ''' ngê ''parent, same-sex parental sibling '', MT '''gandath ''' ''parents, same-sex parental siblings ''||
|-
|'''*gʔa'''||magpie ||RT '''hngà ''' pl hkíe ''magpie '', RTJ '''jă ''' nyâ ''magpie '', MT '''galí ''' ''magpie '', RTI '''ňa ''' n. an. ''magpie ''||
|-
|'''*gʔam '''||drum ||RT '''ngòun ''' sgv nyòun ''drums '', RTJ '''ngè ''' ''drum '', MT '''gam ''' ''drum '', RTI '''ňey ''' n. in. ''drum '', RRK '''ŋıı ''' pl rıŋıı n.i ''drum ''||
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|'''*gʔaw'''||bead(s) ||RT '''ngòu ''' sgv nyòu ''beads, pearls '', RTJ '''gáú ''' ngàù ''bead(s) '', RRK '''luŋuu ''' pl nıluŋuu n.i ''bead, pearl ''||
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|'''*gʔe '''||eye ||RT '''ngòc ''' sgv ngè ''eye(s) '', RTJ '''jĕ ''' nyê ''eye '', MT '''ge ''' ''eye '', RTI '''ňe ''' n. an. ''eye '', RRK '''ŋe ''' pl ŋot, cnstr ye, cnstr.pl yot n.a ''eye '', ARŊ '''gʲot''' ''eyes''||
|-
|'''*gʔəkʔok '''||hunt ||RTJ '''gĕtr’óg ''' ''hunt '', MT '''gak’ókh ''' ''hunt '', RTI '''ňitroš ''' vt. ''hunt, track '', RRK '''ŋguk ''' dur ŋıŋguk v.tr ''hunt, track down ''||
|-
|'''*gʔigʔi'''||rowan tree || MT '''ganggé ''' ''rowan tree '', RTI '''ňiňi ''' n. in. ''rowan tree ''pl. ňiňe, RRK '''ŋıŋì ''' pl rıŋıŋì n.i ''rowan tree ''||
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|'''*gʔir'''||red color, red pigment ||RTJ '''gí ''' nyè ''red color, red pigment '', MT '''gíyāth ''' ''red color, red pigment '', RTI '''ňir ''' adj. ''red, orange '', RRK '''ŋir ''' adj ''red, orange '', ARŊ '''ʁʲir''' ''red (colour)''||
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|'''*gʔjow '''||door, entry ||RT '''nyù ''' pl ndźù ''door, gate '', RTJ '''jú ''' nyò ''door '', MT '''gú ''' ''door, entry '', RTI '''ňow ''' n. in. ''door, gate '', RRK '''ŋɔɔ ''' pl rıŋɔɔ n.i ''door, gate ''||
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|'''*gʔo'''||fail || MT '''co ''' ''fail '', RTI '''ňo ''' vt. ''fail (to do something) ''||
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|'''*gʔuj'''||some, few ||RT '''ngàe ''' ''several, some, a few '', RTJ '''gú ''' ''few '', MT '''cí ''' ''some, few '', RRK '''ŋıı ''' qu ''some, a few (human or animate referent) ''||
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|'''*gʔuɬ'''||blue, green, blue/green ||RTJ '''gú ''' ngò ''blue/green color, pigment '', MT '''kngú ''' ''blue, green, blue/green '', RTI '''ňul ''' adj. ''blue '', RRK '''ŋul ''' adj ''blue ''||
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|'''*gʔup '''||smell, emit odor ||RTJ '''gúb ''' ''smell, emit odor (neutral tone) '', MT '''cuph ''' ''smell, emit odor '', RTI '''ňup ''' vi. ''smell, emit an odor ''||
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|'''*gʔV'''||fresh-water eel ||RTJ '''gĭ ''' nyê ''freshwater eel '', MT '''giyî ''' ''fresh-water eel ''||
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|'''*gʔVl'''||branch(es) ||RT '''ngào ''' sgv nyào ''branches (of a tree) '', RTJ '''gá ''' ngà ''branch '', MT '''cauphgo ''' ''branch(es) '', RTI '''ňel ''' n. in. ''branch (of a tree) ''pl. ňal, RRK '''ŋel ''' pl ŋal n.i ''branch (of a tree) ''||
|-
|'''*ɢa '''||ear ||RTJ '''ghă ''' ''ear '', MT '''hara ''' ''ear '', RTI '''ka ''' n. an. ''ear '', RRK '''k’a ''' pl k’at, cnstr ha, cnstr.pl hat n.a ''ear '', ARŊ '''rʷaqa''' ''ear''||
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|'''*ɢar'''||listen ||RTJ '''ghó ''' ''listen '', MT '''hí ''' ''listen '', RTI '''kor ''' vi. ''listen ''||
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|'''*ɢHi'''||minority ||RTJ '''ghí ''' ''minority '', MT '''kísani ''' ''minority ''||
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|'''*ɢik '''||voice ||RTJ '''jíg ''' dlyíg ''voice (of a human) '', MT '''hikh ''' ''voice ''||
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|'''*ɢo '''||grove of ash trees ||RT '''koa ''' sgv kyoa ''ash trees '', RTJ '''ghŏ ''' ''grove of ash trees '', MT '''holath ''' ''grove of ash trees '', RTI '''ki ''' n. in. ''ash tree ''pl. ko, RRK '''k’ı ''' pl k’o n.i ''ash tree ''||
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|'''*ɢʀVk '''||woman ||RT '''kwac ''' pl ngwèi ''woman '', RTJ '''grég ''' dlrég ''woman '', MT '''hókh ''' ''woman '', RTI '''šiš ''' n. hu. ''woman, wife '', RRK '''k’ik ''' pl lee, cnstr sık, cnstr.pl ŋii n.h ''woman, wife '', ƏD '''gık ''' cnstr ɬık, pl g’aś n. sen. ''woman (female person) '' ||
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|'''*ɢu '''||only, merely, barely, just, simply ||RT '''ko ''' ''only, merely, barely, just, simply '', RTJ '''ghŭ ''' ''only, merely, just, simply '', MT '''hu ''' ''only, merely, barely, just, simply '', RRK '''k’u ''' adv ''only, merely, just, simply ''||
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|'''*ɢuq '''||kick ||RT '''gyóc ''' pass hkyóc, attr gigyóc ''kick '', RTJ '''ghúgh ''' ''kick '', MT '''huc ''' ''kick '', RTI '''kuk ''' vt. ''kick '', RRK '''k’uk ''' dur guguk v.tr ''kick ''||
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|'''*ɢʔoC'''||cave ||RT '''ngàoc ''' sgv tśòa ''network of caves '', RTJ '''k’áú ''' ''network of caves '', MT '''cō ''' ''cave ''||
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|'''*ɢʔu '''||hills ||RT '''ngò ''' sgv nyò ''hills '', RTJ '''ghŭ ''' ngô ''hills '', MT '''cuk’a ''' ''hills '', RRK '''hwee ''' pl rıhwee, cnstr wee n.i ''hill ''||
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|'''*haj '''||we, us ||RT '''hei ''' ''we '', RTJ '''háí ''' ''we, us, our '', MT '''hai ''' ''we, us ''||
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|'''*hak '''||hew (with an ax) ||RT '''hec ''' pass héc, attr kéc ''hew (with an axe) '', RTJ '''hág ''' ''hew (with an axe) '', MT '''hakh ''' ''hew (with an ax) ''||
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|'''*hal'''||||RTJ '''há ''' ''pray '', RTI '''hal ''' vi. ''pray '', RRK '''k’al ''' dur hal v.it ''pray ''||
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|'''*han '''||moon ||RT '''han ''' (no pl) ''moon '', RTJ '''hà ''' ''moon '', MT '''han ''' ''moon '', RTI '''he ''' n. an. ''moon '', RRK '''haa ''' (no pl), cnstr gaa n.a ''moon '', ARŊ '''maʔan''' ''moon''||
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|'''*haŋ'''||arrowhead ||RTJ '''hă ''' ''arrowhead, spearhead '', MT '''ānggén ''' ''arrowhead '', RTI '''wašwey ''' n. in. ''arrowhead, spearhead ''||maybe *ʀaŋ ?
|-
|'''*har'''||then (past) ||RT '''yéi ''' ''then (in the past) '', MT '''hai ''' ''then (past) '', RRK '''har ''' adv ''then, next (factual) ''||
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|'''*haw '''||call, shout ||RT '''hóu ''' pass fóu, attr kóu ''call, shout '', RTJ '''háú ''' ''call, shout '', MT '''hau ''' ''call, shout ''||
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|'''*haw / waw (? hwaw) '''||dust ||RT '''wáo ''' sgv yáo ''dust, dirt '', RTJ '''hyó ''' gró ''dust '', MT '''haumam ''' ''dust ''||
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|'''*hdRip'''||quarrel, strife, conflict, rivalry ||RT '''dwic ''' sgv diec ''quarrel, strife, conflict, rivalry '', RTI '''hitrip ''' n. in. ''enmity, conflict ''||
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|'''*hduq'''||empty ||RTJ '''ĕdúgh ''' túgh ''empty '', RTI '''hinuk ''' adj. ''empty '', RRK '''hnuk ''' adj ''empty ''||maybe cognate with *juq
|-
|'''*he '''||mouse, rat ||RT '''he ''' pl fwé ''mouse, rat '', MT '''he ''' ''mouse, rat '', RTI '''he ''' n. an. ''mouse '', RRK '''he ''' pl hwe n.a ''mouse ''||
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|'''*hej'''||feel, sense ||RT '''yéa ''' pass syéa, attr tśéa ''feel, sense '', RTJ '''háí ''' ''feel, sense '', MT '''hē ''' ''feel, sense '', RTI '''hii ''' vt. ''feel, sense '', RRK '''hii ''' dur hıgii v.tr ''feel, sense ''||
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|'''*hənaŋg'''||pride of cats ||RTJ '''hnàì ''' hnàì ''pride of cats (collective plural) '', MT '''handaŋ ''' ''pride of cats ''||
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|'''*hga'''||improve, make perfect ||RTJ '''hĕcră ''' ''improve, make perfect '', MT '''hla ''' ''improve, make perfect '', RTI '''hica ''' vt. ''improve, make perfect '', RRK '''hıkà ''' dur hıkyà v.tr ''improve ''||
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|'''*hgij'''||belly, abdomen ||RT '''htsi ''' (no pl) ''belly, stomach '', RTJ '''jú ''' ''belly, abdomen (interior) '', MT '''kícom ''' ''belly, abdomen '', RTI '''ňuu ''' n. an. ''belly, abdomen '', RRK '''ŋuu ''' pl hŋuu n.a ''belly, stomach '', ARŊ '''kʲi''' ''belly''||
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|'''*hiŋg'''||chin ||RT '''hinc ''' pl fwinc ''jaw, chin '', RTJ '''híg ''' ''chin '', MT '''hing ''' ''chin '', RTI '''hiň ''' n. an. ''jaw, chin '', RRK '''hiŋ ''' pl hwiŋ, cnstr eeŋ, cnstr.pl reeŋ n.a ''jaw, chin ''||
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|'''*hip '''||realize, become aware of, understand ||RT '''hic ''' pass híc, attr tśíc ''realize, become aware of '', RTJ '''híb ''' ''realize, become aware of '', MT '''hiph ''' ''realize, become aware of, understand '', RTI '''hip ''' vt. ''realize, become aware of ''||
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|'''*hkej ?'''||pilot, navigate (a canoe or raft) ||RT '''dlae ''' pass htlae, attr klae ''steer, navigate '', RTJ '''hó ''' ''navigate, pilot a boat or raft '', MT '''hú ''' ''pilot, navigate (a canoe or raft) '', RTI '''hikey ''' vt. ''pilot, navigate (a boat or raft) '', RRK '''k’ıı ''' dur hıı v.it ''go by boat ''||
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|'''*hkuw'''||shout, cry out (of a word or sound) ||RT '''hku ''' pass huhku, attr guhku ''scream at '', RTJ '''kháú ''' ''scream at, shout at '', MT '''hâu ''' ''shout, cry out (of a word or sound) '', RTI '''hikuu ''' vt. ''scream at ''||
|-
|'''*hɬal'''||beg ||RTJ '''hlá ''' ''beg '', MT '''hlau ''' ''beg '', RTI '''hišal ''' vt. ''beg (for) ''||
|-
|'''*hɬal'''||ask, plead, request (sth.) ||RT '''hláo ''' pass hahláo, attr tláo ''ask, plead, request (sth.) '', RRK '''hısal ''' dur hlısal v.tr ''ask, inquire about ''||
|-
|'''*hlowɢa'''||earwax ||RTJ '''dlĕkhă ''' dlĕkhă ''earwax '', MT '''hwuthca ''' ''earwax '', RTI '''hilowka ''' n. in. ''earwax ''||MT influenced by hwuth 'sand'
|-
|'''*hlut '''||sand ||RT '''hluc ''' sgv syuc ''sand '', RTJ '''dlúd ''' dlúd ''sand '', MT '''hwuth ''' ''sand '', RTI '''hilut ''' n. in. ''sand '', RRK '''hlut ''' (no pl) n.i ''sand ''||
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|'''*hnan'''||teach (something) ||RT '''dán ''' pass htán, attr ksán ''teach (practical skills) '', RTJ '''hnyàì ''' ''teach (a skill or discipline) '', MT '''sanān ''' ''teach (something) ''||
|-
|'''*hoɬan '''||moonflower(s) (night-blooming flower types) ||RT '''hlán ''' sgv hlíen ''moonflower '', MT '''holán ''' ''moonflower(s) (night-blooming flower types) '', RTI '''hišee ''' n. in. ''moonflower ''pl. hošee||
|-
|'''*hoʀ'''||be perpendicular to ||RT '''bòu ''' pass hpòu, attr kwòu ''be/move perpendicular to '', RTJ '''hó ''' ''be perpendicular to '', MT '''hū ''' ''be perpendicular to '', RTI '''hey ''' vt. ''be perpendicular to ''||
|-
|'''*how'''||siblings ||RT '''hao ''' sgv hmáo ''siblings '', RTJ '''dlró ''' ĕró ''siblings, parallel cousins '', MT '''handú ''' ''siblings ''||
|-
|'''*hqa ?'''||||RT '''hká ''' (no pl) ''hearth '', RTJ '''khă ''' ''hearth, firepit '', MT '''ngêleth ''' ''hearth, firepit '', RRK '''kyot ''' pl rıkyot n.i ''hearth, oven ''||
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|'''*hraw '''||be who? (animate) ||RT '''róu ''' (no attr) ''be who? '', RTJ '''hráú ''' ''be who? (animate) '', ARŊ '''hro''' ''who?''||
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|'''*hrem'''||be fast, be quick ||RT '''ráon ''' attr tráon ''be fast, be quick '', RTJ '''hràì ''' ''be fast, quick '', MT '''hém ''' ''be fast, be quick '', RRK '''sii ''' dur sirii v.it ''be fast, be quick ''||
|-
|'''*hren '''||be what? (inanimate) ||RT '''rén ''' (no attr) ''be what? '', RTJ '''hràì ''' ''be what? (inanimate) '', ARŊ '''hrʲen''' ''what?''||
|-
|'''*hriq '''||rape ||RTJ '''hrígh ''' ''rape '', MT '''híc ''' ''rape ''||
|-
|'''*hRo'''||stand up (from sitting or lying) ||RTJ '''hwŏ ''' ''stand up (from sitting or lying) '', MT '''ndó ''' ''stand up (from sitting or lying) '', RTI '''yihu ''' vi. ''stand up (from sitting or lying) '', RRK '''hiišu ''' dur lıyıı v.it ''stand up, rise (aor); be resilient (dur) ''||
|-
|'''*hsa'''||cross cousin ||RTJ '''hsă ''' sră ''cross cousin ''||derivation
|-
|'''*hsaŋ '''||coniferous tree forest ||RT '''san ''' sgv śein ''forest of coniferous trees '', RTJ '''hsà ''' ĕgrà ''coniferous tree forest '', MT '''sāng ''' ''coniferous tree forest ''||
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|'''*hsar'''||already||RT '''syéi ''' (no attr) ''has been done already '', RRK '''hasar ''' adv ''already; recently, earlier on ''||
|-
|'''*hsjan'''||teach, be a teacher ||RTJ '''hxàì ''' ''teach, be a teacher '', MT '''sān ''' ''teach, be a teacher '', RRK '''ušaa ''' pl ugušaa n.h ''teacher, expert ''||
|-
|'''*hti '''||now ||RT '''htsí ''' ''now '', MT '''hri ''' ''now ''||
|-
|'''*htVn'''||when||RT '''htèin ''' ''when (in the future) '', RRK '''hatwaa ''' pp ''when, at, on (temporal) ''||
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|'''*hudʔap'''||gather, summon (people) ||RT '''hóu pou nàc ''' ''gather, summon (people) '', RTJ '''hĕcáb ''' ''gather, summon (people) '', RRK '''hunap ''' dur huhnap v.tr ''gather, summon (people) ''||
|-
|'''*huH'''||lungs ||RT '''hoa ''' sgv yóa ''lungs '', RTJ '''hó ''' ''lungs '', MT '''hū ''' ''lungs '', RTI '''hey ''' n. in. ''lung '', RRK '''hɛɛ ''' pl hıı, cnstr gɛɛ n.a ''lungs ''||
|-
|'''*humb'''||council, advisers to a ruler ||RT '''húnc ''' sgv ngkwac ''council of elders '', RTJ '''húb ''' húb ''council (organization) '', MT '''uwūm ''' ''council, advisers to a ruler '', RRK '''umir ''' pl ugumir n.h ''advisor ''||
|-
|'''*hwim '''||marry ||RT '''wín ''' pass fwín, attr kwín ''marry '', RTJ '''hwè ''' ''marry '', MT '''hím ''' ''marry '', RRK '''hwɛɛ ''' dur hıpɛɛ v.tr ''marry ''||
|-
|'''*hwit '''||forage, be a forager ||RTJ '''hwíd ''' ''forage, be a forager '', MT '''hóth ''' ''forage, be a forager '', RTI '''hut ''' vi. ''forage, be a forager ''||
|-
|'''*hwol'''||bow ||RT '''wóu ''' sgv yóu ''bow and arrow '', RTJ '''hwó ''' ''bow '', MT '''ûnggín ''' ''bow '', RTI '''hil ''' n. in. ''bow ''pl. hul, RRK '''hıl ''' pl hul, cnstr gıl, cnstr.pl gul n.i ''bow ''||
|-
|'''*idrip '''||complain about, protest ||RT '''idric ''' pass hidric, attr gidric ''complain about '', RTJ '''ĕzríb ''' ''complain about, protest '', MT '''iríph ''' ''complain about, protest '', RTI '''itrip ''' vt. ''complain about, protest ''||
|-
|'''*ij'''||drip on ||RTJ '''í ''' ''drip on '', MT '''í ''' ''drip on '', RTI '''ey ''' vt. ''drip on (of liquids), shine on (of light) ''||see also *lej
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|'''*il'''||intend ||RTJ '''ré ''' ''intend '', MT '''ú ''' ''intend '', RTI '''il ''' vt. ''intend ''||
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|'''*im '''||shine on ||RTJ '''è ''' ''shine on '', MT '''im ''' ''shine on ''||
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|'''*injaŋg'''||grieve, mourn ||RT '''yinyèanc ''' pass hinyèanc, attr tśinyèanc ''grieve, mourn '', RRK '''ıyaŋ ''' dur iiyaŋ v.it ''grieve, mourn, feel sorrow ''||
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|'''*ip '''||praise ||RT '''yic ''' pass hic, attr tśic ''praise, worship '', RTJ '''íb ''' ''praise '', MT '''iph ''' ''praise '', RTI '''ip ''' vt. ''praise ''||
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|'''*iraqʔrik '''||jewel ||RT '''grec ''' sgv ksec ''jewellery '', RTJ '''rrĕgĕtr’íg ''' ''jewel '', MT '''iyak’íkh ''' ''jewel '', RTI '''ireetriš ''' n. in. ''ornament, piece of jewelry '', RRK '''kset ''' pl rıkset n.i ''jewellery (piece of) '', ƏD '''iraġrik ''' n. port. '' jewel '' ||see also crystal
|-
|'''*irardir'''||armband ||RTJ '''ĕrĕzrí ''' ''armband, arm ring '', MT '''yairí ''' ''armband '', RTI '''ireetyir ''' n. in. ''armband '', ƏD '''rardis ''' cnstr ırardis n. port. '' armband '' ||
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|'''*irarɢa '''||earring ||RT '''ga ''' pl ngga ''earring (jewelry) '', RTJ '''ĕrĕghă ''' ''earring '', MT '''yaica ''' ''earring '', ƏD '''rarǵa ''' cnstr ırarǵa n. port. '' earring '' ||
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|'''*irarti'''||necklace ||RTJ '''ĕrĕcrĭ ''' ''necklace, torc '', MT '''yairi ''' ''necklace '', RTI '''ireetyi ''' n. in. ''necklace '', RRK '''ırɔti ''' pl nırɔti n.i ''necklace '', ARŊ '''r̊ʲaʃri''' ''necklace'', ƏD '''rartıə ''' cnstr ırartıə n. port. '' necklace '' ||
|-
|'''*irartumb'''||finger ring ||RT '''drúnc ''' pl ndrúnc ''ring (jewelry) '', RTJ '''ĕrĕtrúb ''' ''finger ring '', MT '''yairum ''' ''finger ring '', RTI '''ireetrum ''' n. in. ''finger ring '', ƏD '''rartaonp ''' cnstr ırartaonp n. port. '' ring (jewelry) '' ||
|-
|'''*ja '''||hail, greet, say goodbye ||RTJ '''yă ''' ''hail, greet, say goodbye '', MT '''ya ''' ''hail, greet, say goodbye '', RTI '''ya ''' vi. ''give a greeting, say goodbye ''||
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|'''*ja '''||hail! goodbye! ||RTJ '''ya ''' ''oh! (vocative particle), hail! '', MT '''ya ''' ''hail! goodbye! ''||
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|'''*jak '''||throat ||RT '''yec ''' pl ifwéc ''neck '', RTJ '''yág ''' ''throat '', MT '''yakh ''' ''throat '', RTI '''yaš ''' n. an. ''throat ''||
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|'''*jam'''||flat grassland, meadow, pasture ||RTJ '''yàì ''' ''meadow, pasture '', MT '''yammokh ''' ''flat grassland, meadow, pasture '', RRK '''šuyaa ''' pl nıšuyaa n.i ''meadow ''||
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|'''*jan '''||ice ||RT '''yein ''' sgv myein ''ice '', RTJ '''yà ''' ''ice '', MT '''yan ''' ''ice ''||
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|'''*jaɴɢ'''||be happy ||RT '''yonc ''' attr tśonc ''be happy '', RTJ '''yágh ''' ''be happy '', MT '''yaŋ ''' ''be happy ''||
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|'''*jar'''||boat, raft ||RT '''yàe-ngge ''' pl nyàe-ngge ''raft '', RTJ '''yá ''' ''boat, ship '', MT '''yai ''' ''boat, raft '', RTI '''yar ''' n. in. ''boat ''pl. yanar, RRK '''vanar ''' pl rıyar, cnstr ıvanar, cnstr.pl ırıyar n.i ''boat ''||
|-
|'''*jaʀ'''||cream ||RTJ '''yá ''' ''cream '', MT '''yā ''' ''cream ''||
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|'''*je '''||bend ||RTJ '''yĕ ''' ''bend '', MT '''ye ''' ''bend '', RTI '''ye ''' vt. ''bend '', RRK '''grı ''' dur gıgrı v.tr ''bend ''||
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|'''*jej'''||whale ||RTJ '''yàì ''' ''whale '', RTI '''yii ''' n. an. ''whale ''||
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|'''*jen '''||next ||RT '''yen ''' ''next, subsequent '', RTJ '''ĕnyàì ''' yàì ''be next '', MT '''yan ''' ''next '', RTI '''yee ''' adj. ''next '', RRK '''yaa ''' adj ''next, following, subsequent ''||
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|'''*jeŋ'''||short ||RT '''yin ''' attr tśin ''be short '', RTJ '''nyè ''' è ''be short '', MT '''ing ''' ''short '', RTI '''ey ''' adj. ''short '', RRK '''yɛɛ ''' adj ''short, nearby '', ƏD '''en ''' adj. '' short '' ||
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|'''*jeŋg'''||sleep ||RT '''yenc ''' attr tśenc ''sleep '', RTJ '''yég ''' ''sleep '', MT '''yeng ''' ''sleep '', RTI '''yeň ''' vi. ''sleep '', RRK '''iŋ ''' dur lɛyeŋ v.it ''sleep '', ARŊ '''ʔeʁma, perf xʲeʁma''' ''sleep (verb)''||
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|'''*jet '''||think, reflect, consider, assume ||RTJ '''yéd ''' ''think, assume '', MT '''yeth ''' ''think, reflect, consider, assume '', RTI '''yet ''' vt. ''think about, reflect on, consider, assume '', RRK '''it ''' dur ıset v.tr ''think, reflect, consider, assume ''||
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|'''*jə'''||previous, one before ||RT '''ya ''' ''previous, preceding '', RTJ '''yĕrĕ ''' ĕrĕ ''be previous, be (the) one before '', MT '''ya ''' ''previous, one before '', RTI '''i ''' adj. ''previous, preceding '', RRK '''e ''' adj ''previous, preceding ''||
|-
|'''*jiʀ '''||texture ||RT '''yèi ''' sgv myèi ''surface, pattern, texture, rhythm, cycle '', RTJ '''yí ''' ''texture '', MT '''yîyē ''' ''texture '', RRK '''vir ''' pl rıvir n.i ''pattern, decoration ''||
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|'''*jŋot'''||pick (of berries, fruits) || MT '''ngôth ''' ''pick (of berries, fruits) '', RTI '''yihut ''' vt. ''gather berries, pick berries ''||
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|'''*jo '''||wear (of clothing, armor) ||RT '''yo ''' pass yó, attr tśo ''wear (clothes) '', RTJ '''yŏ ''' ''wear (of clothing, armor) '', MT '''yo ''' ''wear (of clothing, armor) '', RTI '''yo ''' vt. ''wear (clothes) '', RRK '''nahyò ''' dur nanahyò v.tr ''wear (clothes) ''||
|-
|'''*jot '''||oven ||RT '''dźoc ''' pl ndźoc ''oven '', RTJ '''yód ''' ''oven '', MT '''yoth ''' ''oven '', RTI '''wut ''' n. in. ''oven, hearth ''pl. yot||
|-
|'''*jow'''||too, also, as well ||RT '''yao ''' ''too, also, as well '', RTJ '''yé ''' ''too, also, as well '', MT '''au ''' ''too, also, as well ''||
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|'''*judʔuq '''||empty, unload || MT '''yunduc ''' ''empty, unload '', RTI '''yunuk ''' vt. ''empty ''||derivation, see juq
|-
|'''*juj'''||chew ||RT '''yùo ''' pass syùo, attr kyùo ''chew '', RTJ '''yú ''' ''chew '', MT '''yí ''' ''chew '', RTI '''ey ''' vt. ''chew '', RRK '''ɛɛ ''' dur hyɛɛ v.tr ''bite, chew ''||
|-
|'''*jumb'''||be awake ||RT '''yunc ''' attr tśunc ''be awake '', RTJ '''yúb ''' ''be awake '', MT '''yum ''' ''be awake ''||
|-
|'''*juq'''||empty ||RT '''yoc ''' attr tśoc ''be hungry; be empty '', RTJ '''yúgh ''' ''be empty '', MT '''kúc ''' ''empty ''||k- in MT
|-
|'''*jur'''||seaweed ||RTJ '''yú ''' ''seaweed '', RTI '''yur ''' n. in. ''seaweed ''||
|-
|'''*juraɴq '''||be sad ||RT '''yèanc ''' attr kyèanc ''be sad '', RTJ '''yĕzrágh ''' ''be sad '', MT '''yuyang ''' ''be sad ''||
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|'''*jVV'''||tool||RT '''yàe ''' pl nyàe ''tool '', RTJ '''yú ''' ''tool(s) '', , RNW '''jo: ''' nmlz. ''tool ''||
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|'''*ka'''||completely, well ||RTJ '''qă ''' ''completely, perfectly '', MT '''kha ''' ''completely, well ''||
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|'''*kadatʔot '''||any two of three ||RTJ '''kĕdĕt’ód ''' ''any two of three ''||
|-
|'''*kaɢi ?'''||saltwater eel ||RTJ '''kàgri ''' ''saltwater eel '', RTI '''cačee ''' n. an. ''eel ''||
|-
|'''*kat'''||male dog ||RT '''kác ''' pl kwác ''male dog, hound '', RTJ '''tréd ''' ''male dog '', MT '''khath ''' ''male dog '', ARŊ '''xʷot''' ''dog'', ƏD '''kıt ''' n. liv. ''hound (male dog) '' ||
|-
|'''*kbʔon'''||common || MT '''kamban ''' ''common '', RTI '''čumoo ''' adj. ''common, commonplace '', RRK '''gwaa ''' adj ''common, ordinary ''||
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|'''*kbʔum'''||relativizer ||RT '''bùn ''' ''(relative pronoun: animate) '', RTJ '''hmo ''' ''animate relativizer '', MT '''kambum ''' ''relativizer ''||
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|'''*kCak '''||mortar (tool for grinding) ||RTJ '''kág ''' ''mortar (grinding tool) '', MT '''hakh ''' ''mortar (tool for grinding) '', RTI '''šaš ''' n. in. ''mortar (grinding tool) ''pl. čaš||
|-
|'''*kCaʀ'''||be in pain ||RTJ '''já ''' ''be in pain '', MT '''gā ''' ''be in pain ''||see also kʔaʀ
|-
|'''*kdam'''||full || MT '''kdam ''' ''full '', RTI '''čitey ''' adj. ''full '', RRK '''ksıı ''' adj ''full ''||derivation
|-
|'''*kdja'''||industrious, diligent, hardworking ||RTJ '''ză ''' ''be industrious, dilligent, hardworking '', MT '''kdá ''' ''industrious, diligent, hardworking '', RTI '''čiša ''' adj. ''diligent, hardworking, busy '', RRK '''ksa ''' adj ''busy, active, energetic, ambitious ''||
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|'''*kdon'''||matching|| RTI '''činuu ''' adj. ''matching, complimentary, equivalent '', RRK '''gut ''' adj ''equivalent, matching, complementary ''||
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|'''*kdrumb'''||fast (abstain from eating) ||RT '''grunc ''' attr gugrunc ''fast (abstain from eating) '', RTJ '''kĕzrúb ''' ''fast (abstain from eating) '', MT '''khirúm ''' ''fast (abstain from eating) '', RTI '''kitrum ''' vi. ''fast, abstain from eating '', RRK '''kıdum ''' dur kıgrum v.it ''fast, abstain from eating ''||*kdumb?
|-
|'''*kdʔVj'''||fragrant ||RT '''nàe ''' attr dàe ''be fragrant '', RTJ '''dú ''' ''be fragrant, smell good '', MT '''kandí ''' ''fragrant '', RTI '''činey ''' adj. ''fragrant, good-smelling '', RRK '''grıı ''' adj ''fragrant, good-smelling ''||
|-
|'''*ke '''||anus ||RTJ '''qĕ ''' ''anus '', MT '''khe ''' ''anus ''||
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|'''*keŋg'''||cat ||RT '''káenc ''' pl kwáenc ''cat '', RTJ '''trég ''' ''cat '', MT '''khang ''' ''cat '', RTI '''čiň ''' n. an. ''cat '', RRK '''kıŋ ''' pl kuŋ n.a ''cat ''||
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|'''*kəkol'''||lie, tell a lie to ||RT '''kòu ''' pass hkòu, attr gyòu ''lie to, deceive '', RTJ '''gĕgré ''' ''lie, tell a lie to '', MT '''klú ''' ''lie, tell a lie to '', RTI '''kikol ''' vt. ''lie, tell a lie to ''||
|-
|'''*kəkoɬiŋg'''||piglet ||RTJ '''hlríg ''' hlríg ''piglet '', MT '''xoxoléng ''' ''piglet '', RTI '''hihišiň ''' n. an. ''piglet ''||ld?
|-
|'''*kfal'''||be together, be in a group ||RT '''fào ''' attr gwào ''be together '', RTJ '''ká ''' ''be together, be in a group '', MT '''fanggau ''' ''be together, be in a group '', RRK '''gyal ''' adv ''together, jointly ''||
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|'''*khan'''||snake ||RTJ '''kà ''' ''snake, serpent '', MT '''hanō ''' ''snake '', RTI '''čee ''' n. an. ''snake '', RRK '''kaa ''' pl hwa, cnstr k’aa, cnstr.pl hıgà n.a ''snake ''||
|-
|'''*khar'''||sky goddess ||RTJ '''Ká ''' ''sky goddess '', MT '''Haifai ''' ''sky goddess ''||
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|'''*ki '''||hollow ||RT '''tśí ''' attr gźí ''be hollow '', RTJ '''qĭ ''' ''be hollow '', MT '''kli ''' ''hollow '', RTI '''čiči ''' adj. ''hollow '', RRK '''ki ''' adj ''hollow ''||
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|'''*kik'''||ram (male sheep) ||RT '''tśe ''' pl kíe ''male sheep, ram '', RTJ '''qíg ''' ''ram (male sheep) '', MT '''khikh ''' ''ram (male sheep) '', RTI '''čiš ''' n. an. ''ram, buck, male horned animal '', RRK '''kik ''' pl rıkik n.a ''buck, ram, stag (male horned animal) ''||RT lacks a ʔ, but otherwise matches well
|-
|'''*kin'''||occupation, role ||RT '''kén ''' sgv kyén ''task, mission, quest, project '', RTJ '''kè ''' ''job, occupation, role, habit, project, work '', MT '''khin ''' ''occupation, role ''||
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|'''*kiq '''||play (music) ||RT '''kéc ''' attr gyéc ''play (music) '', RTJ '''qígh ''' ''play (of music) '', MT '''khic ''' ''play (music) '', RTI '''čiš ''' vt. ''play (music) ''||see also *fkiq
|-
|'''*kja'''||crow ||RT '''tyá ''' pl tíe ''crow '', RTJ '''qă ''' ''crow '', MT '''khalí ''' ''crow '', RTI '''kira ''' n. an. ''crow ''||
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|'''*kja '''||reach, arrive at ||RT '''kyá ''' pass hkyá, attr gíe ''reach, arrive at '', MT '''khá ''' ''reach, arrive at '', RTI '''ikwa ''' vt. ''reach, arrive at '', RRK '''ka ''' adv ''really, actually, certainly, in fact, of course ''||
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|'''*kjaw'''||hot, warm ||RT '''tśáo ''' attr gźáo ''be warm, be hot (of things); feel warm (of people) '', RTJ '''jĕqó ''' qó ''be hot, warm '', MT '''khau ''' ''hot, warm '', RTI '''caw ''' adj. ''warm '', RRK '''koo ''' adj ''warm ''||
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|'''*kjoV'''||blister(s) ||RTJ '''qó ''' ''blisters '', MT '''khú ''' ''blister(s) '', RTI '''sey ''' n. in. ''blister ''pl. cey||
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|'''*kla'''||crooked, bent ||RT '''ká ''' attr gyá ''be crooked, be bent '', RTJ '''trĕ ''' ''be crooked, be bent '', MT '''kla ''' ''crooked, bent ''||
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|'''*kɬaw '''||disease, illness ||RT '''kyao ''' pl nggyao ''disease, illness '', RTJ '''gró ''' ''illness, disease '', MT '''kwau ''' ''disease, illness '', RTI '''kilaw ''' n. in. ''illness, disease '', RRK '''kloo ''' pl nıkloo, cnstr hloo n.a ''disease ''||
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|'''*kɬoʔ'''||borrow (temporary transfer of possession in either direction) ||RT '''kò ''' pass hkò, attr gyò ''borrow (temporary transfer of possession in either direction) '', RTJ '''k’ĕdlŏ ''' ''borrow '', MT '''kô ''' ''borrow (temporary transfer of possession in either direction) '', RRK '''kso ''' dur saksò v.tr ''borrow (from sb.) ''||
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|'''*kmaraʀ'''||cheap, inexpensive ||RTJ '''hmĕzrá ''' ''be inexpensive, cheap '', MT '''kmirâ ''' ''cheap, inexpensive ''||derivation from *kma
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|'''*kmaʀ'''||dear, expensive, precious ||RT '''nggò ''' attr gunggò ''be precious, be valuable, be of high quality '', RTJ '''hmà ''' ''be expensive, precious, dear '', MT '''kmā ''' ''dear, expensive, precious '', RRK '''paa ''' adj ''valuable, precious ''||
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|'''*knaj '''||distribute, share ||RT '''dei ''' pass htei, attr ksei ''share, distribute '', RTJ '''hnàì ''' ''distribute, share '', MT '''knai ''' ''distribute, share '', RTI '''čiray ''' vt. ''distribute, share '', RRK '''gree ''' dur gıgree v.tr ''share ''||
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|'''*knVV'''||salvation, rescue ||RTJ '''hngò ''' hngògh ''salvation, rescue '', MT '''kné ''' ''salvation, rescue ''||
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|'''*kŋa'''||frog ||RT '''ngá ''' pl mfwá ''frog '', RTJ '''hngâ ''' ''frog '', MT '''nganga ''' ''frog '', RTI '''ča ''' n. an. ''frog ''||
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|'''*kŋaw '''||sit ||RTJ '''hngàù ''' ''sit '', MT '''nghau ''' ''sit '', RTI '''čuu ''' vi. ''sit '', RRK '''kuu ''' dur kukuu v.it ''sit '', ƏD '''hah ''' perf əńah vi. '' sit '' ||
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|'''*kŋe '''||heron ||RT '''ngé ''' pl mfwé ''heron '', RTJ '''hnyê ''' ''heron '', MT '''nghelí ''' ''heron '', RTI '''ce ''' n. an. ''heron '', RRK '''ŋge ''' pl rıŋgè n.a ''heron (bird) '', ƏD '''śe ''' cnstr ńe n. liv. '' heron '' ||
|-
|'''*kŋi'''||soft ||RT '''nggí ''' attr ginggí ''be soft, be smooth '', RTJ '''hngê ''' ''be soft '', MT '''ngha ''' ''soft '', RTI '''či ''' adj. ''soft ''||
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|'''*kŋomb'''||evening ||RT '''ngónc ''' (no sgv) ''evening '', RTJ '''hngòb ''' ''evening '', MT '''nghom ''' ''evening '', RRK '''kom ''' pl rıkom, cnstr yom n.a ''evening ''||
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|'''*kŋoʀ'''||dislike ||RT '''nggóa ''' pass hxóa, attr gunggóa ''dislike '', MT '''nghō ''' ''dislike ''||
|-
|'''*kŋʔa'''||applaud ||RTJ '''hngâ ''' ''applaud '', MT '''ganga ''' ''applaud ''||possible derivation from clap
|-
|'''*kŋʔe '''||grove of rowans ||RT '''nggèa ''' sgv nggyèa ''rowan trees '', RTJ '''hngê ''' ĕghĕ ''grove of rowans '', MT '''gangge ''' ''grove of rowans ''||
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|'''*koɬiŋg'''||sow (female pig; less marked) ||RTJ '''hlyíg ''' hlyíg ''sow '', MT '''holéng ''' ''sow (female pig; less marked) '', RTI '''čošiň ''' n. an. ''pig '', RRK '''ksiŋ ''' pl kusiŋ, cnstr ıksiŋ, cnstr.pl rıksiŋ n.a ''pig ''||
|-
|'''*kot '''||buttocks ||RT '''kóc ''' sgv ké ''buttocks '', RTJ '''kód ''' ''buttocks ''||
|-
|'''*kpa'''||go down, descend, climb down ||RT '''kwá ''' attr gugwá ''go down, descend '', RTJ '''pă ''' ''go down, descend, climb down '', MT '''há ''' ''go down, descend, climb down '', RTI '''pa ''' vi. ''go down (deliberately), descend, dive ''||
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|'''*kraj'''||bird ||RTJ '''dré ''' ''bird '', MT '''kí ''' ''bird '', RTI '''čay ''' n. an. ''bird '', RRK '''k’ee ''' pl k’wee n.a ''bird ''||
|-
|'''*krit'''||be fair, be honorable, be just ||RTJ '''tríd ''' ''be just '', MT '''khíth ''' ''be fair, be honorable, be just ''||
|-
|'''*krumb'''||festival, feast, holiday ||RTJ '''trúb ''' ''festival, feast '', MT '''húm ''' ''festival, feast, holiday '', RTI '''šum ''' n. in. ''festival ''||
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|'''*kruŋg ?'''||struggle, strive toward ||RT '''tronc ''' attr gronc ''struggle, toil, strain oneself '', MT '''kúng ''' ''struggle, strive toward '', RTI '''čuň ''' vt. ''struggle (with) ''||
|-
|'''*kʀe'''||spider ||RT '''gwe ''' pl dà ''spider '', RTJ '''ké ''' ''spider '', MT '''khā ''' ''spider ''||
|-
|'''*ksaq '''||bread ||RTJ '''hságh ''' drágh ''bread '', MT '''gsac ''' ''bread '', RTI '''čihek ''' n. in. ''bread (loaf of) ''pl. čihak, RRK '''kšak ''' pl rıkšak n.i ''bread (loaf of) ''||
|-
|'''*ktaq'''||massive, heavy ||RT '''dóc ''' attr ksóc ''be heavy, be massive '', RTJ '''cágh ''' ''be massive, heavy '', MT '''kdac ''' ''massive, heavy '', RTI '''čitak ''' adj. ''heavy, solid '', RRK '''ksak ''' adj ''heavy, solid ''||
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|'''*ku'''||break ||RT '''kú ''' pass hkú, attr gyú ''break, destroy '', RTJ '''kŭ ''' ''break, destroy '', MT '''hu ''' ''break '', RTI '''ču ''' vt. ''break ''||
|-
|'''*kud'''||raid, rob ||RTJ '''kúd ''' ''raid, rob '', RTI '''čun ''' vt. ''raid, rob ''||
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|'''*kuw, sik'''||(entire) leg ||RTJ '''kĕxíg ''' ''entire leg '', MT '''hausikh ''' ''(entire) leg '', RTI '''čuu ''' n. an. ''leg '', RRK '''kuu ''' pl kat, cnstr k’uu, cnstr.pl k’at n.a ''leg ''||
|-
|'''*kVn'''||weapon, sword ||RT '''koun ''' pl nggoun ''weapon '', MT '''xamen ''' ''weapon, sword '', RTI '''čee ''' n. in. ''weapon '', RRK '''k’aa ''' pl rıgaa, cnstr hyaa n.i ''weapon ''||
|-
|'''*kVŋ'''||resist, ward off ||RT '''kan ''' pass kán, attr gyan ''resist, ward off '', RRK '''k’uŋ ''' dur guŋguŋ v.tr ''defend oneself against, resist, defy ''||
|-
|'''*kVV '''||two ||RT '''káe ''' ''2 '', RTJ '''kú ''' ''two '', MT '''hí ''' ''two '', RRK '''kıı ''' ord tu qu ''2 '', ARŊ '''dat/x̠i''' ''two''||
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|'''*kwe'''||ground, floor ||RT '''kwé ''' sgv kyé ''ground, floor '', RTJ '''pĕ ''' ''dirt, floor '', MT '''hé ''' ''ground, floor '', RRK '''pe ''' (no pl) n.i ''ground, floor ''||
|-
|'''*kʔa ?'''||basket ||RT '''nggàc ''' pl nanggàc ''basket '', RTJ '''k’ă ''' ''basket '', MT '''ca ''' ''basket '', RTI '''ča ''' n. in. ''basket '', RRK '''ga ''' pl rıgà n.i ''basket ''||suffixation in RT
|-
|'''*kʔaj ?'''||depart, leave, go away (from listener) ||RT '''kèi ''' attr gyèi ''depart, leave, go away (from listener) '', RTJ '''k’áí ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from listener) '', MT '''cai ''' ''depart, leave, go away (from listener) '', RTI '''čay ''' vi. ''depart, leave, go away (from listener) '', RRK '''k’ii ''' dur gaŋii v.it ''leave, go away (from here) ''||
|-
|'''*kʔam ?'''||walk ||RT '''kòun ''' attr gyòun ''go nowhere in particular, move around, roam, wander '', RTJ '''k’à ''' ''walk '', MT '''cam ''' ''walk '', RTI '''kee ''' vi. ''walk ''||
|-
|'''*kʔaŋ '''||stay, remain ||RTJ '''q’àì ''' ''stay, remain '', MT '''k’ang ''' ''stay, remain ''||
|-
|'''*kʔaʀ '''||pain ||RTJ '''q’á ''' ''pain '', MT '''k’ā ''' ''pain ''||see also kaʀ
|-
|'''*kʔe '''||but ||RT '''kè ''' ''but, however '', RTJ '''q’e ''' ''but, however '', MT '''k’e ''' ''but '', RRK '''ge ''' adv ''however, in contrast ''||
|-
|'''*kʔeH'''||bucket ||RT '''ngèa-kàc ''' pl ngào-kàc ''bucket '', RTJ '''kh’áí ''' ''bowl, bucket '', MT '''k’ē ''' ''bucket '', RTI '''kat ''' n. in. ''bowl ''||
|-
|'''*kʔend'''||flesh, meat ||RT '''kànc ''' sgv tśànc ''meat, flesh, muscle '', RTJ '''tr’éd ''' ŋàì ''meat, flesh, muscle '', MT '''k’an ''' ''flesh, meat '', RTI '''čin ''' n. in. ''meat, flesh '', RRK '''gin ''' pl rıgin n.i ''meat, flesh '', ARŊ '''kʷos''' ''flesh''||
|-
|'''*kʔə'''||mountain range, mountain(s) ||RT '''kè ''' sgv kyè ''mountain range '', RTJ '''k’ĭ ''' ''mountain range '', MT '''p’ungk’a ''' ''mountain range, mountain(s) '', RTI '''ši ''' n. in. ''mountain '', RRK '''gi ''' pl gı n.i ''mountain ''||
|-
|'''*kʔəj '''||beak ||RT '''nggae ''' (no pl) ''beak (of a bird) '', RTJ '''k’í ''' ''beak '', MT '''k’í ''' ''beak ''||
|-
|'''*kʔət '''||grandparents ||RT '''kèc ''' sgv kì ''ancestors '', RTJ '''k’íd ''' ''grandparents '', MT '''k’andath ''' ''grandparents ''||
|-
|'''*kʔi '''||warn ||RTJ '''q’ĭ ''' ''warn '', MT '''k’i ''' ''warn '', RRK '''hugì ''' dur huugi v.tr ''warn ''||
|-
|'''*kʔik '''||hail ||RTJ '''tr’íg ''' ''hail '', MT '''k’íkh ''' ''hail ''||
|-
|'''*kʔim'''||white, light (in color) || MT '''k’im ''' ''white, light (in color) '', RTI '''čiňey ''' adj. ''bright, white '', RRK '''gyɛɛ ''' adj ''bright, white ''||im
|-
|'''*kʔimb'''||chalk, calcium ||RT '''kàonc ''' sgv kyùnc ''chalk, limestone '', RTJ '''k’íb ''' ngè ''chalk, calcium, white color, white pigment '', MT '''k’imac ''' ''chalk, calcium '', RTI '''šim ''' n. in. ''chalk '', ARŊ '''qʲ'if''' ''white (colour)''||
|-
|'''*kʔin '''||itch ||RT '''ruguo ''' pass hruguo, attr gruguo ''annoy, bother '', RTJ '''q’è ''' ''itch, irritate '', MT '''k’in ''' ''itch '', RTI '''čey ''' vi. ''itch '', RRK '''ŋgɛɛ ''' dur ŋıŋgɛɛ v.tr ''annoy, bother, itch ''||
|-
|'''*kʔit '''||bone ||RTJ '''q’íd ''' ''bone '', MT '''k’ith ''' ''bone '', RTI '''čis ''' n. an. ''bone '', RRK '''git ''' pl gwit, cnstr ŋit, cnstr.pl ŋgit n.a ''bone '', ARŊ '''kʲ'itʃ''' ''bone''||
|-
|'''*kʔit '''||frost ||RTJ '''q’íd ''' ''frost '', MT '''tauk’ith ''' ''frost '', RTI '''čis ''' n. in. ''frost ''||
|-
|'''*kʔja '''||hawk ||RTJ '''q’ă ''' ''hawk '', MT '''k’alí ''' ''hawk '', RTI '''ca ''' n. an. ''hawk ''||
|-
|'''*kʔo'''||last ||RT '''kòa ''' ''last, final '', RTJ '''hngô ''' kh’ŏ ''be last, the last '', MT '''co ''' ''last '', RTI '''ko ''' adj. ''last, final ''||onset uncertain
|-
|'''*kʔosot ?'''||||RT '''kò soc ''' ''lend '', RTJ '''k’ĕsód ''' ''lend '', RRK '''kšot ''' dur šukšot v.tr ''lend (to sb.) ''||
|-
|'''*kʔup '''||stink ||RT '''nggùc ''' attr gunggùc ''stink '', RTJ '''gĕk’úb ''' ''stink '', MT '''k'uph ''' ''stink '', RTI '''ňičup ''' vi. ''stink ''||
|-
|'''*kʔVV ?'''||twins ||RT '''kyòc ''' sgv kàe ''twins '', RTJ '''k’ú ''' ''twin '', MT '''cíwû ''' ''twins '', RTI '''čeyhaw ''' n. hu. ''twin '', RRK '''gıı ''' pl got, cnstr ŋıı, cnstr.pl ŋot n.h ''twin ''||
|-
|'''*kʔwe ?'''||vulva ||RT '''kwè ''' (no pl) ''vagina, vulva '', MT '''cé ''' ''vulva ''||
|-
|'''*la'''||be female, be feminine ||RT '''la ''' attr tla ''be female '', RTJ '''lă ''' ''be female, be feminine '', MT '''la ''' ''be female, be feminine '', RTI '''la ''' adj. ''female, feminine '', RRK '''la ''' adj ''female, feminine ''||
|-
|'''*la'''||limestone ||RTJ '''lyă ''' ''limestone '', MT '''lak’im ''' ''limestone '', RTI '''la ''' n. in. ''limestone ''||
|-
|'''*Lat'''||nit(s) (louse eggs) ||RTJ '''lád ''' ''nit(s) (eggs of louse or similar) '', MT '''wathsiya ''' ''nit(s) (louse eggs) ''||
|-
|'''*lCat'''||deciduous tree || MT '''láth ''' ''deciduous tree ''||derivation
|-
|'''*ɬCV'''||fist ||RT '''dlíe ''' pl dlác ''fist '', RTJ '''dlyă ''' ''fist '', MT '''sawú ''' ''fist '', RTI '''sa ''' n. an. ''fist ''||
|-
|'''*lda '''||termite ||RTJ '''ĕdă ''' dlă ''termite '', MT '''lra ''' ''termite '', ƏD '''ıta ''' n. liv. ''termite '' ||
|-
|'''*le'''||dove, pigeon ||RT '''le ''' pl hloa ''dove '', RTJ '''lyĕ ''' ''dove '', MT '''lelí ''' ''dove, pigeon '', RTI '''le ''' n. an. ''dove, pigeon '', RRK '''le ''' pl hle n.a ''dove '', ƏD '''leguś ''' n. liv. ''dove '' ||
|-
|'''*lej'''||drip, drop(s) ||RT '''lou ''' pl ndlou ''drop (of water) '', RTJ '''lyé ''' ''drip, drops '', MT '''lau ''' ''drip, drop(s) '', RTI '''lii ''' n. in. ''drop (small quantity of liquid) ''pl. lee||see also *ij
|-
|'''*lek'''||waste, squander ||RT '''léc ''' pass hléc, attr tléc ''waste, squander '', RTJ '''drég ''' ''waste '', MT '''lec ''' ''waste, squander ''||
|-
|'''*lemman '''||morning ||RT '''emàn ''' (no sgv) ''morning '', RTJ '''lyàìma ''' ''morning '', MT '''lámman ''' ''morning '', RRK '''lɛmaa ''' pl nılɛmaa n.a ''morning ''||
|-
|'''*leŋg'''||forest of deciduous trees ||RT '''lenc ''' sgv yenc ''forest of deciduous trees '', RTJ '''lyég ''' ''forest of deciduous trees '', MT '''leng ''' ''forest of deciduous trees '', RRK '''leŋ ''' pl nıleŋ n.i ''forest ''||
|-
|'''*leŋg'''||smile ||RT '''nenc ''' pass nénc, attr denc ''smile at '', RTJ '''lyég ''' ''smile '', MT '''leng ''' ''smile '', RTI '''leň ''' vi. ''smile ''||
|-
|'''*let '''||train, practice, learn ||RT '''lec ''' pass léc, attr tlec ''learn (practical skills) '', RTJ '''lyéd ''' ''train, practice, learn '', MT '''leth ''' ''train, practice, learn '', RTI '''let ''' vt. ''practice, learn '', RRK '''let ''' dur lıset v.tr ''learn, study, train, practice ''||
|-
|'''*ləCaw'''||size ||RT '''zrou ''' sgv źou ''size, quantity '', RTJ '''lĕdráú ''' dlráú ''size '', MT '''lalau ''' ''size '', RTI '''litruu ''' n. in. ''size '', RRK '''avɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.i ''size, height '', ƏD '''ıgrah ''' erg uləgrah n. stat. '' size '' ||
|-
|'''*lgu'''||destroy ||RTJ '''kŭ ''' ĕkŭ ''destruction, ruin '', MT '''klu ''' ''destroy '', RTI '''čiču ''' vt. ''destroy ''||< gu
|-
|'''*lgu'''||paternal aunt ||RT '''tlu ''' pl tlúo ''paternal aunt '', RTJ '''drŭ ''' dlŭ ''paternal aunt '', RRK '''lagyù ''' pl lasù, cnstr lılù, cnstr.pl lıglù n.h ''paternal aunt (sister of father) ''||
|-
|'''*ɬgV'''||be sticky ||RTJ '''dlĕdrĕ ''' ''be sticky '', MT '''sangga ''' ''be sticky '', RTI '''čisiňi ''' adj. ''sticky '', RRK '''ksıŋı ''' adj ''sticky ''||
|-
|'''*ɬi'''||turnip(s) ||RT '''lí ''' sgv yí ''turnips '', RTJ '''dlĭ ''' ''turnips '', MT '''sayā ''' ''turnip(s) '', RTI '''si ''' n. in. ''turnip '', RRK '''asì ''' pl asanì n.i ''turnip ''||
|-
|'''*li '''||pull ||RT '''li ''' pass lí, attr tli ''pull '', RTJ '''lyĭ ''' ''pull, milk (an animal) '', MT '''li ''' ''pull '', RTI '''lyi ''' vt. ''pull ''||
|-
|'''*ɬij'''||cloud ||RT '''léi ''' sgv yéi ''cloud(s) '', RTJ '''dlyí ''' ''cloud '', MT '''lílā ''' ''cloud '', RRK '''sɛɛ ''' pl sii n.a ''cloud '', ƏD '''ɬeśónbgıə ''' n. dyn '' cloud '' ||
|-
|'''*lik '''||cloth, fabric ||RT '''lic ''' sgv yec ''cloth, fabric '', RTJ '''lyíg ''' ''fabric '', MT '''likh ''' ''cloth, fabric '', RTI '''lyiš ''' n. in. ''cloth, fabric '', RRK '''lik ''' pl nılik n.i ''cloth, fabric (piece of) ''||
|-
|'''*lin'''||lie, recline ||RT '''lin ''' attr tlin ''lie, recline '', RTJ '''lyè ''' ''lie down, recline '', MT '''lin ''' ''lie, recline '', RTI '''lyey ''' vi. ''lie, recline '', RRK '''sɛɛ ''' dur lırɛɛ v.it ''lie, recline '', ARŊ '''rʲixnʷa''' ''lie (on side, recline)'', ƏD '''len ''' vi. '' lie '' ||
|-
|'''*ɬip'''||thin (in dimension), narrow ||RT '''líc ''' attr tlíc ''be thin (2D) '', RTJ '''cíb ''' dlyíb ''be thin '', MT '''siph ''' ''thin (in dimension), narrow '', RTI '''šip ''' adj. ''narrow, thin '', RRK '''sip ''' adj ''slim, narrow, thin ''||
|-
|'''*ɬjo'''||mud ||RT '''yóu ''' sgv láo ''mud '', RTJ '''dlyó ''' ''mud '', MT '''súmam ''' ''mud '', RTI '''sil ''' n. in. ''mud '', RRK '''šyɛɛ ''' (no pl), cnstr dyɛɛ n.i ''mud ''||
|-
|'''*lju '''||fear, be afraid of ||RT '''źù ''' attr dźù ''be fearful, be afraid '', RTJ '''lyí ''' ''fear, be afraid of '', MT '''lú ''' ''fear, be afraid of '', RRK '''lılɔɔ ''' dur lılılɔɔ v.tr ''fear, be afraid of ''||
|-
|'''*lɬo'''||grime, filth, muck ||RTJ '''dlŏ ''' ''grime, filth, muck, garbage, human feces '', MT '''lalo ''' ''grime, filth, muck '', RTI '''lihi ''' n. in. ''filth, dirt, grime ''||
|-
|'''*lɬVl'''||examine, inspect, investigate, study ||RT '''laláo ''' pass hlaláo, attr glaláo ''examine, study '', RTJ '''lĕdlré ''' ''examine, inspect, investigate, study '', MT '''lalú ''' ''examine, inspect, investigate, study '', RTI '''lišil ''' vt. ''examine, inspect, investigate, study '', RRK '''lısıl ''' dur lılısıl v.tr ''examine, inspect, investigate ''||
|-
|'''*lnan'''||new, young ||RT '''nyèn ''' attr dźen ''be new, be young '', RTJ '''ĕnyàì ''' lyàì ''be new, young '', MT '''lán ''' ''new, young '', RTI '''lyee ''' adj. ''new, young, early '', RRK '''lıyaa ''' adj ''new, young, early ''||
|-
|'''*lngju'''||fear, fright || MT '''langgú ''' ''fear, fright ''||derivative
|-
|'''*lŋil'''||be afraid || MT '''langgú ''' ''be afraid '', RTI '''liňily ''' vi. ''be afraid ''||
|-
|'''*lŋrat '''||dot, mark, blemish ||RT '''ndrác ''' pl nandrác ''mark, symbol '', RTJ '''ĕtrád ''' ''dot, mark, blemish '', MT '''ngláth ''' ''dot, mark, blemish '', RRK '''nen ''' pl nan n.i ''mark, token, characteristic attribute ''||
|-
|'''*lo '''||come, approach (towards somewhere other than speaker or listener) ||RT '''do ''' attr dlo ''come, approach (towards something) '', RTJ '''lŏ ''' ''come, approach (towards somewhere other than speaker or listener) '', MT '''lo ''' ''come, approach (towards somewhere other than speaker or listener) '', RTI '''lo ''' vi. ''come, approach (towards somewhere other than speaker or listener) '', RRK '''lo ''' pp ''to, towards (movement) ''||
|-
|'''*lot'''||ball, sphere ||RT '''ploc ''' attr gubloc ''be round (3D) '', RTJ '''lód ''' ''ball '', MT '''loth ''' ''ball, sphere '', RTI '''lit ''' n. in. ''ball ''pl. lot||
|-
|'''*lu'''||bar, keep out ||RTJ '''lŭ ''' ''bar, keep out '', MT '''lu ''' ''bar, keep out '', RTI '''lu ''' vt. ''block, hinder, keep out ''||
|-
|'''*lu '''||be silent ||RTJ '''lŭ ''' ''be silent '', MT '''lu ''' ''be silent ''||
|-
|'''*lumb'''||thick (in dimension) ||RT '''lunc ''' attr tlunc ''be thick (2D) '', RTJ '''ĕnòb ''' lúb ''be thick '', MT '''lum ''' ''thick (in dimension) '', RTI '''lum ''' adj. ''broad, wide, thick '', RRK '''lum ''' adj ''broad, wide, thick ''||
|-
|'''*lup '''||toe ||RT '''luc ''' pl hluc ''toe '', RTJ '''lúb ''' ''toe '', MT '''luph ''' ''toe '', RTI '''lup ''' n. an. ''toe '', RRK '''lup ''' pl hlup n.a ''toe ''||
|-
|'''*luq '''||be rough (of weather or water) ||RT '''loc ''' attr tloc ''be rough (of weather) '', RTJ '''lúgh ''' ''be rough (of sea or weather) '', MT '''luc ''' ''be rough (of weather or water) '', RTI '''luk ''' vi. ''be rough, become rough (of a body of water) ''||
|-
|'''*ɬVl'''||be dangerous ||RT '''lae ''' attr tlae ''be dangerous '', RTJ '''lú ''' ''be dangerous '', MT '''lí ''' ''be dangerous '', RRK '''sil ''' adj ''dangerous ''||
|-
|'''*lVV'''||laugh ||RTJ '''lá ''' ''laugh '', MT '''lau ''' ''laugh '', RTI '''lee ''' vi. ''laugh '', RRK '''lɛɛ ''' dur lɛlɛɛ v.it ''laugh, smile ''||
|-
|'''*ɬa '''||rattle, clatter ||RTJ '''dlă ''' ''rattle, clatter '', MT '''sa ''' ''rattle, clatter ''||
|-
|'''*ɬa, ɬja '''||six ||RT '''yé ''' ''6 '', RTJ '''dlyă ''' ''six '', MT '''sa ''' ''six '', RRK '''sa ''' ord rɛsà qu ''6 ''||
|-
|'''*ɬand'''||time, duration ||RT '''lánc ''' sgv línc ''time '', RTJ '''dlréd ''' ''time, duration '', MT '''san ''' ''time, duration ''||
|-
|'''*ɬaq '''||keep, retain, hold onto ||RT '''lóc ''' pass hlóc, attr tlóc ''hold, cling to '', RTJ '''dlágh ''' ''keep, retain, hold onto '', MT '''sac ''' ''keep, retain, hold onto '', RTI '''šak ''' vt. ''keep, retain, store ''||
|-
|'''*ɬat '''||twelve ||RT '''lác ''' ''12 '', RTJ '''dlád ''' ''twelve '', MT '''sath ''' ''twelve '', RRK '''sat ''' ord rɛsat qu ''12 ''||
|-
|'''*ɬaw '''||sense of smell ||RTJ '''ĕdláú ''' grĕlráú ''sense of smell '', MT '''sau ''' ''sense of smell '', RRK '''ksii ''' pl rıksii n.i ''sensation, perception ''||
|-
|'''*ɬaw '''||smell, perceive a scent ||RT '''hlou ''' pass huhlou, attr tlou ''smell, perceive a scent '', RTJ '''dláú ''' ''smell, perceive a scent '', MT '''sau ''' ''smell, perceive a scent '', RTI '''huu ''' vt. ''smell, perceive a scent '', RRK '''šyuu ''' dur šıdyuu v.tr ''smell, perceive a scent ''||
|-
|'''*ɬep '''||spill ||RTJ '''dlyéb ''' ''spill '', MT '''seph ''' ''spill '', RTI '''sep ''' vt. ''spill ''||
|-
|'''*ɬə '''||sculpt, put together, mold ||RTJ '''dlrĕ ''' ''sculpt, mash, put together '', MT '''sa ''' ''sculpt, put together, mold '', RTI '''ši ''' vt. ''sculpt, mold, join together ''||
|-
|'''*ɬəwraj '''||wet snow ||RTJ '''dlyé ''' ''wet snow, sleet '', MT '''saurai ''' ''wet snow ''||
|-
|'''*ɬidru '''||loosen, untie ||RTJ '''dlyĕzrŭ ''' ''loosen, untie '', MT '''sirú ''' ''loosen, untie '', RTI '''šitru ''' vt. ''loosen, untie '', RRK '''tastù ''' dur tatastù v.tr ''loosen, untie ''||derivation in RT?
|-
|'''*ɬiŋ '''||worm ||RT '''hlin ''' (no pl) ''worm '', RTJ '''dlyè ''' ĕlrè ''worm '', MT '''síng ''' ''worm '', RTI '''tračee ''' n. an. ''worm ''||
|-
|'''*ɬit '''||soup, stew, porridge, mush ||RT '''hlíc ''' (no sgv) ''soup, stew '', RTJ '''dlyíd ''' ''soup, stew '', MT '''sith ''' ''soup, stew, porridge, mush '', RTI '''šis ''' n. in. ''soup, stew '', RRK '''sit ''' pl nısit n.i ''soup, stew ''||
|-
|'''*ɬjip '''||dung ||RTJ '''dlyíb ''' ĕlríb ''dung '', MT '''síph ''' ''dung ''||
|-
|'''*ɬo '''||get, receive ||RTJ '''dlŏ ''' ''get, recieve '', MT '''so ''' ''get, receive '', RTI '''šo ''' vt. ''get, receive ''||
|-
|'''*ɬoʀ '''||there ||RT '''lóa ''' ''there '', RTJ '''dláú ''' ''there (at a distance from the speaker) '', MT '''sō ''' ''there '', ƏD '''ɬa ''' deict. '' there '' ||
|-
|'''*ɬrat '''||each ||RT '''hac ''' ''each (member of a collection) '', RTJ '''dlréd ''' ''each '', MT '''hath ''' ''each '', RRK '''hıt ''' qu ''each, every (inanimate referent) '', , RNW '''hǝt ''' qtf. ''each, every ''||
|-
|'''*ɬro '''||beans ||RT '''hlo ''' sgv syo ''beans '', RTJ '''dlrŏ ''' ''beans '', MT '''sówai ''' ''beans '', RTI '''hiyo ''' n. in. ''broad bean '', RRK '''šyo ''' pl nıšyò, cnstr dyo n.i ''bean ''||
|-
|'''*ɬrVl'''||watch, look at ||RT '''láo ''' pass hláo, attr tláo ''watch, look at '', RTJ '''dlré ''' ''watch, look at '', MT '''sú ''' ''watch, look at '', RTI '''šil ''' vt. ''watch, look at '', RRK '''pusıl ''' dur pupusıl v.tr ''watch, observe ''||
|-
|'''*ɬu '''||bind, tie ||RT '''lú ''' pass hlú, attr tlú ''bind, tie, fasten '', RTJ '''dlŭ ''' ''bind, tie '', MT '''su ''' ''bind, tie '', RTI '''šu ''' vt. ''bind, tie '', RRK '''vısù ''' dur vıvısù v.tr ''bind, tie, attach ''||
|-
|'''*ɬup '''||snail ||RT '''lúc ''' pl hlúc ''snail '', RTJ '''dlúb ''' ''snail '', MT '''suphsíng ''' ''snail '', RTI '''šup ''' n. an. ''snail '', ƏD '''ɬup ''' n. liv. '' snail '' ||
|-
|'''*ma '''||die ||RT '''ma ''' attr ba ''die '', RTJ '''mà ''' ''stop, halt, cease, come to an end, die '', MT '''ma ''' ''die '', RTI '''mam ''' vi. ''stop, halt, cease, end '', ARŊ '''pozama''' ''die (verb)'', ƏD '''ma ''' vi. '' die '' ||
|-
|'''*magaQ'''||turtle || MT '''malā ''' ''turtle '', RTI '''wačee ''' n. an. ''turtle '', RRK '''vagaa ''' pl hwagaa n.a ''turtle ''||
|-
|'''*maj'''||pray to ||RT '''myei ''' pass myéi, attr byei ''pray to '', RTJ '''mì ''' ''pray to '', MT '''mai ''' ''pray to '', RTI '''wii ''' vt. ''beseech, pray to '', RRK '''vii ''' dur vivii v.tr ''worship ''||
|-
|'''*maj '''||flour ||RT '''mei ''' (no sgv) ''flour '', RTJ '''màì ''' ''flour '', MT '''mai ''' ''flour ''||
|-
|'''*mam'''||lip ||RT '''manc ''' sgv moun ''lips '', RTJ '''mà ''' ''lip '', MT '''mamúth ''' ''lip '', RTI '''wee ''' n. an. ''lip; (pl) mouth '', RRK '''vaa ''' pl van, cnstr ıvaa, cnstr.pl ıvan n.a ''lip; (pl) mouth '', ƏD '''mən ''' n. liv. '' lip '' ||ma-
|-
|'''*mam '''||earth, dirt ||RT '''myaon ''' (no sgv) ''earth, soil '', MT '''mam ''' ''earth, dirt '', RTI '''woo ''' n. in. ''earth, soil ''||
|-
|'''*man '''||day ||RT '''man ''' (no pl) ''day '', MT '''man ''' ''day ''||
|-
|'''*mand'''||be tired ||RT '''manc ''' attr banc ''be tired '', RTJ '''màd ''' ''be tired '', MT '''man ''' ''be tired '', RTI '''wan ''' vi. ''become tired, tire out ''||
|-
|'''*mankŋomb'''||winter solstice ||RT '''man-honc ''' (no pl) ''winter solstice '', RTJ '''hngób ''' ''winter solstice '', MT '''manggom ''' ''winter solstice '', RRK '''vatom ''' (no pl) n.a ''winter solstice ''||
|-
|'''*manseŋg'''||equinox ||RTJ '''màxeg ''' ''equinox '', MT '''mandang ''' ''equinox '', RRK '''vašaŋ ''' (no pl) n.a ''equinox ''||
|-
|'''*maŋg'''||taste, try (of food or drink) ||RTJ '''màg ''' ''taste '', MT '''mang ''' ''taste, try (of food or drink) ''||
|-
|'''*maq'''||individual rock, piece of stone, stone block || MT '''mac ''' ''individual rock, piece of stone, stone block '', RTI '''wak ''' n. in. ''(piece of) stone, rock '', RRK '''vak ''' pl rıvak n.i ''stone '', ARŊ '''mʲaq''' ''stone''||
|-
|'''*maw'''||beehive || MT '''mauyí ''' ''beehive '', RTI '''waw ''' n. in. ''beehive '', RRK '''voo ''' pl rıvoo n.i ''beehive ''||
|-
|'''*maw'''||strawberries ||RT '''mao ''' sgv myao ''strawberries '', MT '''músandai ''' ''bed of strawberries ''||
|-
|'''*mCiC'''||metal ||RTJ '''hmí ''' nrí ''metal '', MT '''mbí ''' ''metal ''||
|-
|'''*mCum'''||good, well ||RT '''mbùn ''' attr mùn ''be good; do well '', RTJ '''hmò ''' mò ''be good, well '', MT '''bum ''' ''good, well '', RTI '''mow ''' adj. ''good, correct '', RRK '''mɔɔ ''' adj ''good, distinctive, exemplary, typical '', ƏD '''b’on ''' adj. '' good '' ||
|-
|'''*mCV'''||be lonely ||RT '''mbí ''' attr gimbí ''be lonely '', RTJ '''mĕhmê ''' ''be lonely '', MT '''mama ''' ''be lonely ''||same or different reduplications of the same word
|-
|'''*mCVn'''||small ||RT '''mbìn ''' attr mìn ''be small '', RTJ '''hmè ''' mè ''be small '', MT '''ban ''' ''small '', RTI '''muu ''' adj. ''small, weak '', RRK '''mıı ''' adj ''small, weak ''||
|-
|'''*mCVn'''||wash, clean ||RT '''bwìn ''' pass hpwìn, attr gubwìn ''clean, tidy up '', RTJ '''hmè ''' ''wash, clean, clean up '', MT '''pan ''' ''wash, clean '', RRK '''spoo ''' dur sıspoo v.tr ''clean up, brush, sweep '', ƏD '''bənəns ''' perf penəns vt. '' wash '' ||
|-
|'''*md?ul'''||apple tree ||RT '''ndùo ''' (no sgv) ''apple trees '', RTJ '''ĕdú ''' ''apple trees '', MT '''mándú ''' ''apple tree '', RTI '''wanol ''' n. in. ''apple tree '', RRK '''vanul ''' pl rıvanul n.i ''apple tree ''||
|-
|'''*mdaj '''||fingernail(s) ||RT '''ndzei ''' (no sgv) ''fingernail(s) '', RTJ '''ĕzí ''' hnyí ''fingernails '', MT '''mrai ''' ''fingernail(s) '', RTI '''wutii ''' n. in. ''fingernail '', RRK '''vıdii ''' pl rıvıdii n.i ''fingernail ''||
|-
|'''*mden'''||bay ||RT '''ndźéan ''' pl nindźéan ''bay '', RTJ '''ĕqàì ''' ĕjàì ''bay '', MT '''mlan ''' ''bay '', RTI '''wucee ''' n. in. ''bay ''||
|-
|'''*mdo '''||||RT '''ndro ''' ''(3i.sgv pronoun) '', RTJ '''ĕdŏ ''' ''it, its '', MT '''mro ''' ''it ''||<m-do
|-
|'''*mdʔul'''||apple orchard, grove of apple trees || MT '''mandú ''' ''apple orchard, grove of apple trees ''||the original vowel of the first element could have been either o, reduced to a in MT, or a, rounded to o elsewhere
|-
|'''*me '''||tell, say towards ||RT '''me ''' pass mé, attr be ''tell, say towards '', RTJ '''mê ''' ''tell, say toward '', MT '''me ''' ''tell, say towards '', RTI '''we ''' vt. ''tell, say toward '', RRK '''ve ''' dur vo v.tr ''tell, say towards ''||
|-
|'''*mek '''||belief, faith, religion ||RT '''mèc ''' sgv myèc ''religion, culture '', RTJ '''mèg ''' ''belief, faith, religion '', MT '''mekhsang ''' ''belief, faith, religion ''||
|-
|'''*meŋ '''||plot, conspire, scheme ||RT '''myein ''' pass myéin, attr byein ''plot, conspire '', RTJ '''màì ''' ''plot, conspire, scheme '', MT '''méng ''' ''plot, conspire, scheme '', RTI '''mii ''' vt. ''plot, conspire, scheme ''||
|-
|'''*məpmik '''||turn, rotate, revert ||RT '''mimbíc ''' attr bimbíc ''turn the tables; change a situation completely '', RTJ '''mĕhmèg ''' ''turn, rotate, revert '', MT '''mamikh ''' ''turn, rotate, revert '', RTI '''wupiš ''' vt. ''turn, rotate '', RRK '''vıpik ''' dur vıvıpik v.tr ''spin, rotate ''||
|-
|'''*mfend ?'''||stream, brook, creek ||RT '''mbenc ''' pl mbíenc ''creek, brook, small river '', RTJ '''mèfai ''' mèfed ''stream, brook, creek '', MT '''bambán ''' ''stream, brook, creek '', RRK '''mısan ''' pl hmısan n.a ''creek, brook ''||irr form of RTJ cognate
|-
|'''*mga'''||elephant ||RT '''nggá ''' pl ngkwá ''forest elephant '', RTJ '''ĕkă ''' ''elephant '', MT '''mā ''' ''elephant '', RTI '''wuča ''' n. an. ''elephant '', RRK '''vıkà ''' pl rıvıkà n.a ''forest elephant ''||
|-
|'''*mgend'''||||RTJ '''ĕjéd ''' ĕxéd ''judgement, decision '', RTI '''wucen ''' n. in. ''decision '', RRK '''k’en ''' dur gin v.tr ''decide, conclude (in favor of) ''||
|-
|'''*mho'''||cover ||RT '''mó ''' pass fwó, attr bó ''cover, protect '', RTJ '''hmô ''' ''cover '', MT '''mho ''' ''cover '', RTI '''po ''' vt. ''cover, conceal, hide ''||
|-
|'''*mi'''||hold, grasp, catch ||RT '''bí ''' pass hpí, attr kwí ''catch, capture '', RTJ '''mê ''' ''hold, grip, catch '', MT '''mi ''' ''hold, grasp, catch '', RTI '''wi ''' vt. ''hold, grasp ''||
|-
|'''*mik '''||turn around ||RT '''mic ''' attr bic ''turn around '', RTJ '''mèg ''' ''turn around '', MT '''mikh ''' ''turn around '', RTI '''wiš ''' vi. ''turn around '', RRK '''vik ''' dur vivik v.it ''turn around ''||
|-
|'''*miroʀ'''||be unimportant ||RTJ '''mĕzráú ''' ''be unimportant '', MT '''mirô ''' ''be unimportant ''||derivation from *widrop
|-
|'''*mja'''||come, approach (towards listener) ||RT '''mya ''' attr bya ''come, approach (towards listener) '', RTJ '''mâ ''' ''come, approach (towards listener) '', MT '''má ''' ''come, approach (towards listener) '', RTI '''ma ''' vi. ''come, approach (towards listener) '', RRK '''vıgyɛɛ ''' dur vıvıgyɛɛ v.tr ''approach ''||
|-
|'''*mjar'''||leader||RT '''myae ''' pl mfwáe ''leader, guide, scout '', RRK '''vyar ''' pl hwer, cnstr ıvyar, cnstr.pl ıgyar n.h ''leader, spokesperson (of a group) ''||
|-
|'''*mjen'''||look, look around ||RT '''myen ''' attr byen ''look '', MT '''mén ''' ''look, look around '', RTI '''wiň ''' vi. ''look, look around ''||
|-
|'''*mɬjok'''||lilies (type of flower) ||RT '''mblóc ''' sgv mbléac ''lily (type of flower) '', RTJ '''hlyóg ''' hnyóg ''lily (flower) '', MT '''mholókh ''' ''lilies (type of flower) '', RTI '''pusiš ''' n. in. ''lily ''pl. poseš||
|-
|'''*mne'''||sleeve, leg (of pants) ||RT '''mbré ''' pl nimbré ''tube; tunnel (of a cave); sleeve (of clothes) '', RTJ '''nĕhnê ''' hnê ''sleeve (of shirt), leg (of pants) '', MT '''mane ''' ''sleeve, leg (of pants) ''||
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|'''*mŋir'''||bull (male bovine) ||RT '''mbràe ''' pl mpràe ''bull (male bovine) '', RTJ '''bĕngè ''' ĕdré ''bull (male bovine) '', MT '''banggí ''' ''bull (male bovine) '', RTI '''muňir ''' n. an. ''bull '', RRK '''mıŋır ''' pl hmıŋır n.a ''bull ''||
|-
|'''*mol'''||knead ||RTJ '''mò ''' ''knead '', MT '''mú ''' ''knead '', RTI '''wol ''' vt. ''knead '', RRK '''vol ''' dur vul v.tr ''form, sculpt, mold, knead ''||
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|'''*momb'''||be lazy, unhelpful, useless ||RT '''mònc ''' attr bonc ''be lazy '', RTJ '''wób ''' ''be lazy '', MT '''wom ''' ''be lazy, unhelpful, useless ''||
|-
|'''*moqʔrik'''||individual crystal, piece of crystal || MT '''mak’íkh ''' ''individual crystal, piece of crystal ''||m- derivation
|-
|'''*moʀ'''||be important ||RT '''pòun ''' attr gwóun ''be important, be relevant, be prominent '', RTJ '''màù ''' ''be important '', MT '''mō ''' ''be important '', RRK '''vuu ''' dur vuvuu v.it ''be important, be relevant ''||
|-
|'''*mou'''||flowers ||RT '''mou ''' sgv myou ''flowers '', RTJ '''mòpe ''' ''flowers '', MT '''múmú ''' ''flowers '', RTI '''yuu ''' n. in. ''flower '', RRK '''vyɔɔ ''' pl vuu, cnstr ıvyɔɔ, cnstr.pl ıvuu n.i ''flower ''||
|-
|'''*mow'''||dandelions ||RTJ '''hxĕmò ''' hnyĕmò ''dandelion '', MT '''múmbú ''' ''dandelions '', ƏD '''b’asel ''' n. dyn. ''dandelion '' ||
|-
|'''*mow'''||||RT '''mao ''' ''if '', RTJ '''hmo ''' ''if '', RRK '''voo ''' pp ''if, in case of ''||
|-
|'''*mpi '''||sun ||RT '''mbí ''' (no pl) ''sun '', RTJ '''ĕpĭ ''' ĕbĭ ''sun '', MT '''mwi ''' ''sun '', RRK '''ramir ''' (no pl) n.a ''summer solstice '', ARŊ '''mifʲi''' ''sun''||
|-
|'''*mpʔan'''||long ||RT '''mbàn ''' attr gambàn ''be long '', RTJ '''bĕp’à ''' p’à ''be long '', MT '''p’an ''' ''long '', RTI '''poo ''' adj. ''long '', RRK '''baa ''' adj ''long, far, distant '', ARŊ '''p'an''' ''be long (not wide)'', ƏD '''bon ''' port/stat bon adj. '' long, tall '' ||
|-
|'''*mpʔeŋ '''||nest (of birds) ||RT '''mbèin ''' pl nimbèin ''nest (of birds or other animals) '', RTJ '''ĕp’à ''' hmà ''bird's nest '', MT '''mbang ''' ''nest (of birds) '', RTI '''wupyee ''' n. in. ''nest (of birds) ''pl . wupoo, RRK '''byaa ''' pl rıvyaa n.i ''nest (of birds) ''||
|-
|'''*mpʔi '''||grow up, become an adult ||RT '''zimí ''' pl dimí ''unmarried young adult '', RTJ '''ĕp’ĭ ''' ''grow up, become an adult '', MT '''mbi ''' ''grow up, become an adult '', RTI '''yupi ''' vi. ''grow up, become an adult (of human and animate subjects) '', RRK '''hiivi ''' dur iviivi v.it ''grow (of people and animals) ''||
|-
|'''*mre'''||grasshopper ||RT '''mbze ''' pl mpse ''grasshopper '', RTJ '''ĕbrí ''' ''grasshopper '', MT '''máse ''' ''grasshopper '', RTI '''weše ''' n. an. ''cricket, grasshopper '', ƏD '''mironk ''' n. liv. '' grasshopper '' ||
|-
|'''*mrind'''||be brave, be courageous ||RT '''mbrinc ''' attr gimbrinc ''be brave, be courageous '', RTJ '''mríd ''' ''be brave, be courageous '', MT '''myin ''' ''be brave, be courageous '', RRK '''prin ''' dur vırin v.it ''be brave, be courageous ''||
|-
|'''*mʀa'''||scales (of a reptile) ||RTJ '''mĕgră ''' ''scales (of a reptile) '', MT '''mbō ''' ''scales (of a reptile) ''||
|-
|'''*msat'''||duck ||RT '''mbzac ''' pl mpsac ''duck, goose '', RTJ '''hsád ''' hnád ''duck '', MT '''mhásath ''' ''duck '', RTI '''šahat ''' n. an. ''duck '', ARŊ '''mazat''' ''bird'', ƏD '''flásat ''' cnstr mlásat n. liv. '' duck '' ||
|-
|'''*mse'''||news, message(s) ||RT '''be ''' sgv bye ''message, news, facts, information '', RTJ '''hmê ''' ''news, message '', MT '''same ''' ''news, message(s) '', RRK '''mıtıı ''' pl rımıtıı n.i ''anecdote, piece of information ''||
|-
|'''*mu '''||quartz ||RT '''oc-mu ''' sgv moc-mu ''quartz '', RTJ '''mô ''' ''quartz '', MT '''muyac ''' ''quartz ''||
|-
|'''*mul'''||apple(s) ||RT '''muo ''' sgv myuo ''apple(s) '', RTJ '''mò ''' ''apples, cider (alcohol made from apples) '', MT '''múwong ''' ''apple(s) '', RTI '''wul ''' n. in. ''apple ''pl. ul, RRK '''vıl ''' pl ul, cnstr ıvıl, cnstr.pl ıʔul n.i ''apple ''||
|-
|'''*muɴɢ'''||help, assistance ||RT '''byao ''' pass hpyao, attr gibyao ''support, help '', RTJ '''mògh ''' ''help, assistance '', MT '''ung ''' ''help, assistance ''||
|-
|'''*muŋ '''||you ||RT '''mun ''' ''you '', RTJ '''mò ''' ''you (singular), your '', MT '''mung ''' ''you '', ƏD '''mon ''' pron. pers. '' you '' ||
|-
|'''*muŋg'''||squirrel ||RT '''mwinc ''' pl hmúnc ''squirrel '', RTJ '''mòg ''' ''squirrel '', MT '''mummung ''' ''squirrel '', RTI '''uň ''' n. an. ''squirrel '', RRK '''uŋ ''' pl ruŋ n.a ''squirrel ''||
|-
|'''*muq '''||confuse ||RT '''moc ''' pass móc, attr boc ''confuse, mix up, fail to distinguish '', MT '''muc ''' ''confuse '', RTI '''uk ''' vt. ''confuse '', RRK '''uk ''' dur ɔɔk v.tr ''mix, jumble ''||
|-
|'''*muw'''||deer ||RT '''mae ''' pl mfwáe ''deer '', RTJ '''mù ''' ''deer '', MT '''mí ''' ''deer '', RTI '''wow ''' n. an. ''deer '', RRK '''vıı ''' pl huu, cnstr ıvıı, cnstr.pl ıguu n.a ''deer ''||
|-
|'''*mV'''||hard ||RTJ '''nrágh ''' mê ''be hard '', MT '''ma ''' ''hard '', RTI '''wu ''' adj. ''hard '', RRK '''vı ''' adj ''hard, solid ''||cognate with the irr form
|-
|'''*mVmaʀ'''||turtle shell, armor ||RTJ '''màì ''' ''armor, shell (e.g. of a turtle) '', MT '''mamā ''' ''turtle shell, armor '', RTI '''wihwaw ''' n. in. ''shell (of a turtle, etc.) '', RRK '''abaa ''' pl rabaa n.i ''armor ''||
|-
|'''*mwai '''||wheat, grain in general ||RT '''mwei ''' sgv myei ''wheat '', RTJ '''wáí ''' ''wheat '', MT '''wai ''' ''wheat, grain in general '', RTI '''way ''' n. in. ''grain, wheat '', RRK '''mii ''' pl mee n.i ''grain, wheat ''||
|-
|'''*mwiC'''||bark cloth ||RTJ '''mĕwè ''' ''bark cloth '', MT '''mwímbōm ''' ''bark cloth ''||
|-
|'''*mʔo'''||infant, baby ||RT '''mbò ''' pl mpwò ''baby '', RTJ '''hmô ''' ĕbŏ ''baby '', MT '''bombo ''' ''infant, baby '', RTI '''momo ''' n. hu. ''baby, infant '', RRK '''momò ''' pl hmomò n.h ''baby, infant '', ƏD '''b’ənb’a ''' n. sen. '' baby '' ||
|-
|'''*nah'''||all ||RT '''na ''' ''all (of many) '', RTJ '''nà ''' ''all '', MT '''nā ''' ''all '', RRK '''raa ''' qu ''all (human or animate referent) '', , RNW '''noà ''' qtf. ''all ''||
|-
|'''*najŋg, naj'''||bed, sleeping place ||RT '''ninc ''' pl ndinc ''bed '', RTJ '''nàì ''' ''bed '', MT '''nai ''' ''bed, sleeping place '', RTI '''yiň ''' n. in. ''bed ''pl. yeň, RRK '''aseŋ ''' pl naseŋ n.i ''bed ''||
|-
|'''*nal'''||cry, scream ||RT '''nwao ''' attr dwao ''cry, weep '', RTJ '''nyé ''' ''cry, scream '', MT '''nau ''' ''cry, scream '', RTI '''rol ''' vi. ''cry, scream '', RRK '''tol ''' dur rol v.it ''shout, scream ''||
|-
|'''*nand'''||name(s) ||RT '''nànc ''' pl twánc ''name '', RTJ '''nà ''' nàd ''name '', MT '''dandai ''' ''name(s) '', RTI '''nen ''' n. in. ''name ''pl. nan, ARŊ '''aftʃa''' ''name''||
|-
|'''*nat '''||both ||RT '''nac ''' ''both '', RTJ '''nàd ''' ''both '', MT '''nath ''' ''both ''||
|-
|'''*natnak'''||foal (horse offspring) ||RT '''mandaoc ''' pl mindźinc ''foal (horse offspring) '', RTJ '''nyĕhnyèg ''' ''foal (horse offspring) '', MT '''nanakh ''' ''foal (horse offspring) '', RTI '''rataš ''' n. an. ''foal (young horse) ''||
|-
|'''*nbʔa'''||garden, yard ||RT '''mbà ''' pl nambà ''yard, enclosed area '', RTJ '''ĕbă ''' hmâ ''agricultural field, yard, garden '', MT '''namba ''' ''garden, yard '', RTI '''ruma ''' n. in. ''garden '', RRK '''rımà ''' pl nırımà n.i ''garden ''||
|-
|'''*nda'''||fleet, group of boats (collective plural) ||RT '''dye ''' pl ndye ''rowboat, canoe '', RTJ '''ĕdá ''' ĕdá ''fleet, group of boats (collective plural) ''||
|-
|'''*ndi'''||group ||RT '''źec ''' (no sgv) ''group '', RTJ '''ĕzĭ ''' ''group, organization, society '', MT '''nandi ''' ''group ''||
|-
|'''*ndja '''||succeed at ||RT '''ndza ''' attr gandza ''be successful, hit the target '', RTJ '''ĕză ''' ''succeed '', MT '''ndá ''' ''succeed at '', RTI '''yiša ''' vt. ''succeed (at doing something) ''||
|-
|'''*ndʔin '''||herd of goats || MT '''nandin ''' ''herd of goats ''||infixation
|-
|'''*ndʔrap'''||weak ||RT '''zròc ''' attr dròc ''be weak '', RTJ '''dĕcr'áb ''' zráb ''be weak '', MT '''ndáph ''' ''weak '', ƏD '''ndrop ''' port/stat ədrop adj. '' weak '' ||
|-
|'''*ndʔut'''||battle, skirmish ||RT '''ndùc ''' pl nundùc ''battle, skirmish '', RTJ '''ĕdúd ''' ''battle, skirmish '', MT '''nanduth ''' ''battle, skirmish ''||
|-
|'''*ne'''||I, me ||RT '''ne ''' ''I '', RTJ '''nyâ ''' hnyè ''I, me, my '', MT '''na ''' ''I, me '', ƏD '''na ''' pron. pers. '' I, me '' ||
|-
|'''*nek'''||wish ||RTJ '''nyèg ''' ''wish, wish for '', MT '''nakh ''' ''wish '', RTI '''raš ''' vt. ''wish ''||
|-
|'''*nek'''||wish(es) ||RTJ '''nyèg ''' ''wish '', MT '''nakh ''' ''wish(es) ''||
|-
|'''*nek '''||mare (female horse; less marked) ||RT '''nyec ''' pl tśinc ''female horse, mare '', RTJ '''nyèg ''' ''mare '', MT '''nakh ''' ''mare (female horse; less marked) '', RTI '''raš ''' n. an. ''mare (female horse) ''||
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|'''*nemb'''||own, possess ||RTJ '''nyèb ''' ''own, possess '', MT '''nem ''' ''own, possess '', RTI '''rem ''' vt. ''own, possess ''||
|-
|'''*neŋ '''||smoke ||RT '''nèan ''' (no sgv) ''smoke '', RTJ '''nyàì ''' ''smoke '', MT '''nangkda ''' ''smoke '', RRK '''naa ''' (no pl) n.a ''smoke ''||
|-
|'''*neq '''||win, be victorious ||RT '''nyac ''' attr dźac ''win, be victorious; very (when used in a SVC with a positive quality verb) '', RTJ '''nyègh ''' ''win, be victorious '', MT '''nec ''' ''win, be victorious '', RTI '''rek ''' vi. ''win, be victorious '', RRK '''rek ''' dur rıtek v.it ''win, be victorious ''||
|-
|'''*net '''||kitten ||RTJ '''nyèd ''' ''kitten '', MT '''neth ''' ''kitten '', RTI '''ret ''' n. an. ''kitten '', RRK '''ret ''' pl hret n.a ''kitten (young cat) ''||
|-
|'''*nə '''||and, with (of noun phrases) ||RT '''na ''' ''and '', RTJ '''ne ''' ''and (coordinates non-subject nouns) '', MT '''na ''' ''and, with (of noun phrases) ''||
|-
|'''*nədek ?'''||magic ||RT '''drac ''' attr krac ''be holy, be sacred, be magical '', RTJ '''nèd ''' ''magic '', MT '''narékh ''' ''magic ''||derivations from the same root
|-
|'''*nənow'''||steam ||RT '''nou ''' (no sgv) ''steam '', RTJ '''hnò ''' hnò ''steam '', MT '''nanú ''' ''steam '', RRK '''naruu ''' (no pl) n.a ''steam ''||
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|'''*nəŋir'''||autumn ||RT '''nggèi ''' (no sgv) ''autumn, fall '', RTJ '''nĕdrí ''' ''autumn, fall '', MT '''nínggí ''' ''autumn '', RTI '''ruuňir ''' n. in. ''autumn '', RRK '''ruŋir ''' (no pl) n.a ''autumn, fall ''||
|-
|'''*nəʀ '''||perry (alcohol made from pears) ||RTJ '''nè ''' ''perry (alcohol made from pears) '', MT '''nāwe ''' ''perry (alcohol made from pears) ''||
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|'''*nət'''||teeth ||RT '''nac ''' sgv nic ''teeth '', RTJ '''nèd ''' ''teeth '', MT '''nath ''' ''teeth ''||
|-
|'''*ngdVl'''||be bad, behave badly ||RT '''huo ''' attr kúo ''be bad '', RTJ '''ĕqé ''' ú ''be bad '', MT '''mlau ''' ''be bad, behave badly '', RTI '''čucal ''' adj. ''bad, incorrect ''||
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|'''*nge '''||float ||RTJ '''ĕjĕ ''' ''float '', MT '''nle ''' ''float '', RTI '''riče ''' vi. ''float (in a passive manner) ''||
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|'''*nHi'''||many ||RT '''ni ''' ''many '', MT '''ni ''' ''many '', RRK '''hni ''' qu ''many, much, a lot of (inanimate referent) '', ARŊ '''naʃa''' ''many'', , RNW '''ne ''' qtf. ''many ''||
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|'''*nhur'''||cliff(s) ||RT '''nóa ''' pl ndóa ''cliff, rocky slope '', RTJ '''hnò ''' ''corner, cliff '', MT '''nūfai ''' ''cliff(s) '', RRK '''hur ''' pl hnur, cnstr hwar, cnstr.pl nıhwar n.i ''rock, boulder ''||see 'corner'
|-
|'''*nidʔi'''||be unknown ||RTJ '''nyĕhnyè ''' ''be unknown '', MT '''ndiŋai ''' ''be unknown ''||
|-
|'''*niɬ'''||see ||RT '''nyu ''' pass nyú, attr dźu ''see '', RTJ '''nyè ''' ''see '', MT '''ngú ''' ''see '', RTI '''ily ''' vt. ''see '', RRK '''sıl ''' dur sısıl v.tr ''see, look at '', ARŊ '''nʲiʃ''' ''see (verb)''||
|-
|'''*nin '''||nannygoat (female goat; less marked) ||RT '''nin ''' pl mfwín ''goat '', RTJ '''nyè ''' ''nannygoat '', MT '''nin ''' ''nannygoat (female goat; less marked) ''||
|-
|'''*ninənin'''||kid (goat offspring) ||RTJ '''nyĕhnyè ''' ''kid (goat offspring) '', MT '''ninanin ''' ''kid (goat offspring) '', RTI '''rirey ''' n. an. ''kid (young goat) '', RRK '''rɛnɛɛ ''' pl hrɛnɛɛ n.a ''kid (young goat) '', ƏD '''nenənen ''' erg ndénənen n. liv. '' kid (baby goat) '' ||
|-
|'''*nit'''||incisor, front tooth || MT '''nithdau ''' ''incisor, front tooth '', RTI '''ris ''' n. in. ''human tooth ''pl. rit, RRK '''arɛɛ ''' pl narɛɛ n.a ''tooth '', ARŊ '''nʷot''' ''tooth (front)''||
|-
|'''*njam'''||be excited ||RTJ '''nyà ''' ''be excited '', MT '''nám ''' ''be excited ''||
|-
|'''*nje '''||be safe ||RT '''nye ''' attr dźe ''be safe '', RTJ '''nyê ''' ''be safe '', MT '''né ''' ''be safe ''||
|-
|'''*nɬend'''||south ||RT '''nrenc ''' ''to the south of '', RTJ '''nĕlréd ''' ''the south '', MT '''nwen ''' ''south '', RRK '''len ''' pp ''to the south of; at the bottom of; under ''||
|-
|'''*nɬomb'''||winter ||RT '''ntronc ''' (no sgv) ''winter '', RTJ '''nĕrú ''' ''winter '', MT '''nílom ''' ''winter '', RTI '''ruuhum ''' n. in. ''winter '', RRK '''rusom ''' (no pl) n.a ''winter ''||lexical contamination in RTJ?
|-
|'''*nŋwi'''||shirt, upper body clothing ||RT '''ndwin ''' pl nundwin ''shirt '', MT '''núngú ''' ''shirt, upper body clothing '', RTI '''iňwiyaw ''' n. in. ''shirt '', RRK '''ŋuyoo ''' pl rıŋuyoo n.i ''shirt ''||
|-
|'''*nono'''||seagull ||RTJ '''hnô ''' hnô ''seagull '', MT '''nono ''' ''seagull '', RTI '''roro ''' n. an. ''seagull ''||
|-
|'''*noɴɢ'''||girl ||RT '''nonc ''' pl mfwónc ''girl, daughter '', RTJ '''nògh ''' ''girl '', MT '''nonnong ''' ''girl '', RRK '''roŋ ''' pl hroŋ n.h ''girl, daughter ''||reduplication in MT
|-
|'''*nʀV'''||bandage(s) ||RT '''nòa ''' (no sgv) ''bandage '', MT '''nūrau ''' ''bandage(s) ''||
|-
|'''*ntaj'''||know (a person), be acquainted with ||RT '''ndźei ''' pass hindźei, attr gindźei ''know, be acquainted with '', RTJ '''hnyé ''' ''know, be acquainted with '', MT '''ndai ''' ''know (a person), be acquainted with ''||
|-
|'''*ntiC'''||a little ||RT '''ndźi ''' ''much, a lot, a large amount of '', RTJ '''hnyĭ ''' ''a lot '', MT '''ndé ''' ''a little ''||MT length is unaccounted for
|-
|'''*ntra '''||tiger ||RT '''ndra ''' pl ntśwá ''tiger '', RTJ '''hnră ''' nĕră ''tiger '', MT '''ndá ''' ''tiger '', RTI '''riša ''' n. an. ''tiger ''||
|-
|'''*ntu'''||admit, confess ||RT '''ndù ''' pass syù, attr gundù ''admit, confess '', RTJ '''hnô ''' ''admit, confess '', MT '''dandu ''' ''admit, confess '', RTI '''ninu ''' vt. ''admit, confess ''||
|-
|'''*ntuw ??'''||wall(s) (of a house) ||RT '''ndòu ''' (no sgv) ''wall(s) (of a house) '', RTJ '''tó ''' ''wall (of a building) '', MT '''nhándú ''' ''wall(s) (of a house) '', RTI '''ešu ''' n. in. ''wall, fence '', RRK '''agyù ''' pl ragyù n.i ''wall, fence ''||
|-
|'''*nu '''||push ||RT '''nu ''' pass nú, attr du ''push, have an impact on '', RTJ '''nô ''' ''push '', MT '''nu ''' ''push '', RTI '''ru ''' vt. ''push ''||
|-
|'''*nun'''||ocean ||RT '''nùn ''' (no pl) ''sea, ocean '', RTJ '''nò ''' ''ocean '', MT '''dum ''' ''ocean '', RRK '''nɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.a ''sea, ocean ''||
|-
|'''*nut '''||serve, be a servant ||RT '''ndúc ''' pass hundúc, attr gundúc ''obey, be ruled by '', RTJ '''nòd ''' ''serve '', MT '''nuth ''' ''serve, be a servant '', RTI '''rut ''' vi. ''serve, be a servant ''||
|-
|'''*nVpʔi '''||spring ||RT '''mbì ''' (no sgv) ''spring (season) '', RTJ '''nĕp’ĭ ''' ''spring (season) '', MT '''níp’i ''' ''spring '', RTI '''ruupi ''' n. in. ''spring '', RRK '''ruvì ''' (no pl) n.a ''spring (season) ''||
|-
|'''*nwa'''||exceed, surpass, be greater than ||RT '''nwa ''' pass nwá, attr dwa ''exceed, surpass '', RTJ '''nâ ''' ''exceed, surpass, be greater than '', MT '''ná ''' ''exceed, surpass, be greater than '', RRK '''ro ''' dur dɔwa v.tr ''exceed, surpass ''||
|-
|'''*ŋa '''||milk ||RT '''nga ''' (no sgv) ''milk '', RTJ '''ngâ ''' ''milk '', MT '''nga ''' ''milk '', RTI '''ya ''' n. in. ''milk '', RRK '''ya ''' (no pl) n.i ''milk ''||
|-
|'''*ŋaj '''||a little ||RT '''ngei ''' ''a little, a small amount of '', RTJ '''ngàì ''' ''a little '', MT '''ngai ''' ''a little '', ƏD '''ngrat ''' port/stat mben adj. '' small, little '' ||
|-
|'''*ŋaj '''||seek, look for ||RT '''ndźù ''' pass hundźù, attr gundźù ''search for '', RTJ '''ngàì ''' ''seek, look for '', MT '''ngai ''' ''seek, look for '', RTI '''yay ''' vt. ''seek, look for '', RRK '''yee ''' dur ikee v.tr ''search, look for ''||
|-
|'''*ŋal'''||chick, bird offspring, baby bird ||RT '''nyào ''' pl kyáo ''chick, baby bird '', MT '''ngaungau ''' ''chick, bird offspring, baby bird '', RTI '''ňal ''' n. an. ''chick, baby bird '', RRK '''ŋal ''' pl hŋal n.a ''chick, baby bird '', ƏD '''g’al ''' n. liv. '' baby bird '' ||
|-
|'''*ŋand'''||bear, give birth ||RT '''ngànc ''' pass kànc, attr gànc ''give birth to '', RTJ '''ngà ''' ''bear, give birth to '', MT '''can ''' ''bear, give birth '', RTI '''ňan ''' vi. ''bear a child, give birth, be in labor ''||
|-
|'''*ŋaŋagjal'''||boil ||RTJ '''ngĕqó ''' ''boil '', MT '''ngangalau ''' ''boil '', RTI '''yiyicaw ''' vt. ''boil ''||
|-
|'''*ŋap'''||owl species ||RTJ '''nyàb ''' ''owl species '', MT '''ngaphkí ''' ''owl species '', RTI '''yap ''' n. an. ''owl '', RRK '''yap ''' pl hyap n.a ''owl ''||
|-
|'''*ŋat '''||nipple ||RT '''ngec ''' sgv nyec ''nipples '', RTJ '''ngàd ''' ''nipples '', MT '''ngath ''' ''nipple '', RTI '''yet ''' n. in. ''nipple, teat ''pl. yat, RRK '''yet ''' pl yat n.a ''breast, nipple ''||
|-
|'''*ŋgim'''||light, shine, glow, rays || MT '''nggim ''' ''light, shine, glow, rays ''||see also *agim
|-
|'''*ŋgim '''||shine ||RT '''źùn ''' attr dźùn ''shine '', RTJ '''ngè ''' ''shine '', MT '''nggim ''' ''shine '', RTI '''iňey ''' vi. ''shine '', RRK '''hŋɛɛ ''' dur ıŋɛɛ v.it ''shine ''||
|-
|'''*ŋgjaw'''||cook ||RT '''ndźáo ''' pass handźáo, attr gandźáo ''cook '', RTJ '''ĕqó ''' ''cook '', MT '''nglau ''' ''cook '', RTI '''yicaw ''' vt. ''cook '', RRK '''ikoo ''' dur ikyoo v.tr ''cook, prepare food ''||
|-
|'''*ŋgrok '''||hunter, predatory animal ||RT '''nròc ''' pl hnròc ''hunter '', RTJ '''ĕdróg ''' ''hunter '', MT '''ínggókh ''' ''hunter, predatory animal '', RTI '''uutroš ''' n. hu. ''hunter '', RRK '''uguk ''' pl uguguk n.h ''hunter ''||
|-
|'''*ŋken'''||be different, be unusual, be another ||RT '''ngèn ''' attr gèn ''be different, be unusual, be foreign '', RTJ '''ngàì ''' ''be different, be unusual, be another '', MT '''gen ''' ''be different, be unusual, be another ''||
|-
|'''*ŋkit '''||snow ||RT '''ndźìc ''' sgv ndźèc ''snow '', RTJ '''hnyèd ''' ĕjíd ''snow '', MT '''ganggith ''' ''snow '', RRK '''gwik ''' (no pl) n.a ''snow ''||
|-
|'''*ŋɬat'''||stain, blot, blemish, colored spot ||RT '''dinggéc ''' attr glinggéc ''be colorful '', MT '''ngāth ''' ''stain, blot, blemish, colored spot '', RTI '''yišat ''' n. in. ''flaw, stain, blemish ''||
|-
|'''*ŋɬomb '''||firefly ||RT '''ngglónc ''' pl ngglúnc ''firefly '', RTJ '''hlyób ''' hnyób ''firefly '', MT '''ngholóm ''' ''firefly '', RTI '''čosom ''' n. an. ''firefly '', RRK '''ksım ''' pl kusım, cnstr ıksım, cnstr.pl rıksım n.a ''firefly ''||
|-
|'''*ŋlond'''||grease, fat ||RT '''ngùnc ''' sgv ngìnc ''grease, fat '', RTJ '''ngè ''' ngèd ''grease, fat '', MT '''cón ''' ''grease, fat '', RTI '''lin ''' n. in. ''oil, grease, fat '', ARŊ '''dʐas''' ''grease (fat)''||suppletivism in RTJ
|-
|'''*ŋo'''||||RT '''guo ''' attr kyuo ''be angry '', RTJ '''ngô ''' ''anger ''||
|-
|'''*ŋo '''||rapids (of a river) ||RTJ '''ngô ''' ''rapids (of a river) '', MT '''ngofán ''' ''rapids (of a river) '', RTI '''yo ''' n. in. ''rapids (of a river) '', RRK '''yaʔuu ''' pl rıyaʔuu n.a ''rapids, turbulence ''||
|-
|'''*ŋo '''||flint ||RT '''oc-ngòa ''' sgv moc-ngòa ''flint '', RTJ '''ghŏ ''' ngô ''flint ''||
|-
|'''*ŋon'''||nose ||RT '''ngan ''' pl mfwán ''nose '', RTJ '''ngàì ''' ''nose '', MT '''ngan ''' ''nose '', RTI '''ňey ''' n. an. ''nose '', ARŊ '''ŋʷon''' ''nose'', ƏD '''ńən ''' n. liv. ''nose '' ||
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|'''*ŋu'''||east ||RT '''ngù ''' ''to the east of '', RTJ '''ngô ''' ''the east '', MT '''ngu ''' ''east ''||
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|'''*ŋul'''||clothes ||RT '''nu ''' sgv nyu ''clothes '', RTJ '''ngò ''' ''clothes '', MT '''ngúfamo ''' ''clothes ''||
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|'''*ŋumb'''||become old ||RT '''vùnc ''' attr bunc ''be old, be ancient (of things) '', RTJ '''ngòb ''' ''become old '', MT '''ngum ''' ''become old '', RTI '''yum ''' vi. ''become old '', RRK '''hŋum ''' adj ''ancient ''||
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|'''*ŋuŋ'''||open ||RT '''ngwìn ''' attr gwìn ''be open '', RTJ '''ngò ''' ''be open '', MT '''cundung ''' ''open '', RTI '''ňow ''' adj. ''open ''||infixation in MT
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|'''*ŋut '''||vengeance, intense rage, vendetta, feud, blood feud, revenge ||RT '''guc ''' attr kyuc ''take revenge '', RTJ '''ngòd ''' ''vengeance, intense rage, vendetta, feud, revenge '', MT '''ngúth ''' ''vengeance, intense rage, vendetta, feud, blood feud, revenge '', RTI '''ňut ''' n. in. ''feud, rivalry, vendetta ''||
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|'''*ŋV'''||notice, take note, note ||RTJ '''hnyè ''' ''notice, take note of '', MT '''ngangú ''' ''notice, take note, note '', RTI '''yi’ily ''' vt. ''notice, take note of ''||
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|'''*ŋwi '''||be kind ||RT '''ngwi ''' attr gwi ''be kind, be gentle '', RTJ '''ngù ''' ''be kind '', MT '''ngí ''' ''be kind '', RRK '''kɛɛ ''' dur ikɛɛ v.it ''be nice, be kind ''||
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|'''*ŋʔu'''||far, faraway, distant ||RT '''nggù ''' attr gunggù ''be distant, be far away '', RTJ '''hngô ''' gŭ ''be far, faraway, distant '', MT '''cu ''' ''far, faraway, distant '', RTI '''ňu ''' adj. ''far, faraway, distant ''||
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|'''*o '''||and ||RT '''o ''' ''and, also '', RTJ '''o ''' ''and (coordinates clauses) '', MT '''o ''' ''and '', RTI '''o ''' conj. ''and '', RRK '''o ''' cj ''and, also '', , RNW '''ul ''' adv. ''also ''||
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|'''*ol'''||be calm (of weather or water) ||RTJ '''ó ''' ''be calm (of sea or weather) '', MT '''ú ''' ''be calm (of weather or water) '', RTI '''ol ''' vi. ''calm, become calm (of a body of water) '', RRK '''ol ''' adv ''steadily, reliably, easily ''||
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|'''*oqʔrik '''||crystal(s) ||RTJ '''ĕgĕtr’íg ''' ''crystal(s) '', MT '''ak’íkh ''' ''crystal(s) '', RTI '''wootriš ''' n. in. ''crystal '', RNW '''uqlek ''' n. in. ''crystal ''||see also jewel
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|'''*ow'''||water ||RTJ '''ó ''' ''water '', MT '''ú ''' ''water '', RTI '''uu ''' n. in. ''water '', RRK '''uu ''' (no pl) n.i ''water '', ARŊ '''urʷe''' ''water (noun)''||
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|'''*pa '''||row ||RT '''pá ''' pass hpá, attr gwá ''row '', RTJ '''pă ''' ''row '', MT '''pha ''' ''row '', RTI '''pupa ''' vt. ''paddle, row (a boat or raft) ''||
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|'''*pal'''||four ||RT '''pyáo ''' ''4 '', RTJ '''pé ''' ''four '', MT '''phau ''' ''four '', RRK '''pal ''' ord rɛpal qu ''4 ''||optional singulative infix
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|'''*pCeq '''||receive in trade ||RT '''paec ''' pass páec, attr gwaec ''acquire, buy '', RTJ '''págh ''' ''recieve in trade, buy '', MT '''pēc ''' ''receive in trade '', RTI '''piiš ''' vt. ''receive in trade ''||
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|'''*pdek'''||soul, spirit ||RT '''brec ''' pl orà ''spirit, soul, personality '', RTJ '''pĕzrég ''' hsrég ''soul, spirit '', MT '''pdékh ''' ''soul, spirit '', RTI '''putreš ''' n. hu. ''soul, spirit '', RRK '''dubrek ''' pl ruuša, cnstr rusek, cnstr.pl ruuška n.h ''soul, spirit ''||
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|'''*pem'''||bake ||RT '''páon ''' pass hpáon, attr gwáon ''bake '', RTJ '''pàì ''' ''bake '', MT '''phem ''' ''bake '', RTI '''pii ''' vt. ''bake ''||
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|'''*pgo '''||stick ||RT '''byo ''' pl mbyo ''stick, twig, shaft '', RTJ '''kŏ ''' pŏ ''stick '', MT '''pgo ''' ''stick '', RTI '''puso ''' n. in. ''stick ''pl. pučo, RRK '''pso ''' pl rıpsò n.i ''stick ''||
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|'''*pi '''||go between, pass between, be between ||RT '''pí ''' pass hpí, attr gwí ''go between '', RTJ '''pĭ ''' ''go between, pass between, be between '', MT '''phi ''' ''go between, pass between, be between '', RTI '''pi ''' vt. ''go between, pass between, be between ''||
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|'''*pind'''||oak woodland ||RT '''pínc ''' sgv pyénc ''oak forest '', RTJ '''píd ''' ''oak woodland '', MT '''phin ''' ''oak woodland ''||
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|'''*piŋ '''||be peaceful ||RT '''pín ''' attr gwín ''be innocent, be peaceful '', RTJ '''pè ''' ''be peaceful, calm (of emotions) '', MT '''phing ''' ''be peaceful ''||
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|'''*pjend'''||oak tree || MT '''phén ''' ''oak tree '', RTI '''piň ''' n. in. ''oak tree '', RRK '''pin ''' pl rıpin n.i ''oak tree ''||could it be from pjint instead?
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|'''*pma'''||ditch(es) ||RT '''má ''' sgv myá ''ditch, moat, trench, furrow '', MT '''mhawō ''' ''ditch(es) ''||
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|'''*pmak'''||first ||RT '''mác ''' ''first '', RTJ '''hmèg ''' ''first (ordinal) '', MT '''mhakh ''' ''first ''||
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|'''*pmaq'''||slaughter ||RT '''móc ''' pass fwóc, attr bóc ''kill '', RTJ '''hmàgh ''' ''slaughter '', MT '''mhac ''' ''slaughter '', RTI '''pak ''' vt. ''kill ''||
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|'''*pmat '''||egg(s) ||RT '''mwác ''' sgv myéc ''egg(s) '', RTJ '''hmàd ''' ''egg(s) '', MT '''mháth ''' ''egg(s) '', RTI '''pet ''' n. in. ''egg ''pl. šat, RRK '''pet ''' pl sat, cnstr myat, cnstr.pl rımyat n.i ''egg '', ARŊ '''mʲat''' ''egg'', ƏD '''fıət ''' cnstr mıət n. port. ''egg '' ||infixed -w- in RT
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|'''*pmeget '''||asters (type of star-shaped flower) ||RT '''ndźec ''' (no sgv) ''asters (type of flower) '', RTJ '''hmĕjéd ''' ĕjéd ''asters (flower) '', MT '''mhalath ''' ''asters (type of star-shaped flower) '', RTI '''pecat ''' n. in. ''aster (a type of flower) ''pl. pacat||
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|'''*pmet'''||stars ||RT '''myéc ''' (no sgv) ''star(s) '', RTJ '''hmèd ''' ''star '', MT '''mhath ''' ''stars '', RTI '''pet ''' n. in. ''star ''pl. pat, RRK '''pet ''' pl pat, cnstr vet, cnstr.pl vat n.i ''star '', ARŊ '''mʲat''' ''star''||
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|'''*pmij ?'''||age, epoch, long time, long period ||RT '''hmi ''' ''for as long as '', RTJ '''hmì ''' ''age, epoch, long time, long period '', MT '''mhírí ''' ''age, epoch, long time, long period ''||
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|'''*pmok'''||valley ||RT '''hmóc ''' (no pl) ''valley '', RTJ '''hmòg ''' ''valley '', MT '''mhokh ''' ''valley '', RTI '''puš ''' n. in. ''valley ''pl. poš, RRK '''pık ''' pl pok, cnstr vık, cnstr.pl vok n.i ''valley ''||
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|'''*pmomb ?'''||rash(es), hives, breakout, acne ||RTJ '''hmàb ''' hmàb ''rash(es), hives, acne '', MT '''mhōm ''' ''rash(es), hives, breakout, acne '', RTI '''puum ''' n. in. ''rash, acne, any visable skin condition ''||
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|'''*pmoʀ'''||order, command, instruct ||RT '''myóa ''' pass fyóa, attr byóa ''order, command, instruct '', RTJ '''hmàù ''' ''order, command, instruct '', MT '''mhô ''' ''order, command, instruct '', RRK '''puu ''' dur vıruu v.tr ''order, command, instruct (aor); rule over, govern (dur) ''||
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|'''*pmu'''||nut(s) ||RT '''mú ''' sgv myú ''nuts '', MT '''mhuwong ''' ''nut(s) '', RTI '''pi ''' n. in. ''nut ''pl. pu, RRK '''pı ''' pl pu, cnstr vı, cnstr.pl vu n.i ''nut ''||
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|'''*pnan ?'''||new moon ||RT '''ndán ''' pl pyán ''new moon '', RTJ '''hnà ''' nĕhnà ''new moon '', MT '''banan ''' ''new moon '', RTI '''mowhee ''' n. in. ''new moon ''||
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|'''*pnum'''||fix, repair ||RT '''ruhrùn ''' pass hruhrùn, attr gruhrùn ''fix, repair '', RTJ '''hnò ''' ''fix, repair '', MT '''bundum ''' ''fix, repair '', RTI '''munow ''' vt. ''fix, repair '', RRK '''mınɔɔ ''' dur mımınɔɔ v.tr ''repair '', ƏD '''b’ond’on ''' vt. '' fix, repair '' ||
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|'''*po '''||overlook, offer a view of ||RTJ '''pŏ ''' ''overlook, offer a view of '', MT '''phó ''' ''overlook, offer a view of ''||
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|'''*pom'''||skull ||RTJ '''jĕbĕpàù ''' nyĕbĕpàù ''skull '', MT '''githpom ''' ''skull ''||
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|'''*pom '''||head ||RTJ '''pàù ''' ''head '', MT '''phom ''' ''head '', RTI '''ňeypuu ''' n. an. ''head '', RRK '''ŋɛpuu ''' pl rıŋɛpuu n.a ''head '', ARŊ '''p'aznʷux''' ''head'', ƏD '''pon ''' n. liv. ''head '' ||
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|'''*pow'''||north ||RTJ '''pó ''' ''the north '', MT '''phú ''' ''north '', RRK '''buu ''' pp ''to the north of; on top of; above ''||
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|'''*pqra'''||dough ||RT '''bwaon ''' (no sgv) ''dough '', RTJ '''práí ''' ''dough '', MT '''phā ''' ''dough '', RTI '''poo ''' n. in. ''dough ''||
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|'''*prak'''||wild, untamed, lively ||RT '''piec ''' attr gwiec ''be wild, be fierce '', RRK '''prak ''' adj ''wild, untamed, lively ''||
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|'''*prip'''||be salty ||RT '''pric ''' attr gibric ''be salty '', RRK '''trip ''' adj ''salty ''||p- derivation from *rip
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|'''*pul'''||close ||RT '''rubóu ''' pass hrubóu, attr grubóu ''close '', MT '''phundú ''' ''close '', RTI '''pul ''' adj. ''closed, sealed '', RRK '''pıl ''' adj ''closed, locked ''||see also RT runc
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|'''*puw'''||trunk (of an elephant or anteater) ||RT '''mpúo ''' (no pl) ''trunk (of an elephant or anteater) '', RTJ '''pú ''' ''trunk (of an elephant or anteater) '', MT '''phúngan ''' ''trunk (of an elephant or anteater) ''||
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|'''*puw + haj '''||midday, noon ||RT '''púo ''' (no sgv) ''midday, noon '', RTJ '''háí ''' ''midday '', MT '''phúyâi ''' ''midday, noon '', RRK '''hee ''' pl hree, cnstr gee n.a ''day '', ƏD '''plu ''' n. dyn. '' noon'' ||
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|'''*pV'''||change ||RTJ '''brĕ ''' ''change '', MT '''pa ''' ''change '', RTI '''pu ''' vt. ''change ''||
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|'''*pVl'''||be closed ||RT '''póu ''' attr gwóu ''be closed '', RTJ '''pí ''' ''be closed ''||
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|'''*pʔa '''||grandfather ||RT '''pyè ''' (no pl) ''grandfather '', RTJ '''p’ă ''' ''grandfather '', MT '''p’amba ''' ''grandfather '', RTI '''pa ''' n. hu. ''grandfather '', RRK '''babà ''' pl pwabà n.h ''grandfather ''||
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|'''*pʔaj '''||majority ||RTJ '''p’áí ''' ''majority '', MT '''p’aisani ''' ''majority ''||
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|'''*pʔaŋ'''||be diagonal to ||RTJ '''p’è ''' ''be diagonal to '', MT '''p’ang ''' ''be diagonal to '', RTI '''pow ''' vt. ''be diagonal to ''||
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|'''*pʔat '''||kiss ||RT '''pàc ''' pass hpàc, attr gwàc ''kiss '', RTJ '''p’ád ''' ''kiss '', MT '''p’ath ''' ''kiss '', RTI '''pat ''' vt. ''kiss '', RRK '''bat ''' dur mbat v.tr ''kiss ''||
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|'''*pʔdaj'''||guess ||RT '''prei ''' pass hprei, attr gibrei ''guess '', RTJ '''p’ĕdráí ''' ''guess ''||
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|'''*pʔe'''||granite ||RT '''oc-pè ''' sgv moc-pè ''granite '', RTJ '''p’ĕ ''' ''granite '', MT '''p’eyac ''' ''granite ''||
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|'''*pʔe '''||be male, be masculine ||RT '''pè ''' attr gwè ''be male '', RTJ '''p’ĕ ''' ''be male, be masculine '', MT '''p’e ''' ''be male, be masculine '', RTI '''pe ''' adj. ''male, masculine '', RRK '''be ''' adj ''male, masculine ''||
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|'''*pʔi '''||grow ||RT '''pì ''' attr gwì ''grow '', RTJ '''p’ĭ ''' ''grow '', MT '''p’i ''' ''grow '', RTI '''pi ''' vi. ''grow '', RRK '''bi ''' dur mbi v.it ''grow (of plants) ''||
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|'''*pʔidbiŋg'''||be secret ||RT '''brinc ''' attr gibrinc ''be secret, be confidential, be hidden '', RTJ '''p’ĕzríg ''' ''be secret '', MT '''p’iríŋ ''' ''be secret '', RTI '''čumiš ''' adj. ''invisible, hidden, secret '', RRK '''bundwiŋ ''' dur bubundwiŋ v.tr ''keep secret ''||
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|'''*pʔik '''||one ||RT '''pìc ''' ''1 '', RTJ '''p’íg ''' ''one '', MT '''p’ikh ''' ''one '', ARŊ '''pʲik''' ''one''||
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|'''*pʔind'''||acorn(s) ||RT '''pìnc ''' sgv pyènc ''acorns '', RTJ '''p’íd ''' mè ''acorn(s) '', MT '''p’in ''' ''acorn(s) ''||
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|'''*pʔiŋg'''||be public ||RTJ '''p’íg ''' ''be public '', MT '''p’ing ''' ''be public ''||
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|'''*pʔip '''||mite ||RTJ '''p’íb ''' ''mite '', MT '''p’iph ''' ''mite ''||
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|'''*pʔiq '''||feathers, coat of feathers ||RT '''pàc ''' sgv pyàc ''feather(s), coat of feathers '', RTJ '''p’régh ''' ''feather(s), coat of feathers '', MT '''p’ac ''' ''feathers, coat of feathers '', RTI '''piš ''' n. in. ''feather ''pl. puk, RRK '''bik ''' pl bık n.i ''feather '', ARŊ '''pʲ'iq''' ''feather, wing''||
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|'''*pʔɬom '''||lion ||RT '''blóun ''' pl psóun ''lion '', RTJ '''p’àù ''' hlyàù ''lion '', MT '''p’olóm ''' ''lion '', RTI '''pošuu ''' n. an. ''lion '', RRK '''basyuu ''' pl rıvasyuu n.a ''lion ''||various infixations
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|'''*pʔo '''||descendant ||RT '''mò ''' pl ndò ''descendant, offspring '', RTJ '''p’ŏ ''' ''descendant '', MT '''p’o ''' ''descendant ''||the onset correspondance is interesting, it could be that ʔ is an infix and the original word was bo
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|'''*pʔom '''||be noble ||RTJ '''p’àù ''' ''be noble '', MT '''p’om ''' ''be noble ''||
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|'''*pʔom '''||hat, headgear ||RT '''mbóun ''' pl numbóun ''headgear, hat '', RTJ '''p’àù ''' ''headgear, hat '', MT '''p’om ''' ''hat, headgear '', RTI '''puu ''' n. in. ''hat, helmet '', RRK '''buu ''' pl rıvuu n.i ''hat, helmet ''||derivation from head
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|'''*pʔon'''||high, tall ||RTJ '''bĕp’ò ''' p’ò ''be high, tall '', MT '''p’un ''' ''high, tall '', RTI '''pow ''' adj. ''tall ''||
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|'''*pʔor'''||part, component ||RTJ '''p’ó ''' ''part, component '', MT '''cí ''' ''part, component '', RTI '''por ''' n. in. ''part, piece ''||
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|'''*pʔot '''||donate, give freely, give as a gift ||RT '''pòc ''' pass hpòc, attr gwòc ''give (as a gift) '', RTJ '''p’ód ''' ''give (as a gift), donate '', MT '''p’oth ''' ''donate, give freely, give as a gift '', RTI '''pot ''' vt. ''give freely, give as a gift '', RRK '''tıvot ''' pl rıtıvot n.i ''gift ''||
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|'''*pʔrit '''||influence ||RTJ '''p’ríd ''' ''influence '', MT '''p’íth ''' ''influence ''||
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|'''*pʔumb'''||be parallel to ||RT '''pùnc ''' pass hpùnc, attr gùnc ''be/move parallel to '', RTJ '''p’úb ''' ''be parallel to '', MT '''p’um ''' ''be parallel to '', RTI '''pum ''' vt. ''be parallel to ''||
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|'''*pʔwir'''||wage, conduct, venture, attempt ||RT '''pwì ''' pass hpwì, attr gubwì ''try, attempt, strive '', RTJ '''p’ú ''' ''wage, conduct, venture, attempt '', MT '''p’í ''' ''wage, conduct, venture, attempt '', RTI '''pur ''' vt. ''wage, conduct, venture, attempt ''||
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|'''*qbjan'''||homeland ||RTJ '''Grĕpàì ''' ''mythical homeland '', MT '''kbán ''' ''homeland '', RRK '''kıbyaa ''' (no pl) n.i ''the region where Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa is spoken '', , RNW '''qǝplu ''' n. ''homeland ''||the trill in RTJ is puzzling
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|'''*qCiŋg (? qʀiŋg) '''||mind, thoughts ||RT '''hxaenc ''' sgv hśinc ''mind, thoughts '', RTJ '''qíg ''' hxíg ''mind, thoughts '', MT '''hling ''' ''mind, thoughts ''||
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|'''*qfa '''||shoe ||RT '''gwoc ''' sgv gwa ''pair of shoes '', RTJ '''hfă ''' ghă ''shoes '', MT '''gfa ''' ''shoe '', RTI '''kihe ''' n. in. ''shoe ''pl. kiho, RRK '''ke ''' pl kot, cnstr k’e, cnstr.pl k’ot n.i ''shoe '', ƏD '''ǵəfa ''' coll n. port. '' shoes '' ||
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|'''*qiʀ '''||respect ||RT '''gáe ''' (no sgv) ''respect, social standing '', RTJ '''khó ''' ĕkhó ''respect '', MT '''kí ''' ''respect '', RTI '''kikor ''' vt. ''respect '', RRK '''kyor ''' dur kıkyor v.tr ''respect, be polite towards ''||
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|'''*qo '''||boar (male pig) ||RTJ '''khó ''' khó ''boar (male pig) '', MT '''kîcoléng ''' ''boar (male pig) ''||
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|'''*qo '''||||RTJ '''khŏ ''' khŏ ''abacus, any counting tool ''||simple derivation in RTJ
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|'''*qo, qjo ?'''||count ||RT '''gyoa ''' pass hkyoa, attr gigyoa ''count '', RTJ '''khŏ ''' ''count '', MT '''gyo ''' ''count '', RTI '''ko ''' vt. ''count ''||
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|'''*qol'''||eighteen ||RT '''kóu ''' ''18 '', RTJ '''khó ''' ''eighteen '', MT '''hú ''' ''eighteen '', RRK '''kol ''' ord rɛkol qu ''18 ''||
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|'''*qon '''||seize, take over, conquer, take by force ||RT '''kóan ''' pass hkóan, attr gyóan ''seize, conquer '', RTJ '''khàù ''' ''seize, take over, conquer, take by force '', MT '''hon ''' ''seize, take over, conquer, take by force '', RTI '''kuu ''' vt. ''seize, take over, conquer, take by force '', RRK '''gyuu ''' dur kahŋuu v.tr ''seize, conquer, take by force ''||
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|'''*qpʔi'''||manner, method, way ||RT '''kwì ''' sgv kì ''manner, method, way '', RTJ '''p’ĭ ''' ''manner, method, way '', MT '''cí ''' ''manner, method, way '', RRK '''mi ''' pp ''in the manner of ''||
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|'''*qumb'''||eat, consume ||RTJ '''khúb ''' ''eat, consume '', MT '''hum ''' ''eat, consume '', RTI '''kum ''' vt. ''eat '', ARŊ '''x̠ʷux''' ''eat (verb)'', ƏD '''qoanb’ah ''' vt. '' eat '' ||
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|'''*quw'''||hole(s) ||RT '''kóa ''' pl nggóa ''hole, opening '', RTJ '''káú ''' ''hole '', MT '''hō ''' ''hole(s) '', RTI '''kuu ''' n. in. ''hole, cavity, cave '', RRK '''guu ''' pl rıguu n.i ''cave ''||
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|'''*qʔa '''||female bird ||RTJ '''kh’ă ''' ''female bird '', MT '''calí ''' ''female bird ''||
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|'''*qʔaj '''||bowl ||RT '''kyèi ''' pl kì ''jar, bowl '', MT '''cai ''' ''bowl '', RRK '''gii ''' pl gee n.i ''bowl '', ƏD '''gaś ''' cnstr g’aś n. port. ''bowl '' ||
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|'''*qʔaɬ'''||give in trade, offer in trade ||RT '''kào ''' pass hkào, attr gyào ''offer, sell, trade away '', RTJ '''q’é ''' ''give in trade, offer in trade, sell '', MT '''k’au ''' ''give in trade, offer in trade '', RTI '''kal ''' vt. ''give in trade, offer in trade '', RRK '''gal ''' dur ŋgal v.tr ''give '', ARŊ '''qʲ'aʂ''' ''give (verb)''||
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|'''*qʔat '''||carry ||RT '''kàc ''' pass hkàc, attr gyàc ''bear, carry '', RTJ '''kh’ád ''' ''bear, carry '', MT '''cath ''' ''carry '', RTI '''kat ''' vt. ''bear, carry ''||
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|'''*qʔe '''||hit ||RT '''kèa ''' pass hkèa, attr gyèa ''hit, strike '', RTJ '''kh’ĕ ''' ''hit '', MT '''k’e ''' ''hit '', RTI '''ke ''' vt. ''hit '', RRK '''ge ''' dur ŋge v.tr ''hit, strike ''||
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|'''*qʔu '''||noise ||RTJ '''kh’ŭ ''' ''noise '', MT '''culing ''' ''noise '', RTI '''ku ''' n. in. ''sound, noise ''||
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|'''*ra'''||exert influence on, have an impact on ||RTJ '''rră ''' ''influence, have an impact on '', MT '''ra ''' ''exert influence on, have an impact on ''||
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|'''*ra '''||power, influence, capacity ||RT '''da ''' attr ksa ''be powerful, be influential '', RTJ '''rră ''' ''power, influence, capacity '', MT '''ra ''' ''power, influence, capacity ''||
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|'''*ragjar'''||fungus, mushroom(s), fairy ring ||RT '''dźei ''' (no sgv) ''mushrooms '', RTJ '''rrĕjé ''' ''fungus, mushroom(s), fairy ring '', MT '''ralai ''' ''fungus, mushroom(s), fairy ring '', RTI '''racar ''' n. in. ''mushroom '', RRK '''ragar ''' pl nıragar n.i ''mushroom ''||
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|'''*raj'''||juice||RT '''rèi ''' sgv yèi ''juice, sap '', RTI '''ray ''' n. in. ''juice, sap '', RRK '''remuu ''' (no pl) n.i ''juice, sap ''||
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|'''*raj '''||?||RT '''rae ''' sgv rie ''bee(s) '', RTJ '''ĕré ''' ''bee '', MT '''yímú ''' ''bee '', RRK '''rıı ''' pl nırıı n.a ''bee ''||
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|'''*raj '''||circle ||RT '''pyei ''' attr gibyei ''be round (2D) '', RTJ '''ĕré ''' ''circle (shape) '', MT '''raisau ''' ''circle '', RTI '''rii ''' n. in. ''circle, circular object ''||
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|'''*raj '''||sap ||RTJ '''rráí ''' ''sap '', MT '''raiyâi ''' ''sap ''||
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|'''*rak '''||wing ||RT '''rec ''' pl hroac ''wing '', RTJ '''rrág ''' ''wing '', MT '''rakh ''' ''wing '', RRK '''rak ''' pl hrak n.a ''wing ''||
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|'''*ran'''||plain (geographical) ||RT '''roun ''' sgv youn ''plain, lowlands '', RTJ '''rrà ''' ''plain (geographic) '', MT '''randau ''' ''plain (geographical) '', RTI '''yee ''' n. in. ''plain, grassland, dry lowlands '', RRK '''raa ''' pl nıraa n.i ''lowlands, plains '', ƏD '''rən ''' n. stat. '' plain '' ||
|-
|'''*raraɢaw'''||puppy ||RTJ '''rrĕrĕdráú ''' ''puppy '', MT '''rayacau ''' ''puppy '', RTI '''rarašuu ''' n. an. ''puppy '', RRK '''daraguu ''' pl darasuu n.a ''puppy (young dog) ''||
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|'''*rbʔa'''||paternal aunt || MT '''ramba ''' ''paternal aunt '', RTI '''rama ''' n. hu. ''paternal aunt ''||
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|'''*rbʔul'''||wrist ||RTJ '''rrĕbú ''' ''wrist '', MT '''rúmbú ''' ''wrist '', RTI '''reymul ''' n. an. ''wrist ''||see apʔu
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|'''*rdit'''||attack, assault ||RT '''dric ''' pass htric, attr kric ''attack '', RTJ '''rrĕzríd ''' ''attack '', MT '''raríth ''' ''attack, assault '', RTI '''ritris ''' vt. ''attack ''||
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|'''*rdʔo'''||year ||RTJ '''rrĕdó ''' ''year '', MT '''róndí ''' ''year '', RRK '''durɔɔ ''' pl nıdurɔɔ n.a ''year ''||
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|'''*re '''||lack, miss, be without ||RT '''re ''' ''without '', RTJ '''rrĕ ''' ''lack, miss, be without '', MT '''re ''' ''lack, miss, be without '', RTI '''re ''' vt. ''lack, miss, be without '', RRK '''re ''' pp ''without ''||
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|'''*rej'''||yawn, gape ||RT '''yei ''' attr kyei ''yawn '', RTJ '''ĕrí ''' ''yawn, gape '', MT '''rai ''' ''yawn, gape ''||
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|'''*remb'''||newt ||RTJ '''rréb ''' ''newt '', MT '''rendá ''' ''newt '', RTI '''rem ''' n. an. ''newt ''||
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|'''*rep '''||boy ||RTJ '''rréb ''' ''boy '', MT '''reph ''' ''boy '', RTI '''rep ''' n. hu. ''son, boy '', RRK '''rep ''' pl pep, cnstr hwɛɛ, cnstr.pl hıgii n.h ''boy, son '', ƏD '''dreh ''' n. sen. '' boy '' ||
|-
|'''*rəridu'''||curse ||RT '''dru ''' pass htru, attr kru ''curse, condemn '', MT '''rayirú ''' ''curse '', RTI '''riritru ''' vt. ''curse '', RRK '''rıdù ''' dur dırıdù v.tr ''curse, condemn, exile ''||
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|'''*rəru'''||bless ||RT '''rù ''' pass hrù, attr krù ''bless '', RTJ '''ĕrŭ ''' ''bless '', MT '''rayu ''' ''bless '', RTI '''riru ''' vt. ''bless '', RRK '''rıturù ''' pl nırıturù n.a ''blessing, magic spell (benevolent) ''||
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|'''*rgVj'''||convince, persuade ||RT '''dào ''' pass htào, attr ksào ''convince, persuade '', RTJ '''rrĕdró ''' ''convince, persuade '', MT '''rlú ''' ''convince, persuade '', RTI '''ricey ''' vt. ''convince, persuade ''||
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|'''*rgʔVV'''||summer solstice ||RT '''yenc-wie ''' (no pl) ''summer solstice '', RTJ '''ĕrĕbí ''' ''summer solstice '', MT '''ranggí ''' ''summer solstice '', RRK '''rukoo ''' (no pl) n.a ''summer ''||
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|'''*ri'''||||RT '''ri ''' pl ndri ''knot '', RTJ '''rrĭ ''' ''knot '', RTI '''iruwiš ''' n. in. ''knot '', RRK '''rıwik ''' pl nırıwik n.i ''knot ''||
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|'''*ri '''||jaw ||RTJ '''rrĭ ''' ''jaw '', MT '''ri ''' ''jaw ''||
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|'''*Rik'''||flow, blow (of gasses or liquids) ||RT '''wic ''' attr kwic ''blow '', RTJ '''ĕwíg ''' ''flow, blow '', MT '''ríkh ''' ''flow, blow (of gasses or liquids) '', RTI '''riš ''' vi. ''flow, blow (of fluids) '', RRK '''šık ''' dur rık v.it ''flow ''||
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|'''*rima'''||kill ||RTJ '''rrĕmâ ''' ''murder '', MT '''rama ''' ''kill '', RRK '''rɛva ''' dur drɛva v.tr ''kill '', ARŊ '''rʲimro''' ''kill (verb)'', ƏD '''faġrəma ''' perf əmáġrəma vt. '' murder, slay '' ||
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|'''*rimb'''||be black ||RTJ '''ríb ''' ''be black ''||
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|'''*riŋg'''||herd of cows, herd of cattle ||RTJ '''ĕnràìtau ''' ''herd of (domestic) cattle (collective plural) '', MT '''randang ''' ''herd of cows, herd of cattle ''||infixation
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|'''*rip '''||salt ||RT '''ric ''' sgv yoc ''salt '', RTJ '''rríb ''' ''salt '', MT '''riph ''' ''salt '', RTI '''rip ''' n. in. ''salt '', RRK '''rip ''' (no pl) n.i ''salt ''||
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|'''*rɬal'''||freezing cold, freezing weather ||RTJ '''rrú ''' ''cold, cold weather '', MT '''ríwau ''' ''freezing cold, freezing weather '', RTI '''šal ''' adj. ''cold '', RRK '''sal ''' adj ''cold ''||
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|'''*rŋen ?'''||stranger, foreigner ||RT '''nrèn ''' pl hnrèn ''stranger, foreigner '', RTJ '''ĕnràì ''' ''stranger, foreigner '', MT '''ínggen ''' ''stranger, foreigner '', RTI '''uuňii ''' n. hu. ''stranger, foreigner '', RRK '''uŋii ''' pl uguŋii n.h ''foreigner, non-Rɛɛ-Kıbyaa person ''||
|-
|'''*ro'''||||RT '''ro ''' ''or '', RRK '''ro ''' cj ''or ''||
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|'''*ro'''||children||RT '''nàc rò ''' ''adopt (children) '', RTJ '''rrŏ ''' hnà ''children (collective plural) ''||
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|'''*ron '''||recite, tell (a story) ||RT '''ron ''' pass rón, attr tron ''recite, tell (a story) '', RTJ '''rràù ''' ''recite, tell (of a story) '', MT '''ron ''' ''recite, tell (a story) '', RTI '''ruu ''' vt. ''recite, tell (a story) '', RRK '''ruu ''' dur duruu v.tr ''recite, tell (a story) ''||
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|'''*row'''||male fox ||RTJ '''rrú ''' ''male fox '', MT '''ríyān ''' ''male fox '', RTI '''row ''' n. an. ''fox '', RRK '''rɔɔ ''' pl hrɔɔ n.a ''fox ''||
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|'''*rQar'''||edge, margin, border ||RT '''rae ''' ''at the edge of '', MT '''yâi ''' ''edge, margin, border '', RTI '''iher ''' n. in. ''edge, side, border ''pl. ihar, RRK '''hir ''' pl hyar, cnstr gir, cnstr.pl gyar n.i ''side, edge, border ''||
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|'''*rqumb'''||feed ||RT '''gónc ''' pass hkónc, attr kyónc ''feed, nourish '', MT '''rūm ''' ''feed ''||
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|'''*rtrek ?'''||planet, wandering star ||RT '''tréc ''' pl htréc ''planet, wandering star '', RTJ '''rrĕcrég ''' ''the brightest visible planet, one of the titles of Ká ''||
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|'''*ruC'''||be content, be fullfilled ||RTJ '''rró ''' ''be content, fulfilled '', MT '''rū ''' ''be content, be fullfilled '', RTI '''rey ''' vi. ''become content, be fulfilled ''||
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|'''*rumb'''||beside, close to ||RT '''runc ''' ''beside, close to '', RRK '''rum ''' pp ''next to, beside ''||see also RT rubóu
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|'''*rumb'''||roast ||RTJ '''rrúb ''' ''roast '', MT '''rum ''' ''roast '', RTI '''rum ''' vt. ''roast ''||
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|'''*rut '''||mouth ||RT '''ruc ''' pl hruc ''mouth, throat '', RTJ '''rrúd ''' ''mouth '', MT '''ruth ''' ''mouth '', ARŊ '''rʷut''' ''mouth''||
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|'''*ruteŋ'''||promise(s), oath(s), pledge(s) ||RT '''udzéin ''' pl nudzéin ''promise, oath, pledge '', RTJ '''rrĕcàì ''' ''promise, oath, pledge, contract '', MT '''rórang ''' ''promise(s), oath(s), pledge(s) '', RTI '''rutee ''' n. in. ''oath, pledge '', RRK '''rutaa ''' pl nırutaa n.i ''oath, pledge ''||
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|'''*ruw'''||be deaf ||RTJ '''rrú ''' ''be deaf '', MT '''rú ''' ''be deaf ''||
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|'''*rVŋg'''||cow (female bovine) ||RT '''zìnc ''' pl zràenc ''cow (female bovine) '', RTJ '''ĕrég ''' ''cow (female bovine) '', MT '''rang ''' ''cow (female bovine) '', RTI '''riň ''' n. an. ''cow '', RRK '''rıŋ ''' pl hrıŋ n.a ''cow ''||
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|'''*rVrVŋg'''||calf (bovine offspring) ||RTJ '''ĕrĕrég ''' ''calf '', MT '''rayang ''' ''calf (bovine offspring) '', RTI '''ririň ''' n. an. ''calf (young bovine) '', RRK '''mırıŋ ''' pl hmırıŋ n.a ''calf (young bovine) ''||
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|'''*rVV'''||in order to||RT '''rao ''' ''in order to, with the goal of '', RRK '''rıı ''' pp ''in order to, for the purpose of, intended for ''||
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|'''*rwighij'''||mask ||RT '''rigéi ''' (no pl) ''mask '', RTJ '''rrĕkí ''' ''mask, veil '', MT '''rwilí ''' ''mask '', RTI '''ruwičii ''' n. in. ''mask '', RRK '''rukii ''' pl nırukii n.i ''mask '', ƏD '''ıwuciś ''' erg urəwúciś n. port. '' mask '' ||
|-
|'''*rwo'''||big ||RT '''wò ''' attr kwò ''be big, be large, be tall '', RTJ '''rrĕwŏ ''' ĕwŏ ''be big '', MT '''ró ''' ''big '', RTI '''ru''' adj. ''big, large '', RRK '''bɔɔ ''' adj ''big, large, tall '', ARŊ '''bro''' ''be big'', ƏD '''roa ''' adj. '' big, large '' ||also acts as augmentative, honorative prefix
|-
|'''*rwobat'''||palace, majesting house, dwelling of king/chieftain ||RTJ '''ĕwĕbád ''' ''palace, majesting house, dwelling of king/chieftain '', MT '''rómbáth ''' ''palace, majesting house, dwelling of king/chieftain '', ARŊ '''rʷobʲat''' ''house of the chief '', ƏD '''ránb’oat ''' n. stat. '' palacial complex, citadel, acropolis '' ||
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|'''*rwobʔat'''||town; large, permanent village ||RT '''omàc ''' (no sgv) ''large village, town '', RTJ '''rrĕpád ''' ''any large, permanent settlement '', MT '''rómbāth ''' ''town; large, permanent village '', ƏD '''rə́nb’ant ''' coll n. stat. '' village, town '' ||
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|'''*rwofu'''||storm ||RTJ '''rrĕfŭ ''' ''storm '', MT '''rófu ''' ''storm '', RRK '''hru ''' pl nıhrù n.a ''storm ''||
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|'''*rwogaw '''||shield ||RT '''ugou ''' pl nugou ''shield '', RTJ '''rrĕgáú ''' ''shield '', MT '''rócau ''' ''shield '', RTI '''ručuu ''' n. in. ''shield '', RRK '''ruguu ''' pl nıruguu n.i ''shield ''||
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|'''*rwogha'''||raven ||RT '''ogá ''' pl ohká ''raven '', RTJ '''ĕwĕqă ''' ''raven '', MT '''róla ''' ''raven '', RTI '''ruka ''' n. an. ''raven '', RRK '''ruka ''' pl hruka n.a ''raven ''||rwo-
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|'''*rwogiC'''||king, ruler, chieftain ||RT '''ugei ''' pl uhkei ''chieftain, leader '', RTJ '''rrĕjí ''' ''king, ruler '', MT '''rólí ''' ''king, ruler, chieftain '', RTI '''rucii ''' n. hu. ''king, chief, patriarch '', ARŊ '''rʷokʲi''' ''chief''||
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|'''*rwogot'''||royal couple ||RTJ '''rrĕgód ''' ''the royal couple (queen and king) '', MT '''rócoth ''' ''royal couple ''||
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|'''*rwoɢʀok '''||queen, matriarch ||RT '''ugwac ''' pl uhkwac ''queen, matriarch '', RTJ '''ĕwĕgrég ''' ''queen '', MT '''rócókh ''' ''queen, matriarch '', RTI '''rušiš ''' n. hu. ''queen, matriarch '', RRK '''rugik ''' pl hrugik n.h ''queen, matriarch, chieftain's wife '', ƏD '''róagık ''' pl rə́ng’aś n. sen '' queen '' ||
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|'''*rwohan ?'''||full moon ||RT '''ohán ''' pl ufwán ''full moon '', RTJ '''rrĕhà ''' ''full moon '', MT '''róyān ''' ''full moon '', RTI '''ruhee ''' n. in. ''full moon '', RRK '''hraa ''' pl nıhraa n.a ''full moon ''||
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|'''*rwoHmpiH '''||silver ||RTJ '''rrĕhmí ''' ''silver '', MT '''rómbí ''' ''silver '', RTI '''rurihir ''' n. in. ''silver ''||
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|'''*rwoqʔeʀ'''||barrel ||RTJ '''rrĕkh’áí ''' ''barrel '', MT '''rók’ē ''' ''barrel '', RTI '''rukii ''' n. in. ''cask, barrel '', RRK '''rugii ''' pl nırugii n.i ''cask, barrel ''||
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|'''*rwoʀaɴqg'''||elation, joy ||RT '''reanc ''' pass hreanc, attr kreanc ''please, make sb. happy '', RTJ '''rrĕgrágh ''' ''elation, joy, ecstacy '', MT '''rôyang ''' ''elation, joy ''||derivative
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|'''*rwoʀujaɴqg'''||depression, despair, tragedy ||RT '''heanc ''' attr kéanc ''feel melancholic, feel nostalgic '', RTJ '''rrĕgrĕyágh ''' ''depression, despair, agony, tragedy '', MT '''rôyuyang ''' ''depression, despair, tragedy ''||
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|'''*rʔo'''||choose, select, settle on, adopt ||RT '''rò ''' pass hrò, attr krò ''embrace; accept '', MT '''ro ''' ''choose, select, settle on, adopt ''||
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|'''*ʀa '''||breast ||RT '''xa ''' pl hxa ''breast, chest '', RTJ '''gră ''' ''breast '', MT '''ārung ''' ''breast '', RTI '''wa ''' n. an. ''breast '', ARŊ '''ʁa''' ''breasts''||
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|'''*ʀa(tsij)'''||sharp point, tip ||RTJ '''gră ''' ''point, tip '', MT '''ârsí ''' ''sharp point, tip '', RRK '''gee ''' pl gwee, cnstr ŋee, cnstr.pl ŋgee n.i ''spike, thorn, prong, tip, peak ''||related to *tsij
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|'''*ʀan ?'''||vixen (female fox, less marked) ||RT '''xan ''' pl hxan ''fox '', RTJ '''ĕrà ''' ''vixen, fox (less marked) '', MT '''ānggí ''' ''vixen (female fox, less marked) ''||
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|'''*ʀaɴɢ'''||rightness, righteousness ||RTJ '''grágh ''' ''rightness, righteousness '', MT '''ang ''' ''rightness, righteousness ''||
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|'''*ʀaŋg'''||hurt, wound, injure, harm ||RT '''xanc ''' pass hxanc, attr kanc ''injure, harm '', RTJ '''grág ''' kág ''hurt, wound, injure, harm '', MT '''āng ''' ''hurt, wound, injure, harm '', RTI '''waň ''' vt. ''hurt, wound, injure, harm '', RRK '''aŋ ''' dur aŋaŋ v.tr ''hurt, injure ''||
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|'''*ʀatəmb'''||sense of touch ||RT '''xònc ''' ''on, next to, touching '', RTJ '''grĕgráítib ''' ''sense of touch '', MT '''ēram ''' ''sense of touch ''||
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|'''*ʀe '''||adze ||RT '''xe ''' pl nae ''adze '', RTJ '''grĕ ''' ''adze '', MT '''īwū ''' ''adze '', ƏD '''iən ''' n. port. '' adze '' ||
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|'''*ʀer'''||feeling, sense, intuition ||RT '''xéa ''' (no sgv) ''intuition '', RTJ '''ĕháí ''' gréya ''feeling, sense, intuition '', MT '''ē ''' ''feeling, sense, intuition '', RTI '''ir ''' n. in. ''feeling (tactile), texture ''||perhaps different derivations
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|'''*ʀi'''||beauty || MT '''î ''' ''beauty ''||
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|'''*ʀij '''||fish(es) ||RT '''xie ''' pl hxáe ''fish '', RTJ '''grí ''' ''fish '', MT '''î ''' ''fish(es) '', RTI '''wey ''' n. an. ''fish '', RRK '''gɛɛ ''' pl ohɛɛ, cnstr ıgɛɛ, cnstr.pl rıgɛɛ n.a ''fish ''||
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|'''*ʀin '''||daughter(s) ||RTJ '''gràì ''' ''daughter '', MT '''īnīn ''' ''daughter(s) '', RTI '''roň ''' n. hu. ''daughter, girl ''||
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|'''*ʀir'''||be beautiful, be pretty ||RT '''xei ''' attr kei ''be pretty, be beautiful '', MT '''î ''' ''be beautiful, be pretty '', RTI '''čuwir ''' adj. ''beautiful, handsome, pretty '', RRK '''gir ''' adj ''beautiful, pretty, handsome, attractive ''||
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|'''*ʀkat'''||color(s) ||RT '''ngèi ''' pl nggèi ''color '', RTJ '''ĕkád ''' ĕgád ''color, stain '', MT '''āth ''' ''color(s) '', RTI '''wučat ''' n. in. ''color '', RRK '''akat ''' pl rakat n.i ''color ''||
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|'''*ʀo '''||forbid, ban ||RT '''xo ''' pass hxo, attr ko ''forbid, ban, disallow, refuse, deny '', RTJ '''gră ''' kă ''forbid, ban '', MT '''ō ''' ''forbid, ban '', RTI '''wo ''' vt. ''forbid, ban '', RRK '''oo ''' dur ogoo v.tr ''ban, prohibit, forbid ''||
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|'''*ʀoŋgkʔut '''||crotch, groin area ||RTJ '''grógĕk’ud ''' ''crotch, groin '', MT '''uwōngk’uth ''' ''crotch, groin area ''||
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|'''*ʀor'''||blood ||RT '''xae ''' sgv xèi ''blood '', RTJ '''ĕwá ''' éwa ''blood '', MT '''âi ''' ''blood '', RTI '''wor ''' n. in. ''blood '', RRK '''gor ''' (no pl), cnstr awar n.i ''blood '', ARŊ '''ʁʷar''' ''blood''||
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|'''*ʀraɴɢ ?'''||happiness ||RTJ '''grágh ''' ''happiness '', MT '''yaŋ ''' ''happiness ''||see also jaɴq
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|'''*ʀuj'''||defecate ||RT '''kwóa ''' attr gugwóa ''defecate, poo '', RTJ '''gró ''' ''defecate '', MT '''hû ''' ''defecate '', RTI '''šey ''' vi. ''defecate ''||
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|'''*ʀujaɴq '''||sadness ||RTJ '''grĕyágh ''' ''sadness, grief '', MT '''yuyang ''' ''sadness ''||
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|'''*ʀup'''||sense of hearing ||RTJ '''grób ''' ''hearing '', MT '''ūph ''' ''sense of hearing ''||
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|'''*ʀurek '''||mistress, lover ||RT '''léac ''' (no pl) ''lover, sex partner '', RTJ '''grĕrég ''' dlĕrég ''mistress, prostitute '', MT '''húyakh ''' ''mistress, lover ''||
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|'''*ʀVn'''||mosquito(es) ||RT '''xaon ''' pl hxín ''mosquito '', MT '''īndaní ''' ''mosquito(es) ''||
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|'''*ʀVn'''||root(s) ||RT '''xùon ''' sgv màon ''root '', RTJ '''ráí ''' ''root '', MT '''ā ''' ''root(s) '', RTI '''ee ''' n. in. ''root ''||
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|'''*ʀVn '''||live ||RTJ '''gràù ''' kàù ''live '', MT '''ūn ''' ''live '', RTI '''wow ''' vi. ''live ''||
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|'''*ʀVt '''||the entire ||RT '''xòac ''' ''the entirety of, all (of a collection) '', RTJ '''gréd ''' ''the entire, all (of inanimates) '', MT '''wath ''' ''the entire ''||
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|'''*sa '''||sister ||RT '''sa ''' pl swá ''sister, parallel cousin (female) '', RTJ '''să ''' ''sister '', MT '''sasa ''' ''sister '', RTI '''ha ''' n. hu. ''sister '', RRK '''šašà ''' pl šwašà n.h ''sister ''||
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|'''*saCCit (sagrit?) '''||justice, law enforcement ||RTJ '''sĕdríd ''' ''justice '', MT '''salíth ''' ''justice, law enforcement ''||s- derivative
|-
|'''*saɢiʀ '''||respect ||RTJ '''ghĕkhó ''' ''respect '', MT '''sayî ''' ''respect ''||different derivations of the same root
|-
|'''*saj '''||word(s), utterance(s), question(s) ||RT '''sei ''' sgv śei ''words, statement, utterance '', RTJ '''sáí ''' ''word, utterance '', MT '''sai ''' ''word(s), utterance(s), question(s) '', RTI '''hay ''' n. in. ''word, utterance '', RRK '''šii ''' pl šee n.i ''word, name; (pl) language '', ƏD '''sədaś ''' n. stat. '' word '' ||
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|'''*saɴɢ'''||truth ||RTJ '''ságh ''' ''truth '', MT '''sang ''' ''truth '', RTI '''haň ''' adj. ''true, right '', RRK '''haŋ ''' adj ''true, correct ''||
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|'''*sar'''||ask, question, interrogate ||RT '''śae ''' pass hśae, attr gźae ''ask (sb.) '', RTJ '''xá ''' ''ask, question, interrogate (never "request") '', MT '''sai ''' ''ask, question, interrogate '', RTI '''her ''' vt. ''ask, question '', RRK '''šer ''' dur šırii v.tr ''ask ''||
|-
|'''*saw '''||shape(s) ||RTJ '''sáú ''' ''shape, figure '', MT '''sau ''' ''shape(s) ''||
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|'''*sba'''||similarity ||RTJ '''pă ''' ''similarity '', MT '''sawa ''' ''similarity ''||
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|'''*sba'''||vegetation, plant(s) ||RT '''zwà ''' sgv zwìe ''vegetation, plants '', MT '''samba ''' ''vegetation, plant(s) '', RTI '''oomuu ''' n. in. ''legume, vegetable ''pl. oomanuu, RRK '''amuu ''' pl amanuu n.i ''legume, vegetable ''||see MT crop(s)
|-
|'''*sbəpiŋ'''||love ||RTJ '''pè ''' ĕpè ''love '', MT '''safwing ''' ''love ''||
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|'''*sbi ?'''||crop(s) ||RTJ '''pĭ ''' hmê ''plants, crops, vegetation '', MT '''sambi ''' ''crop(s) '', RTI '''humi ''' n. in. ''crop (collective) ''||see individual plant
|-
|'''*sCir'''||dance(s), game(s) (for playing) ||RT '''źwi ''' sgv źu ''dance; celebration '', RTJ '''zú ''' ''dance '', MT '''sasí ''' ''dance(s), game(s) (for playing) '', RTI '''hihir ''' n. in. ''dance ''||
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|'''*sCVdi'''||male genitalia (collectively), testicles and scrotum ||RTJ '''sĕzĭ ''' ''testicles and scrotum '', MT '''sóri ''' ''male genitalia (collectively), testicles and scrotum '', RRK '''šiidi ''' pl nıšiidi n.a ''testicle ''||
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|'''*sdaɬ'''||fly ||RT '''dao ''' attr ksao ''fly '', RTJ '''tá ''' tá ''fly '', MT '''srau ''' ''fly '', RTI '''hitral ''' vi. ''fly '', RRK '''štal ''' dur šıštal v.it ''fly '', ARŊ '''sataʃ''' ''fly (verb)''||
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|'''*sdar'''||grass ||RT '''zèi ''' (no sgv) ''grass '', RTJ '''cé ''' hnyè ''grass '', MT '''sandai ''' ''grass '', RTI '''hinar ''' n. in. ''grass (collective) '', RRK '''šınar ''' (no pl) n.i ''grass ''||
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|'''*sdet'''||barn, corral, housing for animals ||RT '''dec ''' sgv dzec ''barn, stables '', RTJ '''zĕhxég ''' ''barn, housing for animals '', MT '''sréth ''' ''barn, corral, housing for animals '', RTI '''hiset ''' n. in. ''corral, barn, shelter for animals ''pl. hitet, RRK '''hišak ''' pl hnišak n.i ''barn, stables, house or enclosure for livestock ''||
|-
|'''*sdrip'''||offense(s), insult(s) ||RTJ '''sĕzríb ''' ''offense, insult '', MT '''saríph ''' ''offense(s), insult(s) ''||
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|'''*sdrip '''||hate ||RTJ '''sĕzríb ''' ''hate, hatred '', MT '''saríph ''' ''hate ''||
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|'''*sdʔo '''||put, place, position ||RT '''zò ''' pass hsò, attr dzò ''put, place '', RTJ '''sĕdŏ ''' ''put, place '', MT '''sóndo ''' ''put, place, position '', RTI '''huno ''' vt. ''put, place ''||
|-
|'''*sdʔor'''||painting(s), mural(s), man made art ||RTJ '''ĕdró ''' ''painting, mural, man-made image, art '', MT '''sandí ''' ''painting(s), mural(s), man made art '', RTI '''hiňor ''' n. in. ''man-made image, work of art '', RRK '''šınor ''' pl nıšınor n.i ''picture, painting ''||
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|'''*se '''||no, none ||RT '''se ''' ''no, none (of many) '', RTJ '''xe ''' ''no, not (negative particle) '', MT '''se ''' ''no, none '', RRK '''še ''' qu ''no, none of '', , RNW '''sa ''' qtf. ''no(ne) ''||
|-
|'''*sek '''||animal, creature ||RT '''śec ''' pl síec ''animal '', RTJ '''xég ''' ĕrég ''animal, creature '', MT '''sakh ''' ''animal, creature '', RTI '''haš ''' n. an. ''animal, creature '', RRK '''šak ''' pl šwak n.a ''animal, creature '', ƏD '''ragdah ''' n. liv. '' animal, mammal, reptile, amphibian '' ||
|-
|'''*sen'''||fight, conflict || MT '''sen ''' ''fight, conflict '', RTI '''hii ''' n. in. ''fight, brawl ''||see also *sen
|-
|'''*sEN'''||||RT '''śun ''' (no sgv) ''light '', RTJ '''xè ''' ''shine, glow, rays (of light) ''||iim
|-
|'''*seŋg'''||night ||RT '''śenc ''' (no sgv) ''night '', RTJ '''xég ''' ĕrég ''night '', MT '''sangngom ''' ''night '', RRK '''šaŋ ''' pl nıšaŋ n.a ''night '', ARŊ '''ʃax̠''' ''night'', ƏD '''səg'lənt ''' n. dyn. '' nighttime '' ||
|-
|'''*seq'''||finish, complete ||RT '''dzac ''' pass htsac, attr ksac ''finish, complete '', RTJ '''xégh ''' ''finish, complete '', MT '''sec ''' ''finish, complete '', RTI '''hek ''' vt. ''finish, complete ''||
|-
|'''*set '''||shooting star ||RT '''sec ''' pl swéc ''shooting star '', RTJ '''xéd ''' ''shooting star '', MT '''seth ''' ''shooting star '', RTI '''his ''' n. in. ''shooting star ''pl. het, RRK '''šit ''' pl šet n.a ''shooting star ''||
|-
|'''*səbo '''||window ||RTJ '''sĕbŏ ''' ''window '', MT '''sawó ''' ''window '', RTI '''hipu ''' n. in. ''window '', RRK '''špı ''' pl rıšpî, cnstr bı n.i ''window ''||
|-
|'''*səsjaw'''||swamp ||RT '''źao ''' (no sgv) ''marshland, bog '', RTJ '''hxó ''' sĕró ''swamp '', MT '''sasau ''' ''swamp '', RTI '''hihaw ''' n. in. ''waterlogged soil, marshland ''||
|-
|'''*səswo'''||ladder ||RT '''zuo ''' sgv zwea ''ladder '', RTJ '''hsĕwĕ ''' hsrè ''ladder '', MT '''saswo ''' ''ladder '', RTI '''hihuwo ''' n. in. ''ladder '', RRK '''išù ''' pl nišù n.i ''ladder ''||
|-
|'''*sfaj'''||source, origin ||RTJ '''hfáí ''' sréí ''source, origin '', MT '''safai ''' ''source, origin '', RTI '''hihoy ''' n. in. ''source, origin ''||
|-
|'''*sfeŋg'''||thanks ||RTJ '''hfég ''' srég ''thanks '', MT '''safeng ''' ''thanks ''||
|-
|'''*sɢaw'''||bitch, female dog (less marked) ||RT '''gou ''' pl hkou ''female dog, bitch '', RTJ '''káú ''' ''bitch (female dog) '', MT '''sácau ''' ''bitch, female dog (less marked) '', RTI '''hačuu ''' n. an. ''dog '', RRK '''šaguu ''' pl šasuu, cnstr laguu, cnstr.pl lasuu n.a ''dog '', ARŊ '''ʃʷaqo''' ''bitch'', ƏD '''slágah ''' cnstr rəlágah n. liv. '' dog, bitch, female dog '' ||
|-
|'''*shriq '''||rape ||RTJ '''hsrígh ''' ĕhrígh ''rape '', MT '''sayîc ''' ''rape ''||
|-
|'''*shwim'''||marriage ||RT '''swín ''' (no pl) ''marriage '', RTJ '''hsrè ''' ĕhwím ''marriage, wedding '', MT '''sayîm ''' ''marriage ''||
|-
|'''*sik'''||lower leg ||RT '''śic ''' pl kwóu ''leg '', RTJ '''xíg ''' ''lower leg '', MT '''siphsikh ''' ''calf, lower leg ''||
|-
|'''*sik '''||type, kind ||RT '''ric ''' (no pl) ''type, kind, variety '', RTJ '''xíg ''' ''type, kind, quality '', MT '''sikh ''' ''type, kind '', RTI '''hiš ''' n. in. ''type, kind, quality ''||
|-
|'''*sil'''||torso, trunk of the body ||RTJ '''xé ''' yé ''body, torso '', MT '''xúsalú ''' ''torso, trunk of the body '', RTI '''hily ''' n. an. ''torso, trunk of the body ''||
|-
|'''*sil'''||intention(s), plan(s) ||RTJ '''sré ''' ''intention, plan '', MT '''súrī ''' ''intention(s), plan(s) ''||
|-
|'''*simb'''||war(s) ||RT '''sen ''' sgv śen ''war '', RTJ '''xíb ''' ''war '', MT '''sinden ''' ''war(s) '', RRK '''šanim ''' pl nıšanim n.i ''war, feud, rivalry ''||
|-
|'''*sip, stip'''||go though, pass through ||RT '''dzic ''' pass htsic, attr ksic ''go through, pass through '', RTJ '''xíb ''' ''go through, pass through '', MT '''siph ''' ''go though, pass through '', RTI '''hityip ''' vt. ''go through, pass through '', RRK '''šip ''' pp ''through ''||infixation in some cases
|-
|'''*siregja'''||willow tree, grove of willows ||RT '''dźea ''' (no sgv) ''willow trees '', RTJ '''sĕrĕjĕ ''' ''grove of willows '', MT '''síyala ''' ''willow tree, grove of willows '', RTI '''hireca ''' n. in. ''willow tree '', RRK '''šyaga ''' pl nıšyaga, cnstr dyaga n.i ''willow tree ''||or just sregja?
|-
|'''*sja'''||louse ||RT '''śie ''' (no sgv) ''louse '', RTJ '''xă ''' ĕră ''louse '', MT '''siya ''' ''louse '', ARŊ '''ʃia''' ''louse''||
|-
|'''*sja '''||hide ||RT '''śea ''' pass hśea, attr gźea ''hide '', MT '''sá ''' ''hide ''||
|-
|'''*sjamb'''||flood ||RTJ '''xáb ''' ĕráb ''flood '', MT '''sám ''' ''flood ''||
|-
|'''*sjap '''||rest ||RT '''śoc ''' attr gźoc ''rest, relax, take a break '', RTJ '''xáb ''' ''rest '', MT '''sáph ''' ''rest '', RRK '''špum ''' dur šıšpum v.it ''rest, relax '', ƏD '''sıəp ''' vt. '' rest '' ||
|-
|'''*sje'''||angle, curve, bend ||RT '''ragá ''' pass hragá, attr gragá ''bend '', RTJ '''xĕ ''' ĕrĕ ''angle, curve, bend '', MT '''saye ''' ''angle, curve, bend ''||
|-
|'''*sjen'''||music ||RT '''sin ''' sgv śin ''music '', RTJ '''xè ''' ĕrè ''music '', MT '''sayen ''' ''music '', RTI '''hiyey ''' n. in. ''music ''||
|-
|'''*sjil'''||meet ||RT '''syu ''' pass syú, attr tśa ''meet '', RTJ '''hí ''' ''meet '', MT '''hú ''' ''meet '', RTI '''hily ''' vt. ''meet '', RRK '''hil ''' dur hısil v.tr ''meet, spend time with (aor); meet regularly, be friends with (dur) '', ƏD '''iənləsas ''' perf enlənas vt. '' meet, be introduced to '' perf ‘know, have met, recognize’ (connaître)||
|-
|'''*sju '''||ancestor ||RTJ '''xó ''' ĕró ''ancestor '', MT '''rusú ''' ''ancestor '', RTI '''huu ''' n. hu. ''ancestor '', RRK '''šyuu ''' pl šyanuu, cnstr dyuu n.h ''ancestor ''||
|-
|'''*sjur ?'''||dance ||RT '''ntào ''' pass ntsào, attr gantào ''dance '', RTJ '''hxú ''' ĕsrú ''dance '', RTI '''šur ''' vt. ''dance '', RRK '''sur ''' dur tsur v.it ''dance ''||
|-
|'''*sjV'''||waist ||RTJ '''xí ''' ''waist '', MT '''súfōm ''' ''waist '', RTI '''reyšey ''' n. an. ''waist ''||
|-
|'''*skund'''||spoils, booty, loot, plunder ||RTJ '''kúd ''' ĕtrúd ''spoils, booty, loot, plunder '', MT '''sacun ''' ''spoils, booty, loot, plunder '', RTI '''hičun ''' n. in. ''spoils, loot, stolen goods ''||
|-
|'''*slgu'''||destruction, ruin || MT '''salcu ''' ''destruction, ruin ''||< gu
|-
|'''*slider'''||grass snake ||RT '''hli-zèi ''' pl fwá-zèi ''grass snake '', RTJ '''ĕcé ''' ''grass snake '', MT '''soléndai ''' ''grass snake '', ƏD '''soɬénd’as ''' n. liv. '' grass snake '' ||
|-
|'''*sLum'''||late winter/early spring ||RT '''hlun ''' (no sgv) ''late winter / early spring '', RTJ '''srò ''' ĕlrò ''late winter / early spring '', MT '''sawum ''' ''late winter/early spring '', RRK '''rulɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.a ''late winter / early spring ''||
|-
|'''*sLVŋ'''||leftovers, remains ||RT '''zrein ''' sgv źein ''leftovers '', RTJ '''hsàì ''' ĕsràì ''leftovers '', MT '''saleng ''' ''leftovers, remains ''||
|-
|'''*sɬaw '''||smell ||RTJ '''sĕlráú ''' ''smell, odor '', MT '''sawau ''' ''smell '', RTI '''hilyuu ''' n. in. ''scent, smell ''||
|-
|'''*sɬrVV '''||vigil, patrol, watch ||RTJ '''sĕlré ''' ''vigil, patrol '', MT '''sawú ''' ''vigil, patrol, watch ''||
|-
|'''*sma '''||death ||RT '''śao ''' pl śwao ''dead body '', RTJ '''hmâ ''' ''death '', MT '''sama ''' ''death '', RTI '''čuwa ''' adj. ''dead '', RRK '''kwa ''' adj ''dead ''||
|-
|'''*sme'''||dew ||RT '''swec ''' sgv syec ''frost, dew '', RTJ '''mê ''' ''dew '', MT '''mé ''' ''dew '', RTI '''wi ''' n. in. ''dew ''||
|-
|'''*smoŋ'''||song ||RT '''śin ''' pl ndźin ''song '', RTJ '''sràù ''' ''song '', MT '''sawong ''' ''song '', RTI '''hiwuu ''' n. in. ''song '', RRK '''šuu ''' pl nıšuu, cnstr vuu n.i ''song, piece of music '', ƏD '''səmoan ''' n. dyn. '' song '' ||perhaps of different origins
|-
|'''*smun'''||spring, well ||RT '''vyei ''' pl zwei ''spring, well '', RTJ '''brò ''' ''well, spring, watering hole '', MT '''mun ''' ''spring, well '', RTI '''šowuu ''' n. in. ''well, spring ''pl. čowuu, RRK '''skuu ''' pl rıskuu n.a ''spring, well ''||
|-
|'''*smwa'''||clay||RT '''mbza ''' (no sgv) ''clay '', RTJ '''srĕ ''' ''clay '', MT '''samam ''' ''clay '', RTI '''hi ''' n. in. ''clay '', RRK '''sol ''' (no pl) n.i ''clay ''||
|-
|'''*sni '''||quantity ||RTJ '''hnyê ''' ''quantity, number '', MT '''sani ''' ''quantity '', RTI '''hiri ''' n. in. ''amount, quantity, measure ''||
|-
|'''*sno '''||notch, nock (of an arrow) ||RT '''nó ''' pl ndó ''notch, indentation '', RTJ '''hnô ''' ''notch, nock (of an arrow) '', MT '''nonggín ''' ''notch, nock (of an arrow) ''||
|-
|'''*so '''||follow ||RT '''so ''' pass hso, attr gzo ''follow, accompany '', RTJ '''sŏ ''' ''follow ''||
|-
|'''*somb'''||tongue ||RT '''sonc ''' pl swónc ''tongue '', RTJ '''sób ''' ''tongue, language '', MT '''som ''' ''tongue '', RTI '''hom ''' n. an. ''tongue '', RRK '''šom ''' pl šum n.a ''tongue '', ARŊ '''sox''' ''tongue'', ƏD '''sonp ''' n. liv. '' tongue '' ||
|-
|'''*sot '''||give ||RT '''soc ''' pass hsoc, attr gzoc ''give (in general) '', RTJ '''sód ''' ''give '', MT '''soth ''' ''give ''||
|-
|'''*sow'''||soap ||RTJ '''sò ''' ''soap '', RTI '''how ''' n. in. ''soap ''||
|-
|'''*spem'''||baked goods ||RTJ '''pàì ''' ''baked goods, pastries '', MT '''sawem ''' ''baked goods ''||derivation from PR *pem
|-
|'''*spmind'''||sacrifice (not a person or animal) ||RTJ '''mè ''' ''sacrifice, give as an offering '', MT '''samin ''' ''sacrifice (not a person or animal) '', RRK '''šıvin ''' pl nıšıvin n.i ''sacrifice ''||
|-
|'''*spmoʀ '''||order(s), command(s), instruction(s) ||RTJ '''hmàù ''' ''orders, commands, instructions '', MT '''samô ''' ''order(s), command(s), instruction(s) '', RTI '''heyruu ''' n. in. ''order(s), command(s), instruction(s) ''||
|-
|'''*squmb'''||meal(s) ||RT '''gonc ''' sgv gyunc ''food; meal (event of eating) '', RTJ '''khúb ''' ĕkhúb ''meal '', MT '''sacum ''' ''meal(s) '', RTI '''hišum ''' n. in. ''piece of food, meal ''see also tyi, RRK '''škum ''' pl rıškum, cnstr gum n.i ''meal '', ƏD '''gənt ''' cnstr g’ənt, coll, no pl n. port. ''food '' ||
|-
|'''*sraC '''||pear orchard, grove of pear trees ||RT '''zrà ''' sgv źà ''pear trees '', RTJ '''sráí ''' ''pear trees '', MT '''sālath ''' ''pear orchard, grove of pear trees '', RTI '''ilyeehee ''' n. in. ''pear tree ''sg. ileehee||
|-
|'''*sraj'''||demand ||RTJ '''sĕrá ''' ''demand '', MT '''syai ''' ''demand '', RTI '''hirii ''' vt. ''demand ''||
|-
|'''*srajn'''||embers ||RT '''saen ''' sgv śin ''embers '', RTJ '''sràì ''' ''embers ''||
|-
|'''*srek '''||flea ||RT '''srec ''' pl śwéc ''flea '', RTJ '''srĕbĭ ''' ''flea '', MT '''sékh ''' ''flea '', RTI '''šeš ''' n. an. ''flea ''||
|-
|'''*sreq'''||end, ending, culmination ||RT '''yàc ''' (no pl) ''end; culmination; result '', RTJ '''srégh ''' ''end, ending, culmination '', MT '''sayec ''' ''end, ending, culmination '', RTI '''hirek ''' n. in. ''end, ending, culmination ''||
|-
|'''*sri '''||pierce ||RT '''sri ''' pass hsri, attr gri ''pierce, stab '', RTJ '''srĭ ''' ''pierce '', MT '''sí ''' ''pierce '', RTI '''hip ''' vt. ''pierce, penetrate '', RRK '''šwi ''' dur šırì v.tr ''stab, pierce ''||
|-
|'''*sro'''||chase, pursue ||RT '''sro ''' pass hsro, attr gro ''chase, pursue, hunt '', RTJ '''srŏ ''' ''chase, pursue '', MT '''syo ''' ''chase, pursue '', RTI '''hiro ''' vt. ''chase, pursue ''||
|-
|'''*sro'''||wait for, await ||RT '''sruo ''' attr gruo ''wait '', RTJ '''sĕwŏ ''' ''await '', MT '''syó ''' ''wait for, await '', RTI '''hiru ''' vt. ''wait '', RRK '''hro ''' dur do v.it ''wait, be patient ''||
|-
|'''*sru'''||holy, sacred ||RTJ '''ĕrŭ ''' rrŭ ''be holy, sacred '', MT '''ru ''' ''holy, sacred '', RTI '''triru ''' adj. ''holy, sacred, blessed '', RRK '''sırù ''' adj ''sacred, holy ''||
|-
|'''*sruk '''||be slow ||RT '''sruc ''' attr gruc ''be slow '', RTJ '''srúg ''' ''be slow '', MT '''súkh ''' ''be slow '', RRK '''šuk ''' dur štuk v.it ''be slow ''||
|-
|'''*sRVm '''||liquid, fluid ||RTJ '''srè ''' ''liquid '', MT '''swam ''' ''liquid, fluid '', RTI '''hiwow ''' n. in. ''liquid, fluid ''||
|-
|'''*sʀaj ?'''||coast ||RT '''ksùn ''' (no sgv) ''coast (of the ocean) '', RTJ '''xáí ''' ĕráí ''coast '', MT '''sêyâi ''' ''coast ''||
|-
|'''*sʀul'''||center, middle ||RTJ '''sĕgré ''' ''center, middle '', MT '''salú ''' ''center, middle '', RTI '''hišil ''' n. in. ''center, middle ''||
|-
|'''*stot'''||neither ||RT '''dòc ''' ''neither, none (of a few) '', RTJ '''tód ''' ''neither '', MT '''stoth ''' ''neither '', , RNW '''sjitǫt ''' qtf. ''neither ''||
|-
|'''*strit'''||argument ||RTJ '''tríd ''' ''argument '', MT '''saríth ''' ''argument '', RTI '''hitrit ''' n. in. ''argument, disagreement ''||
|-
|'''*stχet ?'''||storage, inventory ||RTJ '''céd ''' zréd ''storage, shed, inventory '', MT '''sarāth ''' ''storage, inventory '', RTI '''hitrat ''' n. in. ''storehouse, granary ''||
|-
|'''*su'''||near, nearby, close, neighboring ||RT '''su ''' attr gzu ''be present, be in reach '', RTJ '''srŭ ''' sŭ ''be near, nearby, close, neighboring '', MT '''su ''' ''near, nearby, close, neighboring '', RTI '''čihu ''' adj. ''near, nearby, neighboring '', ƏD '''su ''' adj. '' nearby, near '' ||
|-
|'''*sul'''||worry, anxiety ||RTJ '''sú ''' ''worry, anxiety '', MT '''súk’ā ''' ''worry, anxiety ''||
|-
|'''*sumb'''||cheek ||RTJ '''súb ''' ''cheek '', MT '''sumbōm ''' ''cheek '', RTI '''hum ''' n. an. ''cheek ''||
|-
|'''*suŋg'''||pool, pond ||RT '''wínc ''' pl nwínc ''pond '', RTJ '''súg ''' ''pool, pond '', MT '''sung ''' ''pool, pond '', RTI '''huň ''' n. in. ''pond, small lake '', RRK '''šuŋ ''' pl nıšuŋ n.i ''pond, small lake ''||
|-
|'''*sup '''||punch ||RTJ '''súb ''' ''punch '', MT '''suph ''' ''punch '', RTI '''hup ''' vt. ''punch ''||
|-
|'''*sur'''||lead, guide, be a leader ||RT '''ksèc ''' attr gigzèc ''lead, guide '', RTJ '''sú ''' ''lead, guide, be a leader '', MT '''sí ''' ''lead, guide, be a leader '', RTI '''hur ''' vi. ''act as a guide, be a guide ''||
|-
|'''*suw'''||go upstream, go uphill, take the more difficult course of action ||RT '''sao ''' attr gzao ''go upstream, go against the flow, push through '', RTJ '''xó ''' ''go upstream, go against the current '', MT '''sú ''' ''go upstream, go uphill, take the more difficult course of action '', RRK '''su ''' adv ''barely, with difficulty ''||
|-
|'''*sVV'''||elbow ||RT '''sae ''' pl syoc ''elbow '', RTJ '''sú ''' ''elbow '', MT '''sísaye ''' ''elbow '', RTI '''riyetyir ''' n. an. ''elbow '', RRK '''šıı ''' pl šıt, cnstr rıı, cnstr.pl rıt n.a ''elbow ''||
|-
|'''*sVVŋg'''||wound(s) ||RT '''saenc ''' pl ndzaenc ''wound, injury '', RTJ '''zó ''' ''wound, injury '', MT '''sayāng ''' ''wound(s) ''||
|-
|'''*swi'''||cloak ||RT '''swi ''' pl ndzwi ''coat, cloak '', RTJ '''jĕbĕtàì ''' ''cloak '', MT '''sawi ''' ''cloak '', RTI '''hiwi ''' n. in. ''cloak '', RRK '''šwi ''' pl nıšwi, cnstr dwi n.i ''cloak, coat ''||
|-
|'''*swo'''||stand (used as a general copula) ||RT '''sró ''' (no attr) ''(interrogative copula) '', RTJ '''srŏ ''' ''stand (used as a copula) '', MT '''só ''' ''stand (used as a general copula) '', RTI '''hu ''' vi. ''stand '', ARŊ '''ʂarʲan''' ''stand (verb)''||
|-
|'''*swo'''||climb, ascend ||RTJ '''sĕwŏ ''' ''go up, ascend, climb '', MT '''swo ''' ''climb, ascend '', RTI '''huwo ''' vi. ''go up, ascend, climb ''||
|-
|'''*syam'''||rise, get up ||RT '''ndzu ''' attr gundzu ''rise, get up '', RTJ '''dlyè ''' ''rise, get up (from sitting or lying) '', MT '''syan ''' ''get up (from sitting or lying), rise '', RTI '''siyey ''' vi. ''rise, stand (up) '', RRK '''pyaseŋ ''' dur pıpyaseŋ v.it ''get up, start the day ''||
|-
|'''*sʔjor ??'''||||RT '''ntrae ''' (no sgv) ''harvest season '', RTJ '''sĕgró ''' ''harvest '', MT '''sayî ''' ''harvest '', RTI '''huur ''' vt. ''harvest, collect '', RRK '''šoor ''' dur šošoor v.tr ''pick, gather, harvest ''||
|-
|'''*sʔor ??'''||||RT '''srae ''' pass hsrae, attr grae ''reap, harvest '', RTJ '''hsó ''' dlád ''harvest '', MT '''sî ''' ''harvest ''||
|-
|'''*taj'''||pestle ||RT '''po-tóun ''' (no pl) ''pestle '', RTJ '''tí ''' ''pestle '', MT '''thíyac ''' ''pestle '', RTI '''tay ''' n. in. ''pestle ''||
|-
|'''*tal'''||cold ||RT '''tsao ''' attr gzao ''be cold (of things); feel cold (of people) '', MT '''tau ''' ''cold '', ARŊ '''tʃaʃri''' ''cold (of weather)''||
|-
|'''*tam '''||crush, grind ||RT '''tóun ''' pass htóun, attr glóun ''crush, grind '', RTJ '''tà ''' ''crush, grind '', MT '''tham ''' ''crush, grind '', RTI '''tree ''' vt. ''grind, mill '', RRK '''taa ''' dur traa v.tr ''grind, crush ''||
|-
|'''*tap ?'''||left side, the left (direction) ||RT '''tac ''' ''to the left of '', RTJ '''tréb ''' ''left (direction) '', MT '''thaphyâi ''' ''left side, the left (direction) '', RRK '''dıp ''' pp ''to the west of; to the left of ''||
|-
|'''*taq'''||take, remove ||RT '''tóc ''' pass htóc, attr glóc ''take away, remove '', RTJ '''cágh ''' ''remove, take away '', MT '''thac ''' ''take, remove '', RTI '''tak ''' vt. ''take, remove, take away '', RRK '''tak ''' dur tatak v.tr ''remove, get rid of, throw away '', ƏD '''tek ''' vt. '' take '' ||
|-
|'''*taq'''||||RT '''dudźoc ''' pl ndudźoc ''grate, grill '', RTJ '''cágh ''' ''fry '', RTI '''tak ''' vt. ''fry '', RRK '''tanor ''' dur taatanor v.tr ''fry, roast ''||tsaq?
|-
|'''*tar'''||butter ||RT '''tá ''' sgv tsá ''butter '', RTJ '''tá ''' ''butter '', MT '''thai ''' ''butter '', RTI '''trar ''' n. in. ''butter ''||
|-
|'''*tCaq '''||stallion (male horse) ||RT '''taoc ''' pl tśinc ''male horse, stallion '', RTJ '''tágh ''' ''stallion '', MT '''tōc ''' ''stallion (male horse) '', RTI '''truuk ''' n. an. ''stallion (male horse) '', RRK '''t’ook ''' pl k’in, cnstr šook, cnstr.pl hin n.a ''horse ''||
|-
|'''*te '''||kneel ||RTJ '''cĕ ''' ''kneel '', MT '''the ''' ''kneel ''||< tiw
|-
|'''*tej'''||spine, backbone, vertebrae ||RTJ '''cáí ''' hsáí ''spine '', MT '''tīk’ith ''' ''spine, backbone, vertebrae '', RTI '''trii ''' n. an. ''spine, backbone ''||
|-
|'''*tek'''||waterfall ||RTJ '''cég ''' ''waterfall '', MT '''thakh ''' ''waterfall '', RRK '''taguu ''' pl tıgyuu, cnstr t’aguu, cnstr.pl t’ıgyuu n.a ''waterfall ''||
|-
|'''*tek '''||move around, wander ||RT '''téc ''' ''near, around '', RTJ '''cég ''' ''move around, wander, go nowhere in particular '', MT '''thekh ''' ''move around, wander '', RTI '''teš ''' vi. ''move around, wander ''||
|-
|'''*tekʔej ?'''||promise||RT '''tei ndè ''' ''promise '', RTJ '''dĕq’àì ''' ''promise '', RRK '''tegaa ''' dur tetegaa v.tr ''promise ''||
|-
|'''*temb'''||event(s) ||RTJ '''céb ''' ''event '', MT '''them ''' ''event(s) '', RTI '''sem ''' n. in. ''event ''||
|-
|'''*ter'''||black, dark (in color) ||RTJ '''cé ''' ''black color, black pigment '', MT '''thí ''' ''black, dark (in color) '', ARŊ '''tʃer''' ''black (colour)''||
|-
|'''*teSfet '''||armory, army ||RTJ '''zĕhféd ''' ''armory, army ''||< fet 'warrior'
|-
|'''*tet'''||copper ||RTJ '''gĕzréd ''' ''copper, copperware '', MT '''theth ''' ''copper '', RTI '''tet ''' n. in. ''copper '', RRK '''tet ''' pl rıtet n.i ''copper (piece of) ''||
|-
|'''*təŋ '''||secret(s) ||RTJ '''càì ''' ''secret '', MT '''thang ''' ''secret(s) ''||
|-
|'''*tətra'''||plow, till ||RT '''dza li ''' ''plow '', RTJ '''tă ''' tă ''plow '', MT '''tra ''' ''plow, till '', RTI '''titra ''' vt. ''plow (a piece of land) '', RRK '''dli ''' dur dıdlì v.tr ''plow, till ''||
|-
|'''*tgiŋ '''||threaten ||RT '''tlin ''' pass tlín, attr glin ''threaten '', RTJ '''jè ''' ''threaten '', MT '''hing ''' ''threaten ''||< *giŋ
|-
|'''*tɢa'''||earlobe ||RT '''tséa ''' pl tác ''ear '', RTJ '''că ''' ''earlobe '', MT '''taca ''' ''earlobe '', RTI '''ta ''' n. an. ''earlobe ''||< qga
|-
|'''*thi'''||although ||RT '''tí ''' ''although, even if '', RTJ '''ti ''' ''although '', MT '''tha ''' ''although ''||the vocalism is puzzling - RT and RTJ suggest a front vowel, but lack the palatalisation, which it would have triggered
|-
|'''*ti '''||already ||RT '''tsí ''' ''already '', RTJ '''cĭ ''' ''already '', MT '''thi ''' ''already ''||
|-
|'''*tij'''||||RT '''dyóu ''' pl tyóc ''knee '', RTJ '''cí ''' ''knee '', RTI '''tii ''' n. an. ''knee '', RRK '''tii ''' pl twii n.a ''knee '', ƏD '''tiś ''' cnstr deś n. liv. '' knee '' ||< tiw
|-
|'''*tim'''||person, individual ||RT '''tsyún ''' pl twín ''person '', RTJ '''cè ''' ''person, individual '', MT '''thim ''' ''person, individual '', RTI '''tyey ''' n. hu. ''person, human being '', RRK '''nɛɛ ''' pl nınɛɛ n.h ''tribe, ethnic group '', ARŊ '''ʃim''' ''person''||
|-
|'''*tin '''||ewe (female sheep; less marked) ||RT '''tsín ''' pl dźá ''female sheep, ewe '', RTJ '''cè ''' ''ewe, sheep (less marked) '', MT '''thin ''' ''ewe (female sheep; less marked) '', RTI '''tyey ''' n. an. ''sheep '', RRK '''tsɛɛ ''' pl tusɛɛ, cnstr ıtsɛɛ, cnstr.pl rıtsɛɛ n.a ''sheep ''||
|-
|'''*tja'''||work ||RT '''tsa ''' attr gza ''work '', RTJ '''ză ''' ''work '', MT '''tá ''' ''work '', RTI '''ša ''' vi. ''work '', RRK '''sa ''' dur tsa v.it ''work, strive ''||
|-
|'''*tja '''||||RTJ '''că ''' ''this (near me) ''||
|-
|'''*tju '''||human head hair ||RT '''tsyú ''' sgv tsóu ''hair '', RTJ '''cú ''' ''hair '', MT '''túwom ''' ''human head hair '', RTI '''tow ''' n. in. ''hair '', RRK '''tɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.i ''hair '', ARŊ '''ŋʷatʃu''' ''hair (on head of human)''||
|-
|'''*tjup'''||discuss||RT '''tyuc pyec pwo ''' ''discuss, negotiate '', RRK '''tyup ''' dur tıtyup v.tr ''discuss, talk about ''||
|-
|'''*tjuw'''||thing(s), stuff ||RT '''táo ''' pl ndáo ''thing, item '', RTJ '''có ''' ''thing '', MT '''thú ''' ''thing(s), stuff '', RTI '''tey ''' n. in. ''thing ''||
|-
|'''*tɬu'''||axe ||RT '''tlú ''' pl ndlú ''axe '', RTJ '''trŭ ''' ''axe '', RTI '''šu ''' n. in. ''axe ''||
|-
|'''*tɬij'''||mist, fog bank ||RT '''tléi ''' (no sgv) ''fog, mist '', RTJ '''hlyí ''' jí ''fog '', MT '''dsí ''' ''mist, fog bank '', RRK '''tsii ''' (no pl) n.a ''mist, fog ''||
|-
|'''*tna '''||all three ||RTJ '''hnâ ''' ''all three '', MT '''tna ''' ''all three ''||
|-
|'''*tnaʀ '''||pear(s) ||RT '''ná ''' sgv nyá ''pear(s) '', RTJ '''hnàì ''' ''pear(s) '', MT '''nhāwong ''' ''pear(s) '', RTI '''yuuhee ''' n. in. ''pear '', RRK '''vundaa ''' pl rıvundaa n.i ''pear ''||
|-
|'''*tne'''||tail ||RT '''né ''' pl mfwé ''tail '', RTJ '''hnyê ''' ''tail '', MT '''nhe ''' ''tail '', RTI '''te ''' n. an. ''tail '', RRK '''te ''' pl twe, cnstr re n.a ''tail '', ARŊ '''p'anʲe''' ''tail''||
|-
|'''*tnemb'''||be rich ||RTJ '''hnyèb ''' ''be rich '', MT '''nanem ''' ''be rich ''||
|-
|'''*tnəl'''||altar ||RTJ '''hnĕlágh ''' ''altar '', MT '''nhau ''' ''altar '', RTI '''tel ''' n. in. ''altar, ritual place ''pl. tral, RRK '''tel ''' pl tal, cnstr rel, cnstr.pl ral n.i ''altar, ritual place ''||
|-
|'''*tnik'''||foot ||RT '''źíc ''' (no sgv) ''footprints, trace '', RTJ '''hnyèg ''' ''foot '', MT '''nhikh ''' ''foot '', RTI '''tyiš ''' n. an. ''foot '', RRK '''tik ''' pl tut, cnstr rik, cnstr.pl rut n.a ''foot '', ARŊ '''nʲik''' ''foot''||
|-
|'''*tniŋg'''||beard, facial hair ||RT '''nínc ''' sgv nyénc ''beard '', RTJ '''zĕhíg ''' ''beard '', MT '''nhing ''' ''beard, facial hair '', RTI '''tyiň ''' n. in. ''beard '', RRK '''tiŋ ''' pl nıtiŋ, cnstr riŋ n.i ''beard ''||
|-
|'''*tnir'''||sink ||RT '''níe ''' attr díe ''sink '', RTJ '''hnyè ''' ''sink '', MT '''nhí ''' ''sink '', RTI '''tyir ''' vi. ''sink '', RRK '''tir ''' dur titir v.it ''dive, sink ''||
|-
|'''*tnit '''||skeleton, set of bones ||RTJ '''hnyèd ''' hnyèd ''skeleton, collection of bones '', MT '''cundith ''' ''skeleton, set of bones ''||
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|'''*tnja'''||smooth ||RTJ '''hnyâ ''' ''be smooth '', MT '''kandaná ''' ''smooth ''||
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|'''*tnol'''||mudbrick ||RT '''nóu ''' sgv nyóu ''brick '', RTJ '''hnyò ''' ''brick(s) '', MT '''nhúyac ''' ''mudbrick '', RTI '''til ''' n. in. ''brick '', RRK '''tıl ''' pl tol, cnstr rıl, cnstr.pl rol n.i ''brick ''||infixation in RTJ
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|'''*tnot '''||pants, trousers, lower body clothing ||RT '''nóc ''' sgv nyóc ''pants, trousers '', RTJ '''hnòd ''' ''pants, trousers '', MT '''nhothngú ''' ''pants, trousers, lower body clothing '', RTI '''trot ''' n. in. ''pants, trousers (pair of) '', RRK '''tot ''' pl nıtot, cnstr rot n.i ''pants, trousers (pair of) ''||
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|'''*tnow'''||evidence, proof ||RT '''dou ''' pass htou, attr ksou ''indicate, be evidence for '', RTJ '''hnò ''' ''proof, evidence '', MT '''núsang ''' ''evidence, proof ''||
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|'''*tnu '''||the other ||RT '''nú ''' ''the other one '', RTJ '''hnu ''' ''the other '', MT '''nhu ''' ''the other '', ƏD '''su ''' -nu deict. '' the other place '' the animal, an animal, a body part||
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|'''*tnuŋg'''||marsh ||RTJ '''hnòg ''' ''marsh '', MT '''nhungéng ''' ''marsh '', RRK '''tuŋ ''' pl nıtuŋ, cnstr ruŋ n.i ''bog, fen ''||
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|'''*tnVV'''||summer ||RT '''ndàe ''' (no sgv) ''summer '', RTJ '''hnò ''' ''summer '', MT '''dandí ''' ''summer ''||
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|'''*to'''||fine ||RTJ '''tŏ ''' ''be fine '', MT '''kandalo ''' ''fine ''||
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|'''*tobin ?'''||peel||RT '''tsao bwìn ''' ''peel '', RRK '''tobıı ''' dur totobıı v.tr ''peel, strip off ''||
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|'''*tra '''||shiver ||RT '''tréa ''' attr gréa ''shiver '', RTJ '''tĕră ''' ''shiver '', MT '''thá ''' ''shiver '', RRK '''duŋit ''' dur duduŋit v.it ''shiver ''||
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|'''*tram '''||twenty-four ||RT '''tróun ''' ''24 '', RTJ '''crà ''' ''twenty-four '', MT '''thám ''' ''twenty-four '', RRK '''twaa ''' ord rɛtwaa qu ''24 ''||
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|'''*trand'''||explain ||RT '''tan ''' pass tán, attr glan ''show, demonstrate, explain '', RTJ '''trĕdrĕ ''' ''explain '', MT '''thónda ''' ''explain '', RTI '''truni ''' vt. ''explain '', RRK '''t’aa ''' dur sanaa v.tr ''show, indicate, demonstrate ''||
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|'''*trat'''||look forward to, be excited for ||RTJ '''dĕréd ''' gĕzréd ''look foreward to, be excited for '', MT '''táth ''' ''look forward to, be excited for '', RTI '''trat ''' vt. ''look forward to, be excited for ''||
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|'''*tre '''||none of the three ||RTJ '''cĕ ''' ''none of the three '', MT '''tre ''' ''none of the three ''||
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|'''*treŋ'''||doubt ||RT '''táen ''' pass htáen, attr gláen ''doubt '', RTJ '''tràì ''' ''doubt '', MT '''thang ''' ''doubt '', RTI '''trey ''' vt. ''doubt ''||
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|'''*tri '''||scorpion ||RT '''trí ''' pl tśwí ''scorpion '', RTJ '''crĭ ''' ''scorpion '', MT '''thílā ''' ''scorpion '', RTI '''tri ''' n. an. ''scorpion ''||
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|'''*trip '''||offend, insult ||RT '''réc ''' pass hréc, attr tréc ''offend, insult, humiliate '', RTJ '''críb ''' ''offend, insult '', MT '''thíph ''' ''offend, insult '', RTI '''trip ''' vt. ''offend, insult ''||
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|'''*tRit '''||argue with ||RT '''twíc ''' pass htwíc, attr gudwíc ''disagree, protest, argue '', RTJ '''tríd ''' ''argue with '', MT '''thíth ''' ''argue with '', RTI '''trit ''' vt. ''argue with '', RRK '''kıduu ''' dur kıkıduu v.tr ''protest against, oppose, disagree with ''||
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|'''*trja '''||sole of the foot ||RT '''trá ''' sgv níc ''feet '', RTJ '''cră ''' ''sole(s) (of feet), palm(s) (of hands) '', MT '''tánikh ''' ''sole of the foot ''||
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|'''*tRo'''||strong ||RT '''twó ''' attr glúo ''be strong '', RTJ '''dĕdrŏ ''' trŏ ''be strong '', MT '''thó ''' ''strong '', RTI '''tru ''' adj. ''strong, powerful '', RRK '''tu ''' adj ''strong, powerful ''||
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|'''*tro '''||||RT '''tró ''' pl ndró ''pot, cauldron '', RTJ '''trŏ ''' ''pot ''||
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|'''*trot'''||shoulder ||RT '''troc ''' sgv tsac ''shoulder(s), upper back '', RTJ '''dró ''' ''shoulder '', MT '''súrí ''' ''shoulder '', RRK '''t’yot ''' pl t’ut, cnstr šyot, cnstr.pl šut n.a ''shoulder ''||the RTJ and MT cognates are doubtful
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|'''*tsir'''||sharp ||RT '''dźie ''' attr kśie ''be sharp '', RTJ '''hxí ''' ''be sharp '', MT '''kdasí ''' ''sharp '', RRK '''tšir ''' adj ''sharp ''||also see MT ârsí
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|'''*tsok'''||shoal, shallow (in a body of water) ||RTJ '''dóg ''' ''reef, shoal '', MT '''sokhwuth ''' ''shoal, shallow (in a body of water) ''||
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|'''*tsʔa'''||be easy ||RT '''tsèa ''' attr gzèa ''be simple, be easy '', RTJ '''c’ă ''' ''be easy '', MT '''t’a ''' ''be easy '', ƏD '''dadı ''' perf ədádi vt. '' be easy to '' ||
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|'''*tsʔaw '''||grape vine(s), vineyard ||RT '''tsào ''' (no sgv) ''grape(s) '', RTJ '''c’ó ''' ''grape(s), wine '', MT '''thau ''' ''grape vine(s), vineyard '', RTI '''taw ''' n. in. ''vineyard '', RRK '''hitoo ''' pl hritoo n.i ''vineyard ''||
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|'''*tu'''||owl species ||RT '''ntú ''' (no pl) ''owl '', RTJ '''tŭ ''' ''owl species '', MT '''thulí ''' ''owl species ''||various derivations
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|'''*tudem'''||fill, load || MT '''thundam ''' ''fill, load '', RTI '''truney ''' vt. ''fill ''||
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|'''*tumb'''||finger ||RT '''túnc ''' (no pl) ''finger '', RTJ '''tíb ''' ''digit, finger (not thumb) '', MT '''tham ''' ''finger '', RTI '''tum ''' n. an. ''finger '', RRK '''tım ''' pl tum n.a ''finger ''||
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|'''*tup '''||heart ||RT '''túc ''' (no pl) ''heart '', RTJ '''túb ''' ''heart '', MT '''thuph ''' ''heart '', RTI '''trup ''' n. an. ''heart '', RRK '''tup ''' pl rıtup n.a ''heart '', ARŊ '''sʷuk''' ''heart''||onom.
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|'''*turam '''||too much, excessively ||RT '''tyáon ''' attr gidyáon ''do too much, do excessively '', RTJ '''tĕrà ''' ''too much, excessively '', MT '''thuyam ''' ''too much, excessively '', RRK '''traa ''' adv ''a lot, too much, excessively ''||
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|'''*tusek '''||horde, throng, any large, disorganized group ||RTJ '''hxég ''' hxég ''horde, throng, swarm '', MT '''tusakh ''' ''horde, throng, any large, disorganized group ''||
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|'''*tVrV '''||||RT '''dwá ''' pass htwá, attr gudwá ''understand '', RTJ '''tĕrĕ ''' ''understand '', RTI '''tro ''' vi. ''understand ''||
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|'''*tVV'''||legend, story ||RT '''táe ''' pl twáe ''story, legend '', RTJ '''tú ''' ''story, legend '', MT '''undí ''' ''legend, story '', RRK '''tıı ''' pl rıtıı n.a ''story, legend ''||
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|'''*tVV'''||line of succession, heirs ||RTJ '''tú ''' ĕdrú ''line of succession, heirs '', MT '''sandí ''' ''line of succession, heirs ''||
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|'''*twi '''||spear ||RT '''twí ''' pl ndwí ''spear '', RTJ '''tú ''' ''spear(s) '', MT '''p’andí ''' ''spear '', RRK '''tɛɛ ''' pl rıtɛɛ n.i ''spear ''||
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|'''*tʔa '''||grandmother ||RT '''tà ''' pl twá ''grandmother '', RTJ '''t’ă ''' ''grandmother '', MT '''t’anda ''' ''grandmother '', RTI '''tra ''' n. hu. ''grandmother '', RRK '''dadà ''' pl twadà n.h ''grandmother ''||
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|'''*tʔaj '''||reason(s), motive(s), explanation ||RT '''tsèi ''' (no pl) ''reason, explanation, motivation '', RTJ '''c’í ''' ''reason, explanation, motivation '', MT '''t’ai ''' ''reason(s), motive(s), explanation ''||
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|'''*tʔaʀ'''||bite ||RTJ '''tă ''' ''bite '', MT '''t’ā ''' ''bite '', RTI '''tra ''' vt. ''bite '', ARŊ '''t'aʁa''' ''bite (verb)''||various affixations
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|'''*tʔaw- '''||grapes ||RTJ '''hmĕc’ó ''' ''vinyard, patch of grape vines '', MT '''t’auwong ''' ''grapes '', RTI '''tyiyaw ''' n. in. ''grape ''||
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|'''*tʔe '''||any ||RT '''tè ''' ''any (of many) '', RTJ '''c’ĕ ''' ''any '', MT '''t’e ''' ''any '', RRK '''de ''' qu ''many, much, a lot of (human or animate referent) '', , RNW '''tą ''' qtf. ''any ''||
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|'''*tʔeŋ '''||then (in the future) ||RT '''tèin ''' ''then (in the future) '', MT '''t’ang ''' ''then (in the future) '', RRK '''daa ''' adv ''then, next (irrealis) ''||
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|'''*tʔep'''||bug, insect ||RT '''dzèc ''' sgv dréi ''swarm of insects '', RTJ '''c’éb ''' ''insects, bugs, swarm of insects (collective plural) '', MT '''t’éph ''' ''bug, insect '', RRK '''dip ''' pl rıdip n.a ''beetle '', ƏD '''daip ''' n. liv. '' bug, insect, arachnid, worm '' ||
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|'''*tʔer'''||thumb ||RT '''tèi ''' pl twéi ''thumb '', RTJ '''c’é ''' ''thumb '', MT '''t’í ''' ''thumb '', RTI '''ter ''' n. an. ''thumb '', RRK '''der ''' pl dwer n.a ''thumb ''||
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|'''*tʔi '''||come, approach (towards speaker) ||RT '''tsì ''' attr gzì ''come, approach (towards speaker) '', RTJ '''c'ĭ ''' ''come, approach (towards speaker) '', MT '''t’i ''' ''come, approach (towards speaker) '', RTI '''tyi ''' vi. ''come, approach (towards speaker) '', RRK '''gri ''' dur ŋgari v.it ''come, approach (towards here) '', ARŊ '''tʃ'ibra''' ''come (verb)''||
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|'''*tʔidra'''||be difficult ||RTJ '''c’ĕdĕră ''' ''be difficult '', MT '''t’irá ''' ''be difficult ''||
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|'''*tʔin '''||wool ||RT '''tsìn ''' sgv tsèn ''wool '', RTJ '''c’è ''' ''wool '', MT '''t’in ''' ''wool '', RTI '''tyey ''' n. in. ''wool '', RRK '''yorɛɛ ''' pl rıyorɛɛ n.i ''wool (thread or item of) ''||
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|'''*tʔiŋ '''||claw ||RTJ '''c’è ''' ''claw '', MT '''t’ing ''' ''claw '', RRK '''dɛɛ ''' pl rıdɛɛ n.i ''claw '', ARŊ '''t'in''' ''claw''||
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|'''*tʔit '''||petals, blossoms ||RT '''tsìc ''' sgv tsèc ''petals '', RTJ '''c’íd ''' ''petal(s) '', MT '''t’ith ''' ''petals, blossoms '', RTI '''tyis ''' n. in. ''petal '', RRK '''dit ''' pl rıdit n.i ''petal ''||
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|'''*tʔjan'''||become wet, be wet ||RTJ '''c’à ''' ''be wet '', MT '''t’án ''' ''become wet, be wet '', RTI '''čityee ''' adj. ''wet, damp '', RRK '''ndyaa ''' adj ''wet, damp '', ƏD '''dean ''' vi. ''be damp '' the period, the natural phenomenon, the weather||
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|'''*tʔo '''||be quiet ||RT '''tò ''' attr glò ''be calm, be silent '', RTJ '''t’ŏ ''' ''be quiet '', MT '''t’o ''' ''be quiet ''||
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|'''*tʔokʔam '''||sneak ||RT '''tò kòun ''' ''sneak '', RTJ '''t’ĕk’à ''' ''sneak ''||
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|'''*tʔor'''||paint, color, dye ||RT '''tàe ''' pass htàe, attr glàe ''paint, color, dye '', RTJ '''t’ó ''' ''paint, color, dye '', MT '''t’í ''' ''paint, color, dye '', RTI '''tror ''' vt. ''paint, dye, color '', RRK '''dor ''' dur ndor v.tr ''paint, color, dye ''||
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|'''*tʔot '''||either ||RT '''dzòc ''' ''either, any (of a few) '', RTJ '''t’ód ''' ''either '', MT '''t’oth ''' ''either '', , RNW '''tǫt ''' qtf. ''either ''||
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|'''*tʔra '''||exist ||RT '''trà ''' attr grà ''exist '', RTJ '''cr’ă ''' ''exist '', MT '''t’á ''' ''exist '', RRK '''ndwa ''' dur nındwa v.it ''exist, be real ''||
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|'''*tʔrim '''||powder ||RTJ '''tr’è ''' nè ''powder '', MT '''t’ím ''' ''powder ''||
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|'''*tʔrow'''||beach ||RT '''gròn ''' sgv gyòn ''beach, gravel bank '', RTJ '''dĕcr’àù ''' hnàù ''beach '', RTI '''čitruu ''' n. in. ''beach, shore ''||
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|'''*tʔrV'''||make, create ||RT '''lá ''' pass hlá, attr tlá ''build, create, manufacture '', RTJ '''drĕ ''' ''make, create '', MT '''t’únda ''' ''make, create '', RTI '''truna ''' vt. ''make, create '', ƏD '''drond’a ''' vt. '' do, make, create '' ||the RT cognate is only tentative
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|'''*tʔuk '''||know (facts, how to do something) ||RT '''tùc ''' pass htùc, attr glùc ''know (how to do sth.) '', RTJ '''t’úg ''' ''know (facts, how to do something) '', MT '''t’ukh ''' ''know (facts, how to do something) '', RTI '''truš ''' vt. ''know (facts, how to do something) '', RRK '''dɔtıı ''' dur dɔrɔtıı v.tr ''know (how to do sth.) '', ARŊ '''tʷ'uk''' ''know (facts)''||
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|'''*tʔumb'''||monkey || MT '''t’um ''' ''monkey '', RTI '''trum ''' n. an. ''monkey ''||
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|'''*tʔuq '''||three ||RT '''tòc ''' ''3 '', RTJ '''t’úgh ''' ''three '', MT '''t’uc ''' ''three '', RRK '''duk ''' ord rɛduk qu ''3 ''||
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|'''*tʔwe '''||split, cleave, divide ||RT '''twè ''' pass htwè, attr gudwè ''cut apart, split, cleave '', RTJ '''tr’ĕ ''' ''split, divide '', MT '''t’é ''' ''split, cleave, divide '', RRK '''torı ''' dur tootorı v.tr ''divide, split ''||
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|'''*tʔwit '''||shake ||RT '''trìc ''' pass htrìc, attr grìc ''shake, shove, stir '', RTJ '''cr’íd ''' ''shake '', MT '''t’íth ''' ''shake '', RTI '''tris ''' vt. ''shake '', RRK '''dwit ''' dur ndwit v.tr ''shake, stir, disturb, irritate ''||
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|'''*tχau ?'''||thigh ||RTJ '''káú ''' ''thigh '', MT '''thóyâu ''' ''thigh ''||
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|'''*tχet ?'''||store, keep, retain ||RT '''ndè ''' pass hindè, attr gindè ''store, keep, retain '', RTJ '''téd ''' ''store, keep, retain '', MT '''thāth ''' ''store, keep, retain '', RRK '''sak ''' dur sasak v.tr ''store, keep ''||
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|'''*ul'''||||RTJ '''ú ''' ''worry about '', RTI '''ul ''' vt. ''worry about ''||
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|'''*um'''||old ||RT '''hun ''' attr kún ''be old (of people and animals) '', RTJ '''mò ''' úb ''be old '', MT '''um ''' ''old '', RTI '''um ''' adj. ''old, late '', RRK '''um ''' adj ''old, late ''||
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|'''*uɴɢ'''||help, assist ||RTJ '''úgh ''' ''help, assist '', MT '''ung ''' ''help, assist '', RTI '''uň ''' vt. ''help, assist ''||
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|'''*up'''||hear ||RT '''wuc ''' pass huc, attr kuc ''hear, listen '', RTJ '''úb ''' ''hear '', MT '''uph ''' ''hear '', RTI '''up ''' vt. ''hear '', RRK '''up ''' dur ubup v.tr ''hear, listen '', ARŊ '''ufqor''' ''hear (verb)'', ƏD '''ubraś ''' vt. '' hear, hear and understand '' hear s-th said by a person||
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|'''*ur'''||breathe ||RT '''wuo ''' attr kuo ''breathe; be alive '', RTJ '''ú ''' ''breathe '', MT '''í ''' ''breathe '', RTI '''ur ''' vi. ''breathe '', RRK '''gɔɔ ''' dur ayɔɔ v.it ''breathe, be alive ''||see also *war
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|'''*urut '''||saliva, spit ||RT '''rimyuc ''' (no sgv) ''saliva '', RTJ '''ĕrrúd ''' ''saliva '', MT '''úyuth ''' ''saliva, spit '', RRK '''urut ''' (no pl) n.i ''saliva ''||
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|'''*uʀudʔum ?'''||the world, Akana ||RT '''udou ''' (no sgv) ''world '', RTJ '''grĕhnò ''' ''the world (geographical), Akana '', MT '''uwōndum ''' ''the world, Akana '', RTI '''uwuunow ''' n. in. ''the world, Akana '', RRK '''ugundɔɔ ''' (no pl) n.a ''the world ''||
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|'''*uw'''||be white ||RTJ '''ù ''' k’íb ''be white ''||for attr see RTJ kʼíb
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|'''*Vl'''||male bird ||RT '''no ''' pl hno ''bird '', RTJ '''é ''' ''male bird '', MT '''úlí ''' ''male bird '', , RNW '''al ''' n. an. ''bird (male) ''||
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|'''*Vqak'''||axe|| MT '''húyākh ''' ''axe'', RRK '''akak ''' pl rakak n.i ''axe ''||
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|'''*Vswi '''||leader, guide ||RTJ '''ĕsrú ''' ''leader, guide '', MT '''ísí ''' ''leader, guide '', RTI '''uuhur ''' n. hu. ''leader ''||
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|'''*wa '''||deserve ||RT '''wùo ''' pass fùo, attr kùo ''deserve, be worthy of '', RTJ '''wă ''' ''deserve '', MT '''wa ''' ''deserve '', RTI '''wa ''' vt. ''deserve ''||
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|'''*wam'''||fertile soil ||RT '''pwaon ''' attr gubwaon ''be fertile '', RTJ '''yà ''' ''loam (fertile soil) '', MT '''wam ''' ''fertile soil ''||infixation in RTJ
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|'''*wan '''||force, pressure ||RT '''wan ''' sgv wìen ''strength, force, pressure '', RTJ '''wà ''' ''force, dynamic '', MT '''wan ''' ''force, pressure ''||
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|'''*war'''||be ready, get ready, prepare ||RTJ '''wá ''' ''be ready '', MT '''wai ''' ''be ready, get ready, prepare '', RTI '''war ''' vi. ''get ready, be prepared ''||
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|'''*war'''||breath ||RTJ '''wá ''' ''breath '', MT '''waifu ''' ''breath ''||see also *ur
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|'''*wek'''||chthonic god of wisdom and magic ||RT '''wec ''' pl ufwéc ''god '', RTJ '''Wég ''' ''the physical universe, the animating force of the world '', MT '''Wekh ''' ''chthonic god of wisdom and magic '', RTI '''weš ''' n. hu. ''god '', RRK '''ruwek ''' pl hruwek n.h ''god ''||
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|'''*wer'''||lose, misplace ||RTJ '''wé ''' ''lose, misplace '', MT '''wí ''' ''lose, misplace '', RTI '''wer ''' vt. ''lose, misplace ''||
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|'''*wədruʀ'''||defeat ||RT '''ndźác ''' pass handźác, attr gandźác ''defeat '', RTJ '''wĕdró ''' ''defeat '', MT '''warū ''' ''defeat '', RTI '''utrey ''' vt. ''defeat (in a competition or fight) '', RRK '''adıı ''' dur hwadıı v.tr ''defeat, be superior to ''||
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|'''*wgju'''||bile ||RTJ '''ĕjú ''' ''bile '', MT '''úlí ''' ''bile '', RTI '''uušey ''' n. in. ''bile ''||
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|'''*wiC'''||light ||RT '''bwí ''' attr gubwí ''be bright '', RTJ '''wí ''' ĕlrè ''light ''||
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|'''*widrop '''||be hungry ||RTJ '''wĕzrób ''' ''be hungry '', MT '''wiróph ''' ''be hungry '', RTI '''witrop ''' vi. ''hunger, become hungry '', RRK '''ıdup ''' dur uudup v.it ''be hungry ''||
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|'''*wij '''||emptiness, air ||RT '''wei ''' sgv yèi ''air '', RTJ '''wí ''' ''air, emptiness '', MT '''yuc ''' ''emptiness, air '', RTI '''wii ''' n. in. ''air, wind, sky, weather '', RRK '''wii ''' (no pl) n.a ''air, wind, weather, sky ''||lexical contamination in MT w kúc
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|'''*wik '''||rope(s) ||RTJ '''wíg ''' ''rope '', MT '''wikh ''' ''rope(s) '', RTI '''wiš ''' n. in. ''rope '', RRK '''isù ''' pl nisù n.i ''rope ''||
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|'''*wlejtŋen'''||shaft (of an arrow) ||RTJ '''ĕlyĕhnyè ''' ''shaft (of an arrow) '', MT '''withgén ''' ''shaft (of an arrow) '', RTI '''ulyeyňey ''' n. in. ''arrow ''||
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|'''*wlejttej'''||shaft (of a spear), handle (of a long-hafted tool) ||RTJ '''ĕlyĕdĕtú ''' ''shaft (of a spear) '', MT '''withtí ''' ''shaft (of a spear), handle (of a long-hafted tool) '', RTI '''ulyeytrey ''' n. in. ''spear '', ƏD '''ulidg’en ''' n. port. '' spear-shaft '' ||
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|'''*wɬə'''||mortar (construction material) ||RTJ '''hlrĕ ''' dlrĕ ''mortar (construction material) '', MT '''wlanú ''' ''mortar (construction material) ''||
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|'''*wo '''||use ||RTJ '''wŏ ''' ''use '', MT '''wo ''' ''use '', RRK '''vi ''' pp ''with, using (instrumental) ''||
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|'''*won '''||little, somewhat||RT '''won ''' attr kwon ''do a little bit, do partly '', RTJ '''wàù ''' ''rather, somewhat '', MT '''won ''' ''rather, somewhat '', RRK '''vuu ''' adv ''a little, somewhat '', , RNW '''u: ''' qtf. ''a little (of) ''||
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|'''*wop '''||be full (of food) ||RTJ '''wób ''' ''be full (from eating) '', MT '''woph ''' ''be full (of food) ''||
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|'''*woq ?'''||value, price ||RT '''vòc ''' sgv vyòc ''price, value '', MT '''wōc ''' ''value, price ''||
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|'''*wot '''||kidney ||RTJ '''wód ''' ''kidneys '', MT '''woth ''' ''kidney '', RTI '''wiyot ''' n. it. ''kidney '', RRK '''ıyot ''' pl rıyot n.i ''kidney ''||-ij- infixation in RRK and RTI
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|'''*woʔsRim ?'''||brideprice ||RT '''vòc-swín ''' sgv vyòc-swín ''brideprice '', RTJ '''ĕbĕhsrè ''' ĕmĕhsrè ''brideprice '', MT '''wōscayîm ''' ''brideprice ''||
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|'''*wra'''||guard, protect, nurture, raise (dependent) ||RT '''wa ''' pass wá, attr kwa ''protect, guard '', RTJ '''ĕráí ''' ''protect, guard '', MT '''wā ''' ''guard, protect, nurture, raise (dependent) '', RTI '''woo ''' vt. ''protect, guard '', RRK '''waa ''' dur ıhwaa v.tr ''protect, guard ''||
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|'''*wraj'''||rain ||RT '''wì ''' sgv mwì ''rain '', RTJ '''ĕrí ''' ''rain '', MT '''railau ''' ''rain '', RRK '''dwee ''' (no pl), cnstr ıwee n.a ''rain '', ARŊ '''rʷoxʷu''' ''rain (noun)''||
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|'''*wren '''||have sex with ||RT '''rèn ''' pass hrèn, attr krèn ''have sex with '', RTJ '''ĕràì ''' ''have sex with (vulgar) '', MT '''yen ''' ''have sex with '', RTI '''wurii ''' vt. ''have sex with '', RRK '''arii ''' dur agrii v.tr ''have sex with ''||
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|'''*wtrV'''||commit ||RTJ '''ĕdrĕ ''' ''commit '', MT '''wra ''' ''commit '', RTI '''utri ''' vt. ''commit ''||
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|'''*wuw'''||slip, slide ||RT '''wie ''' attr kwie ''slide, slip '', RTJ '''wú ''' ''slip, slide '', MT '''wú ''' ''slip, slide '', RTI '''ow ''' vi. ''slip, slide '', RRK '''ɔɔ ''' dur ıʔɔɔ v.it ''slide, slip, stumble ''||
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|'''*wV'''||gale, gust ||RTJ '''wĭ ''' ''gale, gust '', MT '''uwa ''' ''breeze, gust of wind ''||
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|'''*wVVsot '''||||RT '''wùo soc ''' ''owe '', RTJ '''wĕsód ''' ''owe ''||
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|'''*xa '''||step on, step toward ||RT '''ha ''' pass hxa, attr ká ''step on '', RTJ '''vă ''' ''step on '', MT '''xa ''' ''step on, step toward ''||
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|'''*xaw'''||deep ||RT '''yòu ''' attr kyòu ''be deep '', RTJ '''ĕváú ''' yáú ''be deep '', MT '''yau ''' ''deep '', RTI '''yuu ''' adj. ''deep '', RRK '''yuu ''' adj ''high; deep '', ƏD '''ıəh ''' port/stat hah adj. '' deep, sen./liv. often: meaty, fat '' ||əjaw as prefixed variant
|-
|'''*xbʔV'''||twilight ||RT '''hmào ''' (no sgv) ''twilight, red sky (at dawn and dusk) '', RTJ '''xábe ''' yábe ''twilight '', MT '''xāmbú ''' ''twilight ''||
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|'''*xdʔum'''||seashell(s) ||RTJ '''gáú ''' ''seashell(s) '', MT '''xaundum ''' ''seashell(s) ''||
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|'''*xjo '''||table ||RTJ '''xŏ ''' yŏ ''table '', MT '''xó ''' ''table ''||
|-
|'''*xju '''||sinew(s), (length of) string ||RT '''śu ''' pl ndźu ''string, thread; sinew '', RTJ '''xú ''' yú ''sinew, string '', MT '''siphxú ''' ''sinew(s), (length of) string '', RTI '''heykip ''' n. in. ''string, thread, line (for fishing, etc.) '', RRK '''hyoo ''' pl rıhyoo, cnstr yoo n.i ''string, thread ''||
|-
|'''*xnimb'''||scabies ||RTJ '''hnèb ''' hnèb ''scabies '', MT '''xaním ''' ''scabies ''||
|-
|'''*xo '''||omen(s), portent(s) ||RT '''ho ''' pl fwó ''omen, portent, prophecy '', RTJ '''vŏ ''' ''omen, portents '', MT '''xo ''' ''omen(s), portent(s) '', RTI '''hihitra ''' n. in. ''sign, omen, portent, vision ''||
|-
|'''*xomb'''||darkness ||RT '''pyonc ''' attr gibyonc ''be black, be dark '', RTJ '''vób ''' ''darkness '', MT '''xom ''' ''darkness ''||might be related to RT 'be dark, black'
|-
|'''*xon'''||game (hunted animal) ||RT '''yon ''' pl yàon ''game animal, prey '', RTJ '''vàù ''' ''prey, game animal '', MT '''xon ''' ''game (hunted animal) '', RRK '''rakuu ''' pl hrakuu n.a ''prey, game animal ''||
|-
|'''*xru '''||quest, mission, task ||RTJ '''sró ''' ''quest, mission, task '', MT '''xúlin ''' ''quest, mission, task '', RTI '''hilyey ''' n. in. ''duty, responsibility, task '', RRK '''šɛruu ''' pl nıšɛruu, cnstr dɛruu n.i ''task, duty ''||
|-
|'''*xʀup '''||cockroach ||RTJ '''vĕgrúb ''' hlúb ''cockroach '', MT '''xcúph ''' ''cockroach '', RTI '''hišup ''' n. an. ''cockroach ''||
|-
|'''*xsi'''||stomach ||RTJ '''hxĭ ''' hxĭ ''stomach '', MT '''xri ''' ''stomach ''||
|-
|'''*xu; dsaŋg'''||fact(s) ||RT '''dzónc ''' attr ksónc ''be true, be correct '', RTJ '''vŭ ''' ''fact(s) '', MT '''xusang ''' ''fact(s) '', RTI '''heň ''' n. in. ''fact '', RRK '''tıhaŋ ''' pl rıtıhaŋ n.i ''fact ''||
|-
|'''*zji'''||urinate ||RT '''źi ''' attr dźi ''urinate, pee '', RTJ '''xĭ ''' ''urinate '', MT '''si ''' ''urinate '', RTI '''ihi ''' vi. ''urinate ''||
|-
|'''*zraw ?'''||add, mix in ||RT '''zào ''' pass hsào, attr dzào ''add, mix in '', RTJ '''sĕrrĕtá ''' ''add, mix in '', MT '''sâu ''' ''add, mix in ''||
|-
|'''*ʔge'''||intestine, rectum ||RTJ '''ĕcrĕ ''' ''intestine, rectum '', MT '''yale ''' ''intestine, rectum '', RTI '''iče ''' n. in. ''colon, rectum, bowel, large intestine ''||
|-
|'''*ʔkej'''||shovel, scoop ||RT '''kéi ''' pl nggéi ''shovel, scoop '', RTJ '''kí ''' ''digging stick, any digging tool '', MT '''khícau ''' ''shovel, scoop '', RRK '''ikee ''' pl rikee n.i ''shovel ''||
|-
|'''*ʔlejkfi'''||blanket(s) ||RT '''hkwi ''' pl ngkwi ''blanket '', RTJ '''lyĕhfĭ ''' ''blanket '', MT '''wikhfi ''' ''blanket(s) '', RTI '''ilyeyhi ''' n. in. ''blanket '', RRK '''ılɛhı ''' pl nılɛhı n.i ''blanket ''||
|-
|'''*ʔmi'''||be alone ||RTJ '''hmê ''' ''be alone '', RRK '''mik ''' adv ''alone, by oneself ''||see 'be lonely'
|-
|'''*ʔmind'''||sacrifice ||RT '''mìnc ''' pass pìnc, attr bìnc ''sacrifice '', RTJ '''hmèd ''' ''sacrifice (not a human or animal) '', MT '''bin ''' ''sacrifice '', RTI '''hiwiň ''' n. in. ''sacrifice '', RRK '''min ''' dur mimin v.tr ''sacrifice ''||
|-
|'''*ʔpau '''||hammer ||RT '''póu ''' pl mbóu ''hammer '', RTJ '''páú ''' ''hammer '', MT '''phau ''' ''hammer '', RTI '''ipuu ''' n. in. ''hammer '', RRK '''ipuu ''' pl ripuu n.i ''hammer ''||
|-
|'''*ʔraŋ'''||be wrong ||RTJ '''gré ''' gĕgré ''be wrong '', MT '''iráng ''' ''be wrong '', RRK '''ırɔɔ ''' adj ''bad, wrong, false ''||
|-
|'''*ʔrij'''||be thirsty ||RT '''ròu ''' attr kròu ''be thirsty '', RTJ '''ĕrí ''' ''be thirsty '', MT '''yí ''' ''be thirsty '', RTI '''iyii ''' vi. ''thirst, be thirsty''||
|-
|'''*ʔrjan'''||undress, go naked, denude ||RT '''yein ''' attr kyein ''be naked '', RTJ '''ĕrà ''' ''undress, go naked '', MT '''rán ''' ''undress, go naked, denude '', RRK '''togar ''' dur totogar v.it ''undress (aor); be naked (dur) ''||
|-
|'''*ʔsaq'''||sacrificial animal ||RTJ '''ĕságh ''' ĕrrágh ''victim, sacrificial animal '', MT '''sascakh ''' ''sacrificial animal '', RTI '''ihak ''' n. an. ''sacrificial animal ''||
|-
|'''*ʔtan'''||prove ||RTJ '''càì ''' gĕhxàì ''prove '', MT '''tān ''' ''prove '', RTI '''itrwoo ''' vt. ''prove ''||
|-
|'''*ʔtik '''||triangle (shape) ||RTJ '''ĕcr’íg ''' ĕzríg ''triangle (shape) '', MT '''t’ikhsau ''' ''triangle (shape) '', RTI '''ityiš ''' n. in. ''triangle, triangular object ''||
|-
|'''*ʔtRam'''||courage, bravery ||RTJ '''cà ''' hxà ''courage, bravery '', MT '''tēm ''' ''courage, bravery '', RTI '''itrwii ''' n. in. ''courage, bravery, vigor, strength ''||
|-
|'''*ʔtsaw '''||wine || MT '''t’auwe ''' ''wine '', RTI '''itaw ''' n. in. ''wine '', RRK '''ıroo ''' (no pl) n.i ''wine ''||
|-
|'''*χaj '''||wave (of water), splash ||RTJ '''fáí ''' ''wave '', MT '''xai ''' ''wave (of water), splash ''||
|-
|'''*χend'''||ashes ||RT '''śenc ''' (no sgv) ''ashes '', RTJ '''xéd ''' yéd ''ash, ashes '', MT '''xan ''' ''ashes '', RTI '''hen ''' n. in. ''ash(es) '', RRK '''hen ''' (no pl) n.i ''ashes ''||
|-
|'''*χi '''||burn ||RT '''fwi ''' attr guvwi ''burn '', RTJ '''fĭ ''' ''burn '', MT '''xí ''' ''burn ''||
|-
|'''*χiʀawn '''||widow, widower ||RT '''haon ''' pl hxon ''widow, widower '', RTJ '''xĕgràù ''' yĕgràù ''widow, widower '', MT '''xíwūn ''' ''widow, widower '', RTI '''heywow ''' n. hu. ''widow, widower '', RRK '''hɛgɔɔ ''' pl hrɛgɔɔ n.h ''widow, widower ''||
|-
|'''*χjam '''||centipede, millipede ||RT '''śoun ''' pl śwóun ''centipede '', RTJ '''xà ''' yà ''centipede, millipede '', MT '''xám ''' ''centipede, millipede ''||
|-
|'''*χʀaw'''||shadow, shade ||RT '''xu ''' sgv xào ''shadow, shade '', RTJ '''háú ''' ''shadow, shade '', MT '''tauyâu ''' ''shadow, shade '', RTI '''huu ''' n. in. ''shadow, shade '', RRK '''huu ''' (no pl), cnstr guu n.i ''shadow '', ƏD '''anh ''' n. dyn. '' shadow '' ||
|}

[[Category:Ronquian languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Ronquian]]
[[Category:Lexicography]]

Proto-Ronquian

2025-02-01T12:07:48Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian to Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)

#REDIRECT [[Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)]]

Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)

2025-02-01T12:07:48Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian to Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)

{{Article}}
'''Proto-Ronquian''' (a.k.a. Proto-Rompian) is the last common ancestor of the [[Ronquian languages]]; described here as reconstructed by T2. The name "Ronquian" comes from the reconstructed word for 'language':

*roxʷ < *roŋxʷ < *əromb ARN
*ɻɔ̃ʔ < *rɔ̃p < *əromb RT
*rǒp < *rɔ̃p < *əromb RTJ
*rɔm < *əromb MT
*raj (< rV(V)(C) < *əromb) RTI
*reː < *raj (< rV(V)(C) < *əromb) RRK

Initially the word for language was thought to be *roŋkʷ, and thus the name Proto-Ronquian was coined. However as serious reconstructing began, it became obvious that labiovelars were an innovation of [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] from labials under some conditions and consequently the word for language was rather *romp. Therefore the term Proto-Rompian is more accurate. Nevertheless, Proto-Ronquian is more widely used.

Proto-Northwest-Tuysáfa was also sometimes used.

List of abbreviations:

* ARN - [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]]
* MT - [[Mhakh Thandim‎]]
* PR - Proto-Ronquian
* RT - [[Ronc Tyu]]
* RTJ - [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]]
* RRK - [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]]
* RTI - [[Ray Tyuwey Išup]]
* ƏD - [[Əktoś Duəmeuk]]

See also [[Proto-Ronquian Lexicon]].

= Phonology =

== Sound inventory ==

Zju has suggested the following consonant inventory.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Dorsal
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! Fortis stop
| p || t || k || q || ʔ
|-
! Lenis stop
| b || d || g || ɢ
|-
! Fricative
| f || s ɬ || x || χ || h
|-
! Sonorant
| w || r l || j || ʀ
|-
! Nasal
| m || n || ŋ || (ɴ)
|}

*R denotes a consonant phoneme of unknown quality that appears after a coronal onset and which is reflexed as w in RT and MT, but as retroflexing of the onset in RTJ. It was not deleted by the CRV > CVː sound change in MT, unlike most other liquids, but lengthened the following vowel nevertheless.
*As there is very limited evidence for *ɴ in positions other than in front of word-final *ɢ, it's likely it didn't have phoneme status.

KathAveara has suggested the following consonant inventory.

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Palatal
! Velar
! Labio-velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! V.less Stop
| p
| t
|
| k
| kʷ
| q
| ʔ
|-
! Voiced Stop
| b
| d
|
| g
| gʷ
| ɢ
|-
! Fricative
| f
| s, ɬ
|
| x
| xʷ
| χ
|-
! Approximant
|
| l, r
| j
|
| w
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
|
| ŋ
| ŋʷ
| ɴ
|}

Vowel inventory:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! Vowels
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| i
|
| u
|-
! Mid
| e
|
| o
|-
! Low
|colspan=3|a
|}

'''ə''' stands for a vowel of unknown quality that shows up variously as '''e''' or '''a''' and probably was one of either in PR. In premainsyllable interconsonantal position - '''CəCV(C)''' - '''ə''' may just be an artifact of the reconstruction and not have existed at all. Polysyllabic root are reconstructed for PR, however.

Due to its limited reconstruction in positions other than after stops, what is reconstructed as glottal stop may have not existed in PR at all; instead what are reconstructed as sequencies of voiceless and voiced stops followed by a glottal stop might have been respectively ejectives and implosives.

=== Allophony ===

One allophonic process can be safely reconstructed for PR.

==== Lenition ====

Onsets of strong syllables lenited intervocally when being a single consonant and in some consonant clusters:

* hC > C
* p t k q > b d g ɢ
* f s ɬ x χ > w r l j ʀ (<β z ɮ ɣ ʁ at pre PR stage)
* b d g ɢ > f s x χ
* m n ŋ ɴ w r l j ʀ > m n ŋ ɴ w r l j ʀ (sonorants don't lenite)

Consonant clusters containing plain stops and non-stop consonant lenited only the stop:

* *trip 'offense, insult'
* *sədrip < *sətrip 'offenses, insults'

Clusters of a plain stop and a glottal stop also behaved in this way:

* *əbʔik 'once' < *pʔik 'one'

==== Plosive series ====

On the account of allophonic processes * p t k q > * b d g ɢ and * b d g ɢ > * f s x χ, * p t k q and * b d g ɢ likely were * pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ and * p t k q instead.

=== Phonotactics ===

At least the following sets of onsets are likely to have existed:

*(h)(C)C(r l)(ʔ h j w)
*NC
*∅

Where C doesn't include glottal consonants and NC is a cluster of a homorgranic nasal and plain stop. It's quite possible that not all combinations of (h)(C)C(r l ʔ)(j w) were permitted.

When -j-, -ʔ- or -w- was infixed, any of preceding j, w, ʔ was deleted.

A liquid and ʔ were metathesized for the purpose of forming an ejective at a later stage.

The following codas seem to have been permitted:

* Fortis stops: p t k q ʔ
* Sonorants: w r l j ʀ
* Nasals: m n ŋ ɴ
* Nasal+lenis stops: mb nd ŋg ɴɢ

== Strong syllables ==

Strong syllables probably carried some kind of tone or stress. Words had one and only one strong syllable.

== Weak syllables ==

Weak (reduced) syllables had the same set of onsets as strong syllables. However they had no coda and a limited set of vowels, or only one vowel - ə. Additionally they were atonic or unstressed if there was phonemic tone or stress in PR.

It's possible that PR words had no weak syllables at all and only one syllable instead.

= Grammar =

PR grammar was largely analitical, however with some traces of inflectional morphology.

== Nouns ==

Nouns likely had multiple ways of forming plural number, or it was that plurality was not yet a well defined category in PR and there were several concurrent ways of expressing plural meaning. 
Many, if not all, of the following affixes were likely derivational rather than inflectional, which were later grammaticalised differently.

=== Prefixes ===

* *ə- - forming construct state in some cases.
* *h- - forming plural number in some cases.
* *t- - paucal or collective prefix.
* *m- - deverbal prefix forming abstract nouns.
* *s(ə)- - deverbative prefix, perhaps for resultative nouns. A vowel was inserted before consonants.
* *r- - augmentative prefix.
* *Vr- - agent prefix.
* *Vk- - instrumental prefix.

=== Infixes ===

* *-j- - singulative infix, placed between onset and nucleus of the main syllable.
* *-w- - plurative infix, placed between onset and nucleus of the main syllable, forming plural number in some cases.
* A paucal infix of the shape *-nt- could also have existed.
* *-ʔ- - of unknown exact function. An example is *pʔom 'hat' < *pom 'head'.
* *-r- - diminutive infix.

The usage of singulative and plurative infix was lexicalised in some cases, if they were not originally a part of the derivational morphology in the first place.

=== Suffixes ===

* *-t - dual or plural suffix
* *-Ri - diminutive suffix.
* *-nu - agent suffix.
* *-(h)it - resultative suffix.
* *-Ra - instrumental suffix.

=== Construct state ===

Construct state was formed by prefixing a lone vowel of unknown quality (probably already reduced in PR), which on its part triggered consonant lenition. That vowel was subsequently lost in most cases, leaving consonant lenition as the marker of the construct state. There might have been some other changes involved in forming the construct state, such as deleting glottalic consonants in the onset.

The construct state had various functions, such as marking the possessee. It contrasted with absolute state, which was the unmarked form of the noun.

== Verbs ==

A verb in PR was either transitive or intransitive - transitive verbs couldn't be used in intransitive constructions and vice versa. Instead, derivational morphology existed.

=== Attributive forms ===

Verbs had an attributive form, which essentially turned the verb into an adjective. It was formed by the prefix g-.

== Affixes ==

=== Prefixes ===

* *g- - turning verbs into adjectives(called attributive verbs). It had the allomorph *k- before voiced obstruents probably already in PR. Additionally the allomorphs *gə-, *kə- before certain consonant clusters existed either in PR or at a later stage.
* *n- - antipassive prefix; reduces the valency of the verb, e.g. pʔi 'grow' > mpʔi 'grow up, become an adult'
* *nr- - the state of resembling a noun.
* *b- - turns adjectives and nouns into state verbs - 'to be X'
* *ʀ- - forms abstract nouns
* *m- - forms abstract nouns
* *so- - forms causatives

=== Infixes ===

* *-Ert- - reversing the meaning of a verb.

=== Suffixes ===

== Particles ==

PR had at least the particle *ni for indicating plural number in nouns. It was placed before its head noun. 
Two particles *t and *n also existed, marking the noun for paucal and/or plural number.

== Pronouns & Determiners ==

=== Personal Pronouns ===

Proto-Ronquian had 3 persons in at least 3 numbers, singular, dual and plural. It also had a 3rd person collective pronoun. There may have been an animacy distinction in the 3rd person too.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
! sing.
! dual
! plur.
! coll.
|-
! 1st
| na
| nat
| haj
|-
! 2nd
| muŋ
| mint < miŋt
| wor
|-
! 3rd Anim.
| gi
| gut
|
| -
|-
! 3rd Inan.
| mdo
|
|
| do
|}

*mdo seems to be formed from *do with prefixation of *m-; its connection with the other two *m- prefixes is unclear.

=== Indefinite Determiners ===

=== Demonstratives ===

=== Interrogative Determiners ===

=== Indefinite Quantifiers ===

== Numerals ==

Proto-Ronquian uses a mixed base-6/24 number system. The basic numerals are reconstructed as:

{| {{softtable|c}}
!
!colspan=2| KathAveara
!colspan=3| Zju
|-
!
! cardinal
! ordinal
! cardinal || multiplier || ordinal
|-
! 1
| pʔik
| mʔək
| *pʔik || *əbʔik || *hmək
|-
! 2
| ki:
| kso
| *qis || *əɢis || *qzo
|-
! 3
| tʔuq
| ntoq
| *tʔuq || *ədʔuq || *ntoq
|-
! 4
| paɬ
|
| *pjaɬ, *paɬ || *əbaɬ ||
|-
! 5
| fəɴ
|
| *fjaŋ, *faŋ || *əwjaŋ, *əwaŋ ||
|-
! 6
| ɬja ~ ɬa
|
| *ɬja, *ɬa || *ɐla ||
|-
! 12
| ɬat
|
| *ɬat || ||
|-
! 18
| qoɬ
|
| *quɬ || ||
|-
! 24
| tram
|
| *tram || ||
|}

Numbers 4, 5, 6 had variants with and without singulative infix. Numbers 6 and 12 shared the same root, with 12 having dual suffix, and 6 having either the bare root or singulative infix.

The construct state of a numeral was used as a multiplier.

== Syntax ==

=== Prepositions ===

There were two sets of prepositions - noun-like (nouns in construct state) and primary.

= Sound changes =

Sound changes preceeded by an interrogative are entirely speculative (or nearly so) and rather have the status of suggestions.

Conditions preceeded by an interrogative mark are unknown and/or speculative.

== To [[A-Rox Ŋʷoskʷuɣmʲa]] ==

* Tʔ > Tʼ
* Tʼ > T / _V[-stress]
* NT > NÞ > Þ / _#
* V > ɐ / _[-full syllable]
* ɬ > ʃ / _#
* C > Cʲ / _i, ?
* C > Cʷ / _u, ?
* Cj Cw > Cʲ Cʷ / _V
* P > Kʷ / ?_{a o u}
* P > Kʷ / {o u}_#
* C > Cʲ / {e i}_#, _Cʲ
* C > Cʷ / {o u}_#, _Cʷ
* ɬj ɬ > ʃʲ ʂ
* q > χ / #_
* ɐ > ɪ / _Cʲ; ʊ / _Cʷ
* ʀ > ʁ
* ɢʲ ɢ ɢʷ > ʁʲ ʁ ʁʷ
* ɲʲ ŋʲ > nʲ
* ɳʷ > nʷ
* si > ʃi
* tj > tʃ

* N > Þ / _# '''NB:''' Only two cases found, neither from an original NT coda, details about this SC are unclear. It may or may not be connected with NT > NÞ > Þ / _#. It may also have not occured at all, but rather such a correspondance being raised via a single consonant suffix being attached to those two words('thou' and 'five') before NT > NÞ > Þ / _#.

== To [[Mhakh Thandim]] ==

* T[-voice]ʔ > Tʼ
* b > w / V_V
* tr > dr / V_V
* drV dlV > rV[+length] lV[+length]
* CC{ʔ r l w j s}V > C{ʔ r l w j s}V[+length]
* C{ʔ r l w j s}V > CV[+length]
* md sd ng rg > mr sr nl rl
* rl > ral
* ŋ > ʔ / #_VN
* D T > T Tʰ
* ? ʀ > ∅ / _VC[+uvular]
* ʀV, Vʀ > V[+breathy]
* hN > N[-voice]
* hV hCV > V[+breathy] CV[+breathy]
* ? Vh > V[+breathy]
* q > h / #_
* ? g > h / #_, ?
* q > ʔ / _#
* ɬ l > u / _#
* ɬ > s / #_
* ? V > a/ə / ?
* ek > ak / _#, ?
* ij uw ow > ii uu uu
* a o u e i > ə ɔ ʊ ɛ ɪ
* jɛ > e
* aa oo uu ee ii > a o u e i
* CCC Cj > CCəC Cɪj / ?
* Q > K
* NT > N / _#
* ? NT > N[-voice] / #_
* hV > jV[+breathy]
* ? k kʼ > ʔ / #_[+ ?]
* NT > ND / V_V
* x > χ
* pʰ tʰ kʰ > ɸ θ x / _#, #_
* p t k > pʰ tʰ kʰ / when not in CCs; however #_TV is a valid condition
* m > ∅ / #_u
* ɸ > w / V_V
* r > j / i_, rV_, _#, ?

At some point there was a reduplication process word initially that affected some of the words, which took place before changing NT clusters. The reduplicated vowel was a, which agreed in length with the main vowel.

Metathesis of onset consonants also took place, e.g. in klu /kʰlʊ/ destroy, but salcu /səlʔʊ/ destruction, ruin < *lku, *s(a)-lku

== To [[Ronc Tyu]] ==

* ? u > o / [+uvular]_
* Q > K
* V > ∅ / [-full syllable] (almost unconditional - some RT words are not monosyllabic)
* regressive voicing assimilation (e.g. sd > zd)
* D > N / _[+stop]
* C[-stop +voice]V > C[-stop +voice]V[+mid tone] / ?
* ? CwV > CwV[+high tone]
* ʔV > V[+low tone]
* C[+stop +voice] > C[+nasal] / _V[+low tone]
* C[+stop +voice]V > C[+stop -voice]V[+mid tone]
* hNV > NV[+high tone] / #_
* md > mr > nr > ndr > nɖʐ
* zt > zd > d
* sm > sb > zb > b
* tr > r / #_
* q χ ɴ > g x ŋ
* s > ʣ / #_, ? (or was it tz/dz > ʣ with initial d being lost elsewhere?)
* j > dʑ / #_V[+full syllable], ?
* ∅ > j / #_i
* Simplification of consonant clusters in the onset leads to new voiced consonants.
* hV > hV[+mid tone]
* h > ∅ / N_V
* hC[-voiced obstruent]{w y ∅}V[+mid tone] > C[-voiced obstruent]{w y ∅}V[+high tone]
* t d k g > ts dz tɕ dʑ / _{V[+front] j}
* s > r / #_V, ?
* r > ∅ / #_u, ?
* ɬ > u / _#
* ɬ > ∅ / #_j
* ɬ > l / #_, ?
* ɬ > hl / #_, ?
* ij uw aː> iə uə aə / ?
* ja wa > iə uə
* ij uw > ɛɪ ɔʊ / ?
* aj aw > ɛɪ ɔʊ / ?
* aL > a
* a > o / _{p m}
* VN(T) > V[+nasal](T) / _#
* p t k > ʔ / _#
* tj dj kj gj sj zj ŋj lj rj wj > ts dz tɕ dʑ ɕ ʑ nj j j j
* x > ɕ / _V[+front]
* x > h
* kwu > ku

Evidence from the multiplier numbers (mìc nòc < *bʔik *dʔuq < *əbʔik *ədʔuk < *pʔik *tʔuk) suggests that all instances of a nasal followed by low tone vowel could go back to clusters of a voiced stop and glottal stop.

=== Construct state development ===

Construct state fell out of RT when unstressed vowels were deleted and initial consonant clusters were simplified. This completely distorted lenition patterns, they become unproductive and soon ceased to be used. Marking possession by simple juxtapostion without any morphological change is the sole reflex of the construct state.

== To [[Rrób Tè Jĕhnò]] ==

* Tʔ > Tʼ
* Vɬ > V[+length] / _#
* tr > dr / V_V
* VN > V[+nasal +low tone] /_#
* VNT > V[+nasal +what tone?]T / _#
* ? VNT > V[+nasal +?]T / V_V
* C[+stop]N[+voice] > N[-voice]
* hN > N[-voice]
* NT > əT ~ əD / #_, ?
* ? ja aj > e / ?, eː /?
* ? wa aw > o / ?, oː /?
* ? ẽ õ → ɛ̃ ɔ̃
* Vʀ > Vː
* oɬ > oː
* wi > uː
* i u > e o / _#
* V[+nasal] > V[-nasal +length] / lengthens only in open syllables
* V[+?] > V[+low tone] / ?
* V[-low tone] > V[+high tone]
* V > V[+low tone] / N_C
* D > N / _V[+low tone]
* D T > T Tʰ
* V > ə / _[-full syllable]
* ? l N > ə / #_C, ?
* rk > rək
* q > k / _i
* ? u > o / [+uvular]_
* ? səf > sf > fʰ / _[+full syllable] (? sC > Cʰ)
* ? sʔ > sʰ
* kC[+obstruent -aspiration -ejectiveness] > Cʰ
* kN[+voice] > N[-voice]
* regressive PoA assimilation for stops
* C[+stop]C[+stop] > C[+stop]əC[+stop]
* C[+stop -aspiration]h > C[+stop +aspiration]
* kw kʰ kʼw > p pʰ pʼ
* ə > e / [+full syllable]

===Retroflection and r loss===

r stands for any liquid other than lʲ

* tʰr tr tʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* tsʰr tsr tsʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* tɕʰr tɕr tɕʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* kʰr kr kʼr > ʈʰ ʈ ʈʼ
* qr qʼr qʰr > ʀ
* hr > r[-voice]
* sr sʰr ɕr ɕʰr xr xʰr χr χʰr > ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ
* ɬr ɬʰr ɬʲr ɬʲʰr > ꞎ ꞎʰ ꞎ ꞎʰ (ɬ[+retroflex])
* lr ʎr > ər
* rt rtʼ rtʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rts rtsʼ rtsʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rtɕ rtɕʼ rtɕʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rk rkʼ rkʰ > ʈ ʈʼ ʈʰ
* rs rsʰ rɕ rɕʰ > ʂ ʂʰ ʂ ʂʰ
* nr rn > ɳ
* r > ∅ / {V C}_C

===Palatalisation===

* s sʰ tʰ t tʼ ɫ > ɕ ɕʰ tsʰ ts tsʼ ɬʲ / _V[+front]
* tʰ t tʼ > tsʰ ts tsʼ / #_(a?)
* ts > ʦ
* sj sʰj tʰj tj tʼj ɫj > ɕ ɕʰ tsʰ ts tsʼ ɬʲ
* k kʰ kʼ > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ / _V[+front]
* kj kʰj kʼj > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ
* klʲ kʰlʲ kʼlʲ > tɕ tɕʰ tɕʼ
* nj ŋj > ɲ
* n ŋ > ɲ / _V[+front]

===χ loss===

* χ > ɕ / _V[+front]
* χ > h / ?
* χ > f / ?

== To [[Ray Tyuwey Išup]] ==

As of now not necessarily in chronological order.

* ʔ ʀ > ∅ w
* s f x χ > h
* t n l > ty ny ly / _i
* kj gj > c dz
* k g ŋ > č dž ň
* q ɢ ɴ > k g ŋ
* pm tn čň kn > p t č k / #_
* Vn > V[+nasal]
* m n > w r / ?
* č > š
* t > s / ?
* dz dž b d g > c č m n ŋ
* V[+nasal] > V[-nasal][+other quality]
* CC > CiC / some clusters only

== To [[Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa]] ==

* sn sm > st sp
* m > v / _VN
*m > ∅ / #_u
* D > T
* Tʔ > D
* Q > K
* i > ɨ / K_
* i > ɨ / ?
* tr > tw
* s > ʃ
* ɬ > s / #_
* ɬ > l / _#
* VN > V[+length]
* p’ t’ k’ b d > b d g v r / V_V
* n > r / ? #_V
* ?i ?ɨ ?e > ı u a
* ?iː ?ɨː ?ɛː > ɛː aː ːɨ

= Important correspondances =

== Numerals comparison ==

{| {{softtable|c}}
! || RTJ || RT || MT || ARN || pre ARN || RRK || ƏT || RTI || PR
|-
!1
| p’íg || pìc || p’ikh || pʲik || *pjik² || bik || bek || piš || *pʔik
|-
!2
| kú || káe || hí || x̠i || *qi || kıı || kuś || čey || *qis
|-
!3
| t’úgh || tòc || t’uc || tʷ'uq || *tʔuq || duk || dok || truk || *tʔuq
|-
!4
| pé || pyáo || phau || ʃʷaʃ || *xwaʃ³ || pal || pel || pal || *pjaɬ, *paɬ
|-
!5
| fàì || fyein || fang || ʃʷax̠ || *fjax̠ || huu || fən || huu || *fjaŋ, *faŋ
|-
!6
| dlyă || yé || sa || ŋʷoʃkʲe || *ʃe || sa || ɬa || sa || *ɬja, *ɬa
|-
!12
| dlád || lác || sath || ʂat || || sat || ɬat || šat || *ɬat
|-
!18
| khó || kóu || hú || (24: x̠oʃ) || || kol || qul || kol || *quɬ
|-
!24
| crà || tróun || thám || (36:sram) || || twaa || trən || tree || *tram
|}

¹ In RTJ none of qʰ q qʼ appears before /i/. 
² The singulative infix -j- was inserted, which deleted the glottal stop. 
³ The plurative infix -w- was likely inserted, which caused the dissimilation pw > xw to occur, which was subsequently assimilated to ʃw, due to the influence of coda ʃ. This onset ʃʷ later replaced the original onset in the word for 5.

4, 5 and 6 all seem to have had variants with and without the singulative infix.

== Pronouns comparison ==

== Onset correspondances ==

The following correspondances are only for single consonants or the specified clusters word initially; word-medial consonants and different word-initial clusters often have different reflexes.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | PR, *
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RTI
! scope="col" | RRK
|-
|p t k q||p t k/tś¹ k ˥||p t/c¹ k/tr/q¹ kh||ph th kh k/c/h²||p t/tr/ty¹ č k||p t k k
|-
|pʔ tʔ kʔ qʔ||p t k/tś¹ k ˩||pʼ tʼ/cʼ/crʼ¹ kʼ/trʼ/qʼ¹ khʼ/qʼ¹||pʼ tʼ kʼ/c/h² kʼ/c²||p t/tr/ty¹ č/c/š¹² k||b d kʼ/g² g
|-
|b d g ɢ||p t k/tś¹ k ˧||b d/z¹ g/j¹ gh||p t k/c/h² h||p t/tr/ty¹ č/c¹ k||pʼ/b² tʼ kʼ/g/s² kʼ
|-
|bʔ dʔ gʔ||m n ŋ ˩||b d/z¹ g/j¹||b d g/c²||m n/ň¹ ň||m n ŋ
|-
|pm tn kŋ||m/mb² n ng/ngg² ˥||hm hn/hny¹ hng/hny¹||mh nh ngh||p t/tr/ty¹ č/c¹||p t k/ng²
|-
|m n ŋ||m n ŋ ˧||m n/ny¹ ng||m n ng||w r ň/y²||v r ŋ/y²
|-
|ʔm||m ˩||hm||b||(m)||m
|-
|f fł||f fw ˧||f ł||f fV:||h h/w?²||h/pʼ² s
|-
|h||h ˧||h||h||h||h
|-
|j||y ˧||y||y||y||y/∅²
|-
|l||l ˧||l/ly¹||l||l/ly¹||l
|-
|ł||l ˥||dl/dly/dlr¹||s/l²||š||s
|-
|r||r ˧||r||r||r||r
|-
|ʀ||x ˧||gr||y/w/[+breathiness]²||w||g/∅²
|-
|s||s/ś¹ ˧||s/x¹||s||h||š
|-
|w||w ˧||w||w||w||w/v/∅²
|-
|x||h/y?² ˧||v||x||h||?
|-
|χ||fw?/ś/h² ˧||f/x²||x||h||h
|}

¹ Conditioning due to palatalisation and/or retroflexion.

² Unknown conditioning.

== Intervocalic correspondances ==

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | PR
|-
| r || || ʈʂ
|-
| r || || ʈ
|-
| mb || || m || bʔ
|-
| nd || ∅ || n || dʔ
|-
| jV[+breathy] || h || h
|-
|l || g || tɕʰ
|-
|r || || ʈʂ
|-
|}

== Nucleus correspondances ==

Assuming no coda.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | PR, *
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | RTI
! scope="col" | RRK
! scope="col" | ARN
! scope="col" | ƏD
|-
| a o u e i
|-
| aj oj uj ej ij
|-
| aw ow uw ew iw
|-
|}

== Coda correspondances ==

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" | MT
! scope="col" | RT
! scope="col" | RTJ
! scope="col" | RTI
! scope="col" | PR
|-
|m n ŋ ŋ || ~ || ∅ || ∅ || m n ŋ ɴ
|-
|m n ŋ ŋ || ~ʔ || p t k q || m n ɲ ɲ || mb nd ŋg ɴɢ
|-
|ɸ θ x ʔ || ʔ || p t k q || p t~s ʃ k || p t k q
|-
|}

= Lexicon =

The partially reconstructed lexicon is available here: [[RED|Ronquian Etymological Dictionary]]

= Internal reconstruction =

In all likelihood the liquid series comes from voiced fricative series:

w r l j ʀ < β z ɮ ɣ ʁ

Firstly, this makes the reconstruction of two stop series - voiceless and voiced - all the more more likely. And secondly, it raises the question was there ɦ, and if it was present, what are its reflexes? Some or all of w, r, l, j could already have been present before this shift, however.

[[Category:Ronquian languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Ronquian]]

Proto-Ronquian Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:07:38Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian Lexicon to Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon

#REDIRECT [[Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon]]

Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:07:38Z

Cedh: Cedh moved page Proto-Ronquian Lexicon to Proto-Ronquian/Lexicon

Proto-Ronquian (reconstructed)/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:06:02Z

Cedh: cat

User:Pole, the/dumiclex

2025-02-01T12:04:23Z

Cedh: cat

<pre>
ðaɣi : v. to be small. (+)
ðaka : v. to be slow. (+)
ðamki : n. hair (IP)
ðamta : v. to doubt. (+)
ðan : v. to work. (+)
ðanka : v. to lose, to be defeated
ðanpa : n. mushroom, fungus
ðanu : n. clay
ðapin : v. to drink. (+)
ðapinu : n. hornet
ðarum : v. to walk
ðata : 4
ði : v. to be.
ðiðaðu : n. fool. (+)
ðiɣan : v. to hunt
ðimi : v. to be young. (+)
ðimma : n. tears
ðin: postp. = genitive
ðinsi : v. to be wide. (+)
ðita : v. to be late.
ðuku : v. to be healthy. (+)
ðum (1) : v. to be the same.
ðum (2) : postp. = beside+at
ðumma (1) : v. to take.
ðumma (2) : postp. = beside+to
ðumsi : postp. = beside+from
ðunsa : v. to like, to enjoy
ðutu : v. to seem. (+)
ðuwapa : n. beetle
ðuwi : n. fly (insect)
ɣa : postp. = near+at (+)
ɣam : n. self. (IP) (+)
ɣama: postp. = near+to (+)
ɣamma : n. deer. (+)
ɣanasu : n. metal
ɣanti : v. to make. (+)
ɣapa : n. dust. (+)
ɣari : postp. = near+from (+)
ɣarun : n. crow
ɣawam : v. to be wet. (+)
ɣiɣin : v. to sing
ɣimi : v. to be feeble.
ɣimkun : v. to jump
ɣimpu : v. to keep. (+)
ɣini : n. salt. (+)
ɣinsin : v. to be thick. (+)
ɣintam : v. to be green. (+)
ɣipi : v. to boil.
ɣiri : v. to be ill. (+)
ɣisi : n. future. (+)
ɣitin : v. to let. (+)
ɣuðun : n. oven, kiln
ɣumna : n. heart (IP)
ɣumu : v. to amuse.
ɣunka : v. to sense.
ɣupum : n. wolf
ɣuru : v. to be round.
kaða (1): v. to be big.
kaða (2): 1
kaɣam : n. raven
kaɣan : 10
kaɣana : v. to be serious. (+)
kaɣi : n. sand.
kakam : v. to wake
kaki : n. blood. (+)
kakinim : n. duck
kami : n. axe
kamnim : n. opposite side
kampa : v. to agree.
kampani : v. to be ready. (+)
kamsi : v. to win, to defeat
kan : he
kaniwa : n. lizard
kankin : v. to run
kansa : v. to be tight.
kantam : n. town, village
kantu : v. to be black.
kapam : v. to bite. (+)
kapan : v. to be tall (+)
kapi : v. to answer.
kapu : n. sheep.
kara : n. goose
karan : n. pair of trousers. (+)
karu 1 : n. stone. (+)
karu 2 : v. to be hard. (+)
kasi : n. leg. (IP)
kata : v. to talk. (+)
katam : n. animal. (+)
kawa : v. to waste.
kawasa : n. fox
kawi : n. world.
kiði : v. to be red.
kiɣu : v. to be yellow.
kika : n. day.
kikatim : n. crab
kim (1) : v. to come. (+)
kim (2) : postp. = instrumental
kimi : adv. in no way (also emphatic negation)
kimmu : v. to store
kimpin : postp. without
kimun : n. ring. (+)
kimuna : n. otter
kin : postp. = under+at (+)
kini : v. to be high. (+)
kinma : postp. = under+to
kinsa : v. to be certain.
kinsi (1) : v. to be soft. (+)
kinsi (2) : postp. = under+from
kipam : n. earth. (+)
kipiði : n. right. (+)
kiputa : n. nail (of finger, toe). (IP) (+)
kiri : n. girl.
kisa : v. to be cold. (+)
kisaða : n. squirrel
kiti : v. to slip. (+)
kitun : v. to be poor. (+)
kiwinu : n. snail
ku-: stem of 1st person incl.
kuðam : v. to give birth to.
kuði : cj. if
kuɣin : n. shadow.
kuki : v. to need.
kuma : n. box.
kumim : n. shirt. (+)
kumma : adv. neither; not... either; nor
kumpi : n. brain. (IP) (+)
kumsi : v. to be blue.
kumu : v. to be loose.
kunkum : n. high water, overflow, flood time (of rivers etc.); (high) tide (of sea)
kunsa : v. to be false, to be wrong. (+)
kunta : v. to die.
kupamki :
kupan : n. tree. (+)
kupi : v. to be hollow.
kupu : v. to wound.
kupun (1): n. night.
kupun (2): 8
kura : v. to live.
kuri : v. to be bent. (+)
kuruku : v. to thunder. (+)
kusam : n. neck. (IP) (+)
kutam : n. slope. (+)
kuti : n. moon. (+)
kutu : n. rod. (+)
kutum : n. month. (+)
kuwa : n. wood.
ma: you (sg.)
maðan : n. friend. (IP)
maði : v. to be white.
maɣa : v. to be wise.
maɣin : v. to smell. (+)
maɣu : v. to sit.
makan : n. grain, seed.
makata : v. to be loud. (+)
mam : n. mother. (IP)
mamki : n. root
mamun : v. to plant
manim : n. mountain. (+)
manka : v. to rest.
mapan : n. sweat
mariru : n. garden, field
masa : n. food.
mata : n. ear. (IP)
mawa : n. war.
mi : postp. = in+at
miðan : v. to force.
miði : n. force.
miðun : n. rain.
miɣu : n. sea.
mika : n. lip. (IP)
miki : 2
mima : postp. = in+to
mimku : n. urine
mimpa : n. hole.
mini : v. to grasp. (+)
minki : v. to hope.
minsin : v. to be tired. (+)
minta : n. group. (+)
minti : n. summer. (+)
mipun : v. to grow. (+)
mira : n. sun. (+)
miri (1) : v. to smile.
miri (2) : postp. = in+from (+)
mirun : v. to be beautiful. (+)
miti : n. ray (of light).
miwam : n. boat. (+)
miwu : n. wind.
mu : that
muðan : v. to remain.
muɣan : n. bean
muku : n. fruit.
mumi : adv. thus, like that
mumma : adv. also, too
mumsan : n. guts, intestines (IP)
muni : n. shoe. (+)
mupin : n. toe. (IP) (+)
mupum : n. owl
murimi : v. to be smooth. (+)
musuɣam : v. to be important, to be famous
mutun : n. son (IP)
naðan : v. to be solid.
naði : n. country.
naɣan : v. to be good. (+)
nakata : v. to damage. (+)
naku : n. skin. (IP) (+)
namki : v. to hide.
nampa : v. to hear. (+)
namti : n. vagina/vulva (IP)
nanka : v. to be long.
nanta : v. to hate.
napa : v. to decide.
nara : n. fire.
naram : v. to burn. (+)
nasim : v. to fear.
nata : n. tooth. (IP)
natin : n. flower.
nawi : v. to weigh.
niða : n. fat.
niðiri : v. to be low. (+)
niɣa : v. to shine, to be bright.
nikan : v. to care.
nimkan : v. to swim. (+)
nimki : v. to love. (+)
nimpi : v. to be clean.
nimtam : n. daughter. (IP)
nimti : n. present (time). (+)
ninki : v. to be kind. (+)
nintin : n. number. (+)
nipi : v. to sneeze. (+)
niri : v. to get. (+)
niwan : v. to wash. (+)
nuðu : v. to look. (+)
nuɣan : v. to be full.
numin : v. to have sex with
numna : v. to eat
numti (1): n. sister. (IP) (+)
numti (2): 9 (+)
nupa : v. to cook. (+)
nuri : n. peace. (+)
nurum : n. pleasure.
nusi : cj./adv. then, therefore, consequently (+)
nutuðu : n. hoe, mattock
paði : n. finger. (IP) (+)
paɣa : n. sky, heaven. (+)
pakan : n. pain.
paki : v. to break. (+)
paku : v. to change. (+)
pam : cj. but
pamki : n. bow (weapon)
pamta : n. pin. (+)
pankam : n. drum
pansa : v. to be safe.
pansin : v. to be strong. (+)
panta : n. body. (IP)
paru : n. grass.
patam : n. milk.
pati : n. pig.
pawi : n. ribbon.
pawiɣi : n. clam, bivalve mollusc
pi : cj. and (with a shade of contrast: 'while, on the other hand')
piða : n. middle.
piði : v. to be thin. (+)
piɣi : 5
piki : n. bread. (+)
pimaru : n. turtle
pimka : n. brother. (IP) (+)
pimtu : v. to hang.
pin : postp. (together) with
pinkin : n. flour
pinti :
pintu : v. to bake. (+)
pipiði : v. to stick. (+)
pipun : v. to tell. (+)
pira : 3
piran : n. bird.
pirata : v. to be mixed. (+)
piri : v. to think. (+)
pisan : n. path. (+)
piwam : v. to be grey.
puðu : v. to blow.
puɣa : n. hand. (IP) (+)
puki : n. cloth.
pumta : v. to marry. (+)
pun : n. mind. (IP)
puna : v. to be brown. (+)
punmu : v. to show mercy.
punu : n. table. (+)
pusun : n. leaf. (+)
putam : n. hill, mountain. (+)
ra : postp. = dative
raðim : v. to open. (+)
raðun : n. wasp
raɣa : n. side. (+)
raɣiwun : n. scorpion
raka : v. to be shut. (+)
rakani : v. to close.
ram : what (+)
ramki : n. band (of people).
rammi : adv. how?
rampan : n. bridge. (+)
ramsa : n. woman
ramtam : n. storm, hurricane
ranta : n. leather. (+)
rapam : v. to meet. (+)
rapi : n. autumn.
rasa : n. horn. (IP)
ratan : v. to move.
rawan : n. basket.
riða : n. powder. (+)
riðin : v. to be smooth.
rika : v. to learn. (+)
rikini : v. to teach. (+)
rimpa : v. to meet. (+)
rimpun : n. lion
rinni : v. to laugh.
rinu : v. to be free. (+)
ripa : n. meat. (+)
ripini : v. to be secret. (+)
rirun : n. arrow (weapon)
riti : v. to be quick. (+)
riwan : v. to be angry. (+)
riwi : n. year. (+)
ru : postp. = on+at
ruði : v. to be new. (+)
ruɣun : n. sign. (+)
rukun : n. hook.
rum : n. man. (+)
ruma : postp. = on+to (+)
rumpa : n. bee.
rumtu : n. fog, mist. (+)
runi : n. tail. (IP) (+)
rupi : v. to smoke. (+)
ruri : postp. = on+from
ruwa : n. ball. (+)
saðin : v. to feel. (+)
saɣa : n. head. (IP)
saɣina : v. to be different. (+)
saku : n. rat.
samkana : n. edge. (+)
samsa : n. eagle
sanin : n. rice
sanpa : n. steam. (+)
santi : v. to say. (+)
sapi : v. to end. (+)
satun : v. to cover
si: this (+)
siðam : n. family. (+)
siɣi : v. to sleep.
sikimni : n. flea
sikun : v. to stitch. (+)
sima : 6
simi : adv. thus, like this (+)
simka : n. winter.
simki : n. snow.
simni : n. shrimp
simsimma : n. hedgehog
simu : v. to climb
sinna : n. (woman's) breast (IP)
sinni : v. to see.
sinta : v. to be happy.
sinun : n. louse
sipa : n. name. (IP)
sipin : v. to fly. (+)
sira : n. snake.
siri : v. to be sweet. (+)
sita : v. to taste. (+)
siti : v. to be sour. (+)
situm : n. knot. (+)
situn : v. to tie. (+)
siwa : n. worm.
suðin : v. to give. (+)
suɣi : v. to be short.
suɣun : n. shame. (+)
suku : v. to fall. (+)
sumin : n. spring (season). (+)
sumka : n. power.
sumpu : n. island. (+)
sunki : n. fish.
sunti : n. voice. (IP)
sura : n. mouth. (IP)
surin : n. brush.
suru : n. time.
susina : n. cow. (+)
suwun : n. bank (of river etc.); shore, coast
ta : postp. = at+at
taða : n. father. (IP)
taɣan : n. wall.
taɣi : n. face. (IP) (+)
takan : n. knife, blade. (+)
taku : v. to be narrow. (+)
tam : adv. not
tama (1) : v. to be deep.
tama (2) : postp. = at+to
tampa : n. hammer.
tamta : v. to put. (+)
tamu : n. past.
tansa : v. to be warm.
tantu : v. to be cruel.
tapa : v. to be flat.
tapam : v. to step.
tara : n. result; (actual) outcome (as opposed to what was expected or intended).
tari : postp. = at+from
tatu : 7
tawa : n. bag. (+)
tawiwi : n. fish eggs, roe; (frog)spawn; caviar
ti : I
tiɣan : v. to shake.
tiɣi : n. wing. (IP)
tika : n. stick. (+)
tiki : 100
tikiði : v. to be sharp. (+)
tikun : n. frog
timka : n. insect.
timpa : n. music.
timtu : n. person.
timun : n. tick (parasitic)
tinaðam : n. spider
tinmi : v. to join. (+)
tinpan : n. excrement
tinsi : v. to be awake. (+)
tinti : n. cake. (+)
tipama : n. left. (+)
tipan : n. horse. (?)
tipi : n. star.
tipin : n. mouse
tiraki : v. to be quiet. (+)
tiri : v. to pull.
tirun : n. needle. (+)
tisan : n. knee. (IP)
tisu : n. roof.
titaru : n. crawfish
tiwa : n. bed.
tuða : n. cloud.
tuðun : n. mosquito
tuɣanta : v. to be dark. (+)
tuɣi : n. dog. (+)
tuɣun : n. nose. (IP) (+)
tuku : n. question.
tukuɣu : v. to be true. (+)
tum (1) : v. to be dead. (+)
tum (2) : she (+)
tumpa : n. nut. (+)
tunka : n. pot.
tunti : v. to use. (+)
tupa : n. hat. (+)
tupi : n. soul. (IP) (+)
tutu (1) : v. to be bad.
tutu (2) : n. stem, trunk (of tree).
tuwan : n. egg.
tuwin : n. testicle (IP)
tuwira : n. swallow, martin
waða : n. door.
waðim : v. to be old. (+)
waɣi : n. honey
waɣum : cj. or
wampu : n. house.
wamtum : n. pumpkin
wanka : n. ant.
wanun : n. stomach (IP)
wapam : n. net. (+)
wari : v. to bathe. (+)
watan : n. arm. (IP)
wawuru : n. bear
wiði : n. water. (+)
wiki : n. apple.
wima : n. baby.
wimka : v. to exchange.
win : who
wini : v. to be early. (+)
winpam : n. hare
wintan : v. to be strange. (+)
winti : n. eye. (IP) (+)
winun : n. moth
wipitun : n. spiderweb, cobweb
wiri : v. to be dirty.
wiwuɣi : n. bat
wuðum : n. plant
wummi : n. penis (IP)
wun : cj. and
wunna : n. 'time, instance, situation'.
wuri : n. ice
</pre>

[[Category:Dumic languages]]
[[Category:Lexicography|Proto-Dumic]]

User:Pole, the/dumiclex

2025-02-01T12:03:46Z

Cedh: cat

User:Corumayas/Proto-Eigə Valley

2025-02-01T12:02:23Z

Cedh:

{{Tbc|Corumayas}}
{{Article}}
{{Language
| language = Proto-Eigə Valley
| date = before -3000 YP
| place = lower Aiwa valley
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]
| word-or = SVO, head-initial
| mor-type = fusional, agglutinating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]]
}}

'''Proto-Eigə Valley''' is the last common ancestor of the Eigə Valley languages, one of the two major branches of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]]. Its descendants include [[Ngauro]], [[Meshi]], and the [[Miwan languages]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
|
! scope="col" | Labial
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Coronal
! scope="col" | Dorsal
! scope="col" | Glottal
|-
! scope="row" | Stop
| p b
| colspan="2" | t d
| k ɡ
| (ʔ)¹
|-
! scope="row" | Affricate
|
| colspan="2" | ts (dz)²
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Fricative
|
| θ ð
| s z
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Nasal
| m
| colspan="2" | n
| ŋ
|
|-
! scope="row" | Rhotic
|
| colspan="2" | r
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | Approximant
| w
| colspan="2" | l
| j
|
|}
1. I’m not sure PEV had phonemic /ʔ/; it may have been deleted everywhere, or it may just be an epenthetic sound between vowels in hiatus. 
2. Whether PEV had /dz/ depends on the timing of the sound change tl dl > ts dz; if this occurred in the daughter languages after they began diverging, /dz/ would not belong to the proto-language.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable|c}}
|
! scope="col" | Front
! scope="col" | Back
|-
! scope="row" | Close
| i
| u
|-
! scope="row" | Open
| colspan="2" align="center" | a
|}

Phonemically, Proto-Eigə Valley had six diphthongs '''/aj aw ij iw uj uw/'''. Their realization was not quite as straightforward as this suggests, though; it seems that they tended to become something like [e o əj iw øɥ əw]:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! scope="col" | Proto-Eigə Valley
! scope="col" | Ngauro
! scope="col" | Old East Miw
! scope="col" | Forest Miw
! scope="col" | Meshi
|-
| aj ~ e
| ai ~ ɛ¹
| e
| i
| i, ∅
|-
| aw ~ o
| au ~ o¹
| ?u²
| u
| u, ∅
|-
| ij ~ əj
| e
| ?
| ?a, u
| ay
|-
| iw
| e
| iw
| iw
| e³
|-
| uj ~ øɥ
| aü⁴
| ?a
| ?i
| e³
|-
| uw ~ əw
| aü⁴
| ?
| ?i
| aw
|}
1. Ngauro [ai au] in open syllables alternate with [ɛ o] in closed syllables. 
2. Although it isn't listed in the phoneme inventory for OEMiw or its descendant EMiw, there is one instance of <o> in the EMiw wordlist, in ''ki:ʁnom'' ‘robin’. I’ve been assuming that this is either an allophonic variant or a loanword, but maybe it’s actually a reflex of PEV /aw/. 
3. Meshi /e/ reflects an earlier /ø/ (which may also underlie the Miwan reflexes of PEV /uj/ and perhaps /uw/). 
4. The diphthong transcribed <aü> was probably pronounced something like [œy] in early Ngauro.

=== Tone/Phonation ===

Proto-Eigə Valley had a set of tone and/or phonation contrasts, which were inherited in the Miwan languages and probably in Ngauro. The details are not well understood yet, but there were probably three tone/phonation types:

{| {{softtable|c}}
! scope="row" | Tone 1
| Modal voice
| a
|-
! scope="row" | Tone 2
| Breathy voice
| a̤
|-
! scope="row" | Tone 3
| Creaky voice
| a̰
|}

Because they originated from features of adjacent consonants, the tone/phonation types were typically found in certain environments:

* Tone 1 (modal voice) usually followed a voiced consonant or a fricative
* Tone 2 (breathy voice) usually followed a voiceless stop
* Tone 3 (creaky voice) usually appeared in syllables without an onset consonant

Tones 1 and 2 were about equally likely after /ts/, and some onsetless syllables had Tone 2 instead of 3; there were probably other exceptions to the usual distribution as well, which rendered the tones contrastive in other environments.

=== Phonotactics ===

The syllable structure of Proto-Eigə Valley was '''C(G)V(G,s,n)(C)''', where G is any of /j w r l/. The set of coda consonants was restricted to plosives, nasals, and /θ s z r l/. (There were no doubt additional phonotactic restrictions, but the details are still uncertain.)

In clusters of a nasal + a stop or affricate, the nasal assimilated to the place of articulation of the following consonant (I’m not sure whether this occurred with fricatives as well). In clusters of /s/ + a voiced consonant, the voicelessness of /s/ was preserved; this may have been helped by inserting an epenthetic schwa [ə] in some environments.

The language also seems to have had syllabic nasals, generally found word-initially and followed by a homorganic consonant. Most of these are instances of the genitive prefix ''m-''.

=== Sound changes from Proto-Eigə-Isthmus ===

These are probably not complete!

* onset voicing shift (and rise of breathy voice on vowels)
** b d dz g > bʱ dʱ dzʱ gʱ > pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ + breathy voice on following vowel
** p t k > b d g
** pʰ tʰ tsʰ kʰ > p t ts k
** (this shift is blocked in medial clusters of two stops with the same voicing, e.g. PEI ''gasd~gasd'' ‘stream~PL’ > PEV ''kasd~ga(s)d'' > Ng. ''kasdgad'' > NT ''kasadgad'')
(Since *ts doesn't become voiced, *ts and *dz merge: cf. EMiw ''tun'' 'red' < ''*dzusn-'', ''timpi:za'' 'necklace' < ''*tsimp-''.)

* coda ts dz > s z
* ? z > s /V_C

* vowel mergers: e ej ew > aj i iw (although maybe ej > ij in some environments)

* intervocalic ʔ h (if they both existed) induce phonation—creaky voice and breathy voice respectively—on adjacent syllables, then are deleted

* the preposition ''ʔum'' > a prefix ''m-'', which then assimilates to the POA of a following stop (perhaps some other unstressed initial vowels are deleted too; but ''ʔas-'' seems to be preserved as Miwan ''as-'')

* onset tl dl > tɬ dɮ > ts dz (this change may occur after the daughter languages begin to diverge—I think it'd be fun to have some hints of the lateral affricate stage in the daughters)
(This change has to happen after the merger of original *ts *dz > *ts; cf. FMiw ''dimbal'' 'wife' < ''*tlujb-''.)

== Morphology ==

=== Nominal morphology ===

Proto-Eigə Valley nouns were marked for number and probably case.

==== Number ====

Number marking distinguished singular and plural, with plural number marked in either of two ways: by a suffix (''-wa''), or by suffixed reduplication. The choice of plural marker may have been connected to gender, perhaps with ''-wa'' preferred for animate plurals and reduplication for inanimates.

{| {{softtable|c}}
|
! scope="col" | ANIM?
! scope="col" | INAN?
|-
! scope="row" | SG
| colspan="2" | —
|-
! scope="row" | PL
| -wa
| ~RDP
|}

==== Case ====

Case marking probably distinguished direct and genitive cases, and perhaps also a dative or locative. These categories appear to have been marked by prefixes: the direct case was unmarked, while there may have been two prefixes for the genitive case (''a̰s-'' and ''m-'', perhaps used to distinguish gender as with the two forms of plural marking) and perhaps a dative or locative prefix (''za-''). The genitive prefix ''m-'' was apparently syllabic, at least before obstruents, and assimilated to the place of articulation of a following obstruent; it may also have induced the tone of the following syllable to become Tone 3 (creaky voice).

{| {{softtable|c}}
! scope="row" | DIR
| colspan="2" | —
|-
! scope="row" | GEN
| a̰s-
| m-
|-
! scope="row" | DAT or LOC?
| colspan="2" | za-
|}

It’s possible that some or all of these prefixes would be better described as clitics, or even that one or both of ''a̰s'' and ''za'' were free prepositions in Proto-Eigə Valley. If so, it might be debatable whether the language had true case marking.

==== Inflection or derivation? ====

The number- and case-marked forms tended to become lexicalized (cf. Ng. ''kasdgad'' ‘streams: the Aiwa delta’ and ''mbes'' ‘of the people: Ngauro’; the latter is cognate with other autonyms in the family, including OEMiw ''miw'' ‘of the people’ and the first syllable of Me. ''meshi'' ‘of the holy people’). As a result, it’s difficult to say whether they were inflectional or derivational categories in Proto-Eigə Valley.

==== Gender ====

A third category affecting nouns was gender; all nouns were inherently either animate or inanimate. Gender assignment was semantically predictable, with at most a handful of exceptions. Gender may have affected the choice of plural and/or genitive markers; there may also have been gender agreement in pronouns, adjectives, and/or verbs.

=== Verbal morphology ===

Proto-Eigə Valley verbs were marked for aspect, voice, and possibly subject agreement. As with number and case for nouns, aspect and voice forms tended to become lexicalized, and may perhaps be seen as derivational rather than inflectional.

==== Aspect ====

Aspect marking was the innermost layer of verbal morphology in Proto-Eigə Valley. The categories marked probably included perfective/punctual, imperfective/durative, resultative, and inceptive/inchoative; and there may have been others as well. The aspect forms are known as grades, and were mainly marked by infixes or suffixes, depending on the conjugation class of the verb.

{| {{softtable}}
! scope="col" | Aspect
! scope="col" | Grade
! scope="col" | Infixing
! scope="col" | Suffixing
|-
! scope="row" | Perfective/Punctual
| Zero-grade
| –
| –
|-
! scope="row" | Imperfective/Durative
| N-grade
| <(i)n>
| -(i)n
|-
! scope="row" | Resultative
| S-grade
| <(u)s>
| -(u)s
|-
! scope="row" | Inceptive/Inchoative
| J-grade
| , <j>
| -i, -j
|}

All the infixes and suffixes had syllabic and non-syllabic variants. After a consonant (except /j w/) or any of /ij iw uj uw/ they were always syllabic; after /a/ they were always non-syllabic. After /aj aw i u/ they could be either, depending on the verb.

Some verb roots underwent vowel mutations in the final syllable in certain grades. For example:

* /aj aw/ in verbs that took non-syllabic affixes became /i uj/ in the J-grade instead of adding an affix.
* /i u/ became either /ij uw/ or /ajj aww/ (I’m not sure which is correct) before a syllabic affix, and some /iw uj/ may similarly have become /ajw awj/.

There may also have been an iterative or intensive aspect, marked by reduplication of the first CV syllable of the verb (as in Proto-Eigə Valley’s sister language Proto-Isthmus):

{| {{softtable}}
! scope="row" | Iterative/Intensive
| Reduplicated grade
| RDP~
|}

And there may have been other infixing-suffixing grades as well; possibilities include l-grade, r-grade, and w-grade. It’s unknown what categories these might have marked (though I’m considering using the w-grade for plural agreement somehow).

==== Voice ====

Voice marking was the next layer of verbal morphology, marked by suffixes (traditionally known as stem vowels). The basic suffixes were active ''-(ʔ)a'', causative ''-(ʔ)i'', and detransitive ''-(ʔ)u''; these could be combined to form compound suffixes, in which they recursively changed the valency of the verb: ''-i'' increased valency, while ''-u'' decreased it. (In compound suffixes the vowels were not separated by another glottal stop, but merged into diphthongs or sequences of vowels and semivowels.) The active marker ''-a'' did not alter the valency of the verb, but may have been added for various reasons: for emphasis, for clarity, to add phonological substance, to adjust the prosody of the word by adding a syllable, or simply for stylistic variation.

The voice suffixes were quite productive in Ngauro and Meshi; I’m not sure about the Miwan languages.

Here’s a fairly complete list of possible suffixes, I think; many of these (especially the longer compound suffixes) were infrequently used if at all:

{| {{softtable}}
! scope="row" | Active
| -(ʔ)a
|-
! scope="row" | Causative
| -(ʔ)i, -(ʔ)aj, -(ʔ)aja
|-
! scope="row" | Detransitive
| -(ʔ)u, -(ʔ)aw, -(ʔ)awa
|-
! scope="row" | Detransitive of Causative
| -(ʔ)iw, -(ʔ)aju, -(ʔ)iwa, -(ʔ)ajwa, -(ʔ)ajaw, -(ʔ)ajawa
|-
! scope="row" | Causative of Detransitive
| -(ʔ)uj, -(ʔ)awi, -(ʔ)uja, -(ʔ)awja, -(ʔ)awaj, -(ʔ)awaja
|-
! scope="row" | Causative of Causative
| -(ʔ)ij, -(ʔ)ija, -(ʔ)ajaj -(ʔ)ajaja
|-
! scope="row" | Detransitive of Detransitive
| -(ʔ)uw, -(ʔ)uwa, -(ʔ)awaw, -(ʔ)awawa
|}

==== Agreement? ====

Subject agreement, if it was found at all, may have been less elaborated than in Isthmus languages. Perhaps verbs simply agreed with their subjects for number? (I’m considering using the w-grade for plural subjects, but I’d have to figure out how it interacts with the aspect-marking grades.) Alternatively, perhaps they agreed for person and number, with third-person being the least marked form.

==== Nominalization ====

As in Proto-Isthmus, the s-grade of verbs was used to derive resultative nouns in Proto-Eigə Valley. In addition, at least two nominalizing suffixes are known:

* The suffix ''-ti'' formed action nouns.
* The suffix ''-ju'' formed agentive nouns.

==== Other verbal markers ====

There are a couple of particles in Meshi which appear to be cognate with verbal affixes in Old East Miwan:

* Reciprocal: Meshi ''saz'', OEMiw ''sa:v-'' seems to reflect a PEV form like ''*sa̤ðV'' or maybe ''*sasðV''
* Negative: Meshi ''ga'', OEMiw ''-χa(s)'' might reflect PEV ''*gats'' or ''*gadz'' (implying that OEMiw has undergone a change like g > χ /V_V)

The following is a list of other verbal affixes (both inflectional and derivational) that appear in attested Miwan words:

* ''d-'' appears to form patientive nouns in OEMiw: cf. '''''d'''re:χurfi:'' ‘speech-flow.together’ ~ ''*re:'' ‘to speak’, possibly ''saχu'''d'''wa'' ‘flat-food’ ~ ''*wa'' ‘to eat’
* ''-s'' might be an exhaustive plural in OEMiw ''re:'''s'''ti'' ‘election’ (lit. ‘everyone speaking’)
* ''-stu'' appears to form a cessative aspect in FMiw: cf. FMiw/OEMiw ''gwa'''stu''''' (n. or v.) ‘(to) dump’ ~ FMiw ''gwa:'' ‘to use’, FMiw ''nidri:'''stu''''' ‘to regret’ ~ ''nidri:'' ‘to feel warm towards’
* ''-ʔi'' privative (with nouns) or non-potential (with verbs) suffix in OEMiw: cf. ''gwa:'''ʔi'''ti'' ‘not important, useless’ (becomes ''-hi'' in Southern)

In addition to this, Old Eastern Miwan had a hearsay marker ''tu:zi'', which apparently was a free-standing particle (loaned into Naidda as ''tuze'' ‘I guess’). This appears to be an inflected form of the verb ''tu:m-'' (< PEV ''tlṳm-'') ‘tell, recount’, probably meaning something like ‘so it is told’ or ‘so they tell’. The precise function of the suffix ''-zi'' is currently unknown, but it could be

* an agreement marker or subject pronoun
* an object pronoun (probably a demonstrative ‘thus, so’)
* a passivizer
* a tense or aspect marker

or some combination of these.

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages|Proto-Eige-Valley]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Eige-Valley]]

Proto-Dumic (reconstructed)/Lexicon

2025-02-01T12:00:46Z

Cedh:

Here is the reconstructed lexicon of [[Proto-Dumic]] along with the sources of the loanwords appearing in [[Dumic languages]].

Notes:
* N signifies any of /m n/.
* V signifies any vowel.
* [xyz] signifies any of /x y z/.
* (IP) means that the noun had an obligatory possesion marking in Proto-Dumic.
* (II), (III) signify inflection patterns in Kataputi.

== B ==

=== Ba ===

'''*baburu''' — "bear"
* Kat. '''wuru, wawuru'''
* Trin. '''wur'''
* JS '''pfuru'''
* Tty. '''ayu'''

'''*bada''' — "door"
* Wok. '''baa'''
* Kat. '''waza'''
* Trin. '''wal'''
* JS '''jau'''
* Sw. '''a'mòyr''' (?)
* Tty. '''eze'''

'''*badim''' — "to be old"
* Kat. '''wazi''' (III)
* Trin. '''uliz''' (*badim-ki)
* JS '''jikki''' (*badim-ki)

'''*bagi''' — "honey"
* Wok. '''bē'''
* Kat. '''wē'''
** '''wēmiri''' "to be sweet" (*bagi-miri)
* Trin. '''wai'''
* JS '''jaji'''

'''*bampu''' — "house"
* Wok. '''bopu'''
* Pot. '''βompo'''
* Kat. '''wāmu'''
** '''wāmuduka''' "village" (*bampu-tuNka)
* Trin. '''wab, ubus'''
* JS '''jappu'''
* Sw. '''ži'yuba''' (?)
* Tty. '''apu'''
* Ttl. '''bouk'''

'''*baNka''' — "ant"
* Kat. '''waka'''
* Trin. '''wag'''
* JS '''jakka'''

'''*baNtum''' — "pumpkin"
* Kat. '''watu''' (III)
* JS '''jattoun'''

'''*banun''' — "stomach" (IP)
* Kat. '''wanu''' (II)
* JS '''voun'''
* Tty. '''-elyu'''

'''*bapam''' — "net"
* Kat. '''waha, wā, wa''' (III)
* Trin. '''wap'''
* JS '''jafan'''

'''*bari''' — "to bathe"
* Kat. '''wari''' "swim"
* Trin. '''war, uriw'''
* JS '''jari'''

'''*batan''' — "arm" (IP)
* Pot. '''βata'''
* Kat. '''wadata''' "two arms" (*batan-ta)
* Trin. '''wat, utag'''
* JS '''jatan''' "tool"
** '''tatta''' "arm" (*batan-ta)
* Tty. '''-peto''' "arm", '''-eto''' "shoulder"

=== Bi ===

'''*bibugi''' — "bat"
* Kat. '''wū''' "bat" (?)
* JS '''jəyji''' "bat" (?)

'''*bidi''' — "water"
* Pot. '''βihi'''
* Kat. '''wizi'''
* Trin. '''wil, ulik'''
* JS '''jiji'''
* Sw. '''ye'yùm''' (*bidi-mu)
* Ttl. '''zuez'''

'''*biki''' — "apple"
* Kat. '''wigi'''
* Trin. '''wik'''
* JS '''jiki'''

'''*bima''' — "baby", "child"
* Kat. '''wima'''
* Trin. '''wim, umak'''
* JS '''jei'''
* Tty. '''ve'''

'''*bin''' — "who"
* Wok. '''be-'''
* Kat. '''wi'''
* Trin. '''win, wig'''
* Tty. '''i'''
* Ttl. '''zui'''

'''*bini''' — "to be early"
* Kat. '''wini'''
* Trin. '''unis''' (*bini-ki)
* JS '''jəiki''' (*bini-ki)

'''*binpam''' — "hare"
* Kat. '''wīna''' (III)
* Trin. '''wib'''
* JS '''jippan'''

'''*bintan''' — "to be strange"
* Pot. '''βeta''' "to be gloomy"
* Kat. '''wita''' (II)
* Trin. '''udaz''' (*bintan-ki)
* JS '''jittan'''

'''*binti''' — "eye" (IP)
* Pot. '''βeti'''
* Kat. '''witida''' "two eyes" (*binti-ta)
* Trin. '''udid'''
* JS '''jitti'''
* Sw. '''yétš'''
** '''yé'tšéda''' "two eyes" (*binti-ta)
* Tty. '''-í'''

'''*binun''' — "moth", "butterfly"
* Kat. '''winu''' (II)
* JS '''jəyn'''

'''*biri''' — "to be dirty"
* Wok. '''biri, wiri'''
* Pot. '''βil'''
* Kat. '''wiri''' "to be weak"
* Trin. '''uris''' (*biri-ki)
* JS '''riki''' (*biri-ki)

'''*bitun''' — "web"
* Kat. '''widu''' (II)
* JS '''pitein''' "mesh", "netting"

=== Bu ===

'''*budum''' — "plant"
* Wok. '''buo'''
* Kat. '''wuzu''' (III)
* Trin. '''wul'''
* JS '''vuvoun''' "grass"

'''*bummi''' — "penis" (IP)
* Wok. '''bomi'''
* Tty. '''-um'''

'''*bun''' — "and"
* Wok. '''bu'''
* Pot. '''βu'''
** '''βuna''' "because", "if" (*bun-na?)
* Kat. '''wu'''
* Trin. '''wun'''
* JS '''ein'''
* Ttl. '''gui'''

'''*buri''' — "ice"
* Wok. '''buri'''
* Kat. '''wuri'''
* Trin. '''wuwur'''
* JS '''vuri'''

== D ==

=== Da ===

'''*dagi''' — "to be small"
* Wok. '''dē, agi'''
* Pot. '''haɰi'''
* Kat. '''zē'''
* Trin. '''lilis''' (*dagi-ki)
* JS '''đaji''' "be insignificant"
** '''đviki''' "small" (*dagi-ki)
** '''đjei''' "child" (*dagi-da)

'''*daka''' — "to be slow"
* Wok. '''doka, oha''' "to be dumb"
* Pot. '''haka''' "to be tainted"
* Kat. '''zaga'''
* Trin. '''kas''' (*daka-ki)
* JS '''đaka'''
** '''đkaki''' "slow" (*daka-ki)

'''*dan''' — "to work", "to do"
* Wok. '''do, o'''
* Kat. '''za'''
** '''tipaza, tipsa''' "to serve" (*tim-ra-dan)
* Trin. '''lan, lab'''
* JS '''đan'''
** '''đkasi''' "effect" (*dan-kasi)

'''*danka''' — "to lose"
* Wok. '''doka, oha'''
* Kat. '''zaka, zga'''
** '''zgaza, zaksa''' "slave" (*danka-da)
* Tty. '''-zokeze, -tokeze''' "defeated opponent" (*danka-da)

'''*danpa''' — "mushroom"
* Wok. '''dopa'''
* Kat. '''zāna'''
* Trin. '''lab'''
* JS '''đappa'''

'''*daNta''' — "to doubt"
* Wok. '''dota, osa'''
* Kat. '''zata'''
* Trin. '''lad'''
* JS '''đatta''' "to fear"

'''*danu''' — "clay"
* Wok. '''danə'''
* Kat. '''zanu'''
** '''zāmiri''' "to be grey" (*danu-miri)
* Trin. '''lan'''
* JS '''đou''' "mud", "dirt"
** '''đoukein''' "figurine", "doll" (*danu?-kin)

'''*dapin''' — "to drink"
* Wok. '''dape, afe'''
* Pot. '''hape'''
* Kat. '''zahi, zi''' (II)
* Trin. '''lap, pib'''
* JS '''đafein'''

'''*darum''' — "to go"
* Wok. '''daro, aro'''
* Kat. '''zwūma''' "road" (*darum-pa)
* JS '''đaroun'''
** '''đatrəí''' "across" (*darum-tini)

'''*dasi''' — "to be huge"
* Trin. '''las'''
* JS '''đsiki''' (*dasi-ki)

'''*data''' — 4
* Pot. '''hata'''
* Kat. '''zada'''
* Trin. '''lat'''
* JS '''đata'''
* Sw. '''lada'''
* Tty. '''zete'''
* Ttl. '''det'''

=== Di ===

'''*di''' — "to be"
* Wok. '''di, ə'''
* Pot. '''hitaka''' "to make" (*di-taka)
* Kat. '''zi'''
** '''kīmizi''' "to be low" (*kipam-mi-di)
* Trin. '''li'''
* JS '''đi'''
** '''đei''' "person" (*di-da)
* Tty. '''zo'''
* Ttl. '''-z'''
** '''cokicpe''' "area below" (*tim-kin-di-pa)

'''*didadu''' — "fool"
* Kat. '''zazu, zizu'''
* Trin. '''lal'''
* JS '''đeivu'''

'''*digan''' — "to follow", "to hunt"
* Wok. '''diwo, əgo'''
* Kat. '''zē''' (II) "to search"
* Trin. '''lên'''
* JS '''đijan'''

'''*dimi''' — "to be young"
* Wok. '''dini, andi'''
* Pot. '''himiha''' "younger sibling" (*dimi-da)
* Kat. '''zimi'''
* Trin. '''mis''' (*dimi-ki)
* JS '''đəiki''' (*dimi-ki)
* Ttl. '''zaj'''

'''*din''' — "of"
* Wok. '''-Ṽdī''' (*V-ni-din)
* Pot. '''-he'''
* Kat. '''zi'''
* Trin. '''-lin'''
* Sw. '''yì'''
* Tty. '''zi'''
* Ttl. '''zi'''

'''*diNma''' — "tear"
* Wok. '''dema'''
* Kat. '''zīma'''
* Trin. '''lim'''
* JS '''đimma'''

'''*dinsi''' — "to be wide"
* Wok. '''dehi, əshi''' "to be wise"
* Pot. '''hesi''' "to be thick"
* Kat. '''ziti, zdi'''
* Trin. '''zis'''

'''*dita''' — "to be late"
* Wok. '''dita, əsa''' "to be slow"
* Kat. '''zida'''
** '''zdagu''' "to capture" (*dita-ku)
* Trin. '''tas''' (*dita-ki)
* Ttl. '''-z(e)te'''

=== Du ===

'''*dubapa''' — "beetle"
* Kat. '''zwaha, zwā, zūwa'''
* Trin. '''wawap'''
* JS '''đoufa'''

'''*dubi''' — "fly"
* Pot. '''hoβi''' "fool"
* Kat. '''zuwi, zwi'''
* Trin. '''luw, luwik'''
* JS '''đəy'''
* Tty. '''zyu'''

'''*duku''' — "to be healthy"
* Wok. '''dəkə, əhu'''
* Pot. '''hoko''' "to be beautiful"
* Kat. '''zugu, zgu'''
* Trin. '''kus''' (*duku-ki)
* JS '''đuku'''
** '''đkuki''' "healthy" (*duku-ki)

'''*dum''' — "next to"
* Kat. '''zuta''' (*dum-ta)
* Trin. '''-lun'''
* Tty. '''zu'''
* Ttl. '''duo'''

'''*dum''' — "to be the same"
* Kat. '''zu''' (III)
* Trin. '''luz''' (*dum-ki)
* JS '''đun'''
** '''đukki''' "same" (*dum-ki)
** '''đutta''' "the same one" (*dum-da)
* Tty. '''zu, zupe''' (*dum, dum-ba)
* Ttl. '''duok''' (*dum-ki)

'''*dumma''' — "(to) next to"
* Kat. '''zūma'''
* Trin. '''-lun'''
* Tty. '''zume'''

'''*dumma''' — "to take"
* Wok. '''doma, onba'''
** '''omarire''' "to steal" (*dumma-riri)
* Kat. '''zūma''' "to carry"
* JS '''đumma'''
* Tty. '''zumya''' (*dumma-ba)
* Ttl. '''duom'''

'''*dumsi''' — "from next to"
* Kat. '''zupi'''
* Trin. '''-luz'''
* Tty. '''zuso'''

'''*dunsa''' — "to enjoy"
* Wok. '''doha, osha'''
** '''oshamu''' "story" (*dunsa?-mu)
* Kat. '''zuta, zda''' "to like"
* Pot. '''husa''' "to have sex"
* Trin. '''luz'''
* JS '''đsou''' "story" (*dunsa?-mu)

'''*dupinu''' — "hornet"
* Kat. '''zinu'''
* Trin. '''pin'''
* JS '''đpəy'''

'''*dutu''' — "to seem"
* Kat. '''zudu, zdu'''
* JS '''đutu'''

== G ==

=== Ga ===

'''*ga''' — "near"
* Trin. '''-a'''
* Tty. '''he'''

'''*gabam''' — "to be wet"
* Wok. '''gō, obo, ou'''
* Kat. '''hawa''' (III)
** '''hawaku''' "to seduce" (*gabam-ku)
* Trin. '''waz''' (*gabam-ki)
* JS '''vaukki''' (*gabam-ki)

'''*gam''' — "self" (IP)
* JS '''jaun''' "person"
* Tty. '''-ha''' (in personal pronouns)
* Ttl. '''-ẏo''' (in reflexive pronouns)

'''*gama''' — "(to) near"
* Kat. '''hama'''
* Trin. '''-an'''
* Tty. '''heve'''
* Ttl. '''-em'''

'''*gamma''' — "deer"
* Pot. '''ɰomma'''
* Kat. '''hāma'''
* Trin. '''am, mak'''
* JS '''jamma'''

'''*ganasu''' — "metal"
* Wok. '''ondahə'''
** '''onahətesū''' "chief" (*ganasu-timtu)
** '''onashəta''' "spear and axe" (*ganasu-ta)
* Pot. '''ɰanaso'''
* Kat. '''hanazu''' "regalia"
** '''hanāzira''' "smith" (*ganasu-dira?)
** '''gēnazu''' "metal" (back-formed)
** '''kīgēnazu''' "bronze" (*kigu-ki-ganasu)
** '''ksigēnazu''' "copper" (*kidi-ki-ganasu)
** '''nēgēnazu''' "gold" (*niga-ki-ganasu)
* Trin. '''nas'''
** '''tipnas''' "iron" (*tipi-ganasu)
* JS '''jausu'''
** '''jausuta''' "spear and axe" (*ganasu-ta)
** '''jausvuji''' "to be prestigious" (*ganasu-dudi)
** '''jausəyri''' "gold" (*ganasu-niri)
** '''jausuta''' "spear and axe" (*ganasu-ta)

'''*ganti''' — "to make"
* Pot. '''ɰati'''
** '''ɰatihira''' "artisan" (*ganti-dira)
* Kat. '''hati''' "to cause"
* Trin. '''ad, diw'''
* JS '''jatti'''

'''*gapa''' — "dust"
* Kat. '''haha, hā, ha'''
* Trin. '''ap'''
* JS '''jafa'''

'''*gari''' — "from near"
* Kat. '''hari'''
* Trin. '''-ar'''
* Tty. '''hey'''
* Ttl. '''-el'''

'''*garun''' — "crow"
* Kat. '''haru''' (II)
* Trin. '''ar, rug'''
* JS '''jarein'''
* Tty. '''heyu'''

=== Gi ===

'''*gigin''' — "to sing"
* Wok. '''gī, ike'''
* Pot. '''ɰije'''
* Kat. '''hī''' (II)
* Trin. '''în'''
* JS '''jijein'''

'''*gimi''' — "to fail", "to be weak"
* Wok. '''gini, enbi''' "to be tired"
* Pot. '''ɰimiru''' "to die from starvation" (*gimi-run?)
* Kat '''himi'''
* JS '''jəi'''
** '''vəiki''' "weak" (*gimi-ki)

'''*gimpu''' — "to store"
* Kat. '''hīmu''' "to own"
* Trin. '''ib, buw''' "to keep"

'''*gimkun''' — "to jump"
* Wok. '''geko, iho'''
* Pot. '''ɰenku'''
* Kat. '''hiku''' (II)
* Trin. '''ig, gub'''
* JS '''vikkein''' "to climb"

'''*gini''' — "salt"
* Pot. '''ɰini'''
* Kat. '''hini'''
* Trin. '''in'''
* JS '''jəi'''

'''*ginsin''' — "to be thick"
* Pot. '''ɰese''' "to be round"
* Kat. '''hiti''' (II) "to be fat"
* Trin. '''ziz''' (*ginsin-ki)
* JS '''jissein''' "to block"
** '''sikki''' "thick" (*ginsin-ki)
** '''jisnitta''' "butter" (*ginsin)

'''*gintam''' — "to be green"
* Pot. '''ɰeton'''
* Kat. '''hita''' (III)
* Trin. '''daz''' (*gintam-ki)
* JS '''jittan''' "to shoot up"
** '''tjakki''' "green" (*gintam-ki)

'''*gipi''' — "to boil"
* Kat. '''hihi, hī, hi'''
** '''hīzira''' "cauldron" (*gipi-dira)
* Trin. '''ip'''
* JS '''jifi'''

'''*giri''' — "illness"
* Pot. '''ɰil'''
* Trin. '''ris''' (*giri-ki)
* JS '''jiri'''

'''*gisi''' — "future"
* Pot. '''ɰisi'''
* Kat. '''hizi''' "vision"
* Trin. '''is'''
* Ttl. '''geq-, -gqe'''

'''*gitin''' — "to let"
* Kat. '''hidi''' (II)
* Trin. '''it, tib'''
* JS '''jitein'''

=== Gu ===

'''*gudun''' — "oven"
* Wok. '''gə̄'''
* Kat. '''higōzu, higīzu''' (II) (*piki-gudun)
** '''tukōzu''' "kiln" (*tuNka-gudun)
* JS '''juvein'''

'''*gumna''' — "heart" (IP)
* Kat. '''hūna'''
* Trin. '''um, mak'''
* JS '''junna''' "heart", "gathering"
* Tty. '''-hune, -kune'''

'''*gumu''' — "to amuse"
* Kat. '''humu''' "to play"
* Trin. '''um'''
* JS '''jəu'''

'''*guNka''' — "to sense"
* Kat. '''huka''' "to find"
* Trin. '''ug'''
* JS '''vukka''' "speak with the dead"

'''*gupum''' — "wolf"
* Pot. '''ɰopun''' "brave"
* Kat. '''huhu, hu'''
** '''Hūmu''' "Wolf" (*gupum-bu)
* Trin. '''up, pug'''
* JS '''jufoun'''
* Tty. '''hufu'''

'''*guru''' — "to be round"
* Pot. '''ɰol''' "public circle"
* Kat. '''huru'''
* Trin. '''rus''' (*guru-ki)
* JS '''juru''' "to fatten"
** '''rjuki''' "round" (*guru-ki)
** '''rjou''' "border" (*guru-da)
* Tty. '''huy'''

== K ==

=== Ka ===

'''*kaba''' — "to destroy"
* Kat. '''kawa'''
* Trin. '''kaw''' "to waste"
* JS '''kau''' "to kill"

'''*kabasa''' — "fox"
* Kat. '''kwaza''', '''kawasa'''
* JS '''kausa'''

'''*kabi''' — "world"
* Pot. '''kaβi'''
* Kat. '''hukawi''' "spirit world" (*pun-kabi)
** '''miragawi''' "material world" (*mira-kabi)
* Trin. '''kaw, kwik'''

'''*kada''' — 1
* Pot. '''kaha'''
* Kat. '''kaza'''
* Trin. '''kal'''
* JS '''kau'''
* Sw. '''gwara'''
* Tty. '''keze'''
* Ttl. '''ed'''

'''*kada''' — "to be big"
* Wok. '''haa, kada'''
* Pot. '''kaha'''
* Kat. '''kaza, ksa'''
* JS '''kauki''' (*kada-ki)
* Ttl. '''ed'''

'''*kagam''' — "raven"
* Kat. '''kā''' (III)
* Trin. '''kân, kâmak'''

'''*kagan''' — 10
* Pot. '''kaɰa'''
* Kat. '''kā'''
* Trin. '''kân'''
* JS '''koun'''
* Sw. '''gwawà'''
* Tty. '''keho'''
* Ttl. '''eẏi'''

'''*kagana''' — "to be sad"
* Pot. '''kaɰana'''
* Kat. '''kāna'''
* Trin. '''kânas''' (*kagana-ki)
* JS '''kvau''' "to mean"

'''*kagi''' — "sand"
* Kat. '''kē'''
* Trin. '''kai'''
* JS '''kavi'''
* Tty. '''keho'''
** '''kehok’o''' "grain of sand" (*kagi-kiki)

'''*kakam''' — "to wake"
* Wok. '''hoko, koho'''
* Kat. '''kaga''' (III)
* Tin. '''kak, kab'''
* JS '''kakan'''

'''*ka[ks]i''' — "earth"
* Trin. '''kas, ksik'''
* JS '''tvaksəý''' "earthquake" (*tigan-ka[ks]i-bu)

'''*kakinim''' — "duck"
* Kat. '''kagini''' (III)
* Trin. '''kin, kaknig'''
* JS '''ksəin'''
* Tty. '''kélo'''

'''*kami''' — "axe"
* Wok. '''hami'''
* Pot. '''kani'''
* Kat. '''kami'''
* Trin. '''kam'''
* JS '''kei'''
* Tty. '''kevo'''

'''*kamnim''' — "opposite"
* Wok. '''hone'''
* Kat. '''Kānitagu''' "Trinesian islands" (*kamnim-taku)
* JS '''kannoun'''
* Tty. '''kan'''

'''*kampa''' — "to agree"
* Kat. '''kāmagu''' "to mediate" (*kampa-ku)
* Trin. '''kab'''
* JS '''kappa'''
** '''kpeitta''' "agreement" (*kaNpa-ninta)

'''*kampani''' — "to be ready"
* Kat. '''kāmani''' "to be wise"
* Trin. '''kabnis''' (*kampani-ki)
* JS '''kpei'''
* Tty. '''kapel'''

'''*kamsi''' — "to win", "to defeat"
* Wok. '''hohi, koshi'''
* Pot. '''konsi''' "to kill"
* Kat. '''kapi'''
* JS '''kassi'''

'''*kan''' — 3rd person masculine
* Wok. '''hoho'''
* Pot. '''ka'''
** '''kata''' "which" (*kan-ta?)
* Kat. '''ka'''
* Trin. '''kan'''
* JS '''kan'''
* Sw. '''gwà'''
* Tty. '''koka''' (*kan-gam)
* Ttl. '''is''' (*kan-ra?)

'''*kaniba''' — "lizard"
* Kat. '''kaniwa'''
* Trin. '''kniw'''
* JS '''kvei'''
* Tty. '''kelye'''

'''*kankin''' — "to run"
* Wok. '''hoke, kohe'''
* Pot. '''kake'''
** '''kakeha''' "rabbit" (*kankin-da)
* Kat. '''kaki''' (II)
* Trin. '''kag, gib'''
* JS '''kakkein'''

'''*kansa''' — "to be firm"
* Pot. '''kasa''' "belt"
* Kat. '''kata'''
** '''katagu''' "to protect" (*kansa-ku)
** '''katsira''' "shield" (*kansa-dira)
* Trin. '''ksas''' "tight" (*kansa-ki)
* JS '''ksakoun''' "belt" (*kansa-kim)

'''*kantam''' — "village"
* Pot. '''katon''' "chief"
* Kat. '''kata''' (III) "meeting hall"
** '''Katapaki''' "Katapaki nation" (*kantam-raNki)
** '''Kataputi''' "Kataputi language" (*kantam-sunti)
* Trin. '''kad, dag'''
* JS '''kattan'''
* Ttl. '''ito'''

'''*kaNtu''' — "to be black"
* Pot. '''kato''' "to be ugly"
* Kat. '''katu'''
* Trin. '''dus''' (*kaNtu-ki)
* JS '''ktuki''' (*kaNtu-ki)

'''*kapam''' — "to bite"
* Kat. '''kaha, ka''' (III)
* Trin. '''kap, kpab'''
* JS '''kafan'''

'''*kapi''' — "to answer"
* Kat. '''kahi'''
* Trin. '''kap, kpiw'''
* JS '''kafi'''

'''*kapu''' — "sheep"
* Pot. '''kapo'''
* Kat. '''kahu, kā, ku'''
* Trin. '''kap, kpug'''
* JS '''kafu'''

'''*kara''' — "goose"
* Kat. '''kara, kra'''
* Trin. '''kakar, krak'''
* JS '''kara'''

'''*karan''' — "trousers"
* Pot. '''kara'''
* Kat. '''kara''' (II) "clothes"
* Trin. '''krad, karda''' (*karan-ta)
** '''kradkal''' "trouser leg" (*karan-ta-kada)
* JS '''kratta''' (*karan-ta)

'''*karu''' — "stone"
* Pot. '''karo'''
* Kat. '''karu, kru'''
* Trin. '''kar, kruk'''
* JS '''krəu''' (*karu-bu)
* Ttl. '''ev'''

'''*karu''' — "to be hard"
* Kat. '''karu, kru'''
** '''kruza''' "armor" (*karu-da)
* Trin. '''krus''' (*karu-ki)
* JS '''kruki''' (*karu-ki)

'''*kasi''' — "leg" (IP)
* Pot. '''kasi'''
* Kat. '''ksida, kasta''' "two legs" (*kasi-ta)
** '''kāzugi, ksīgi''' "trousers" (*kasi-puki)
* Trin. '''kas, ksik''' "leg", '''ksid''' "two legs" (*kasi-ta)
* JS '''kasi''' "leg", '''ksita''' "two legs" (*kasi-ta)
* Tty. '''-keso'''

'''*kata''' — "to talk"
* Wok. '''hata, kasa'''
** '''katohahi''' "language" (*kata-kasi)
* Kat. '''kada'''
** '''kadagazi''' "oratory" (*kata-kasi)
* Trin. '''kat, taw'''
** '''katkas''' "language" (*kata-kasi)
* JS '''kata'''
** '''kteitta''' "language" (*kata-ninta)
** '''katrəí''' "to chat" (*kata-rini)

'''*katam''' — "animal"
* Pot. '''katon'''
* Kat. '''kada''' (III)
* Trin. '''kat, tag'''

=== Ki ===

'''*kibinu''' — "snail"
* Kat. '''kwinu, kiwinu'''
* Trin. '''kwin'''
* JS '''kjəy'''

'''*kidi''' — "to be red"
* Pot. '''kihi'''
* Kat. '''kizi'''
** '''ksigēnazu''' "copper" (*kidi-ki-ganasu)
* Trin. '''klis''' (*kidi-ki)
* JS '''kiki''' "red" (*kidi-ki)
** '''kitjəí''' "to bleed" (*kidi-timi)
** '''kjəyppi''' "to stop bleeding" (*kidi-mumpi)

'''*kigu''' — "to be yellow"
* Pot. '''kijo'''
* Kat. '''kī, kō'''
** '''kīgēnazu''' "bronze" (*kigu-ki-ganasu)
* Trin. '''sîs'''
* JS '''kvuki''' "yellow" (*kigu-ki)
** '''kvutəí''' "to bruise" (*kigu-timi)

'''*kika''' — "day"
* Pot. '''kika'''
* Kat. '''kiga'''
* Trin. '''sik, skak'''
* JS '''kika'''
** '''ksata''' "two days" (*kika-ta)
** '''ksou''' "time" (*kika-mu)
** '''kseitari''' "later" (*kika-ni-tari)

'''*kikatim''' — "crab"
* Kat. '''kigadi''' (III)
* JS '''ksatoun'''

'''*kim''' — "with" (instrumental)
* Wok. '''-Ṽdike''' (*V-ni-kim)
* Pot. '''-ken'''
* Kat. '''ki'''
* Trin. '''-sin'''
* JS '''kin'''
* Tty. '''-ló, -nó''' (*-ni-kim)
* Ttl. '''ko'''

'''*kim''' — "to come"
* Pot. '''ken'''
* Kat. '''ki''' (III)
** '''mimagi''' (III) "to enter" (*mima-kim)
* Trin. '''sim, sib'''
* JS '''kin'''
** '''kippa''' "path" (*kim-pa)
** '''kitta''' "guest" (*kim-da)
* Ttl. '''ko'''

'''*kimi''' — "not"
* Kat. '''kimi''' "in no way"
* Trin. '''sim'''
* JS '''kəi'''
* Ttl. '''kaj'''

'''*kimun''' — "ring"
* Kat. '''kimu''' (II)
* Trin. '''sim, smug'''
* JS '''kəyn'''

'''*kimuna''' — "otter"
* Kat. '''kimuna'''
* JS '''kjou''' "sea otter"
* Tty. '''kvule'''

'''*kimpin''' — "without"
* Pot. '''kepe'''
* Kat. '''kīmi'''
** '''kīmikumi''' (III) "peasant" (*kimpin-kumim)
* Trin. '''sib'''
* JS '''kippein'''
* Tty. '''pʾi'''
* Ttl. '''kocui'''

'''*kin''' — "under"
* Trin. '''-sin'''
* Tty. '''ki'''
* Ttl. '''ki'''

'''*kini''' — "to be high"
* Kat. '''kini'''
* Trin. '''knis, snis''' (*kini-ki)
* JS '''kəiki''' (*kini-ki)

'''*kinma''' — "(to) under"
* Kat. '''kīma'''
* Trin. '''-sin'''
* Tty. '''kime'''

'''*kiNmu''' — "to keep"
* Wok. '''hemu, kenbu'''
* Kat. '''kīmu'''
** '''kīmuha''' "warehouse" (*kiNmu-pa)
* JS '''kimmu''' "pickle"
** '''kməuppi''' "to throw away" (*kiNmu-mumpi)
** '''kməytta''' "pickle" (*kiNmu-ninta)

'''*kinsa''' — "to be sure"
* Trin. '''zas''' (*kinsa-ki)
* JS '''kissa''' "to be correct"

'''*kinsi''' — "from under"
* Kat. '''kiti'''
* Trin. '''-siz'''
* Tty. '''kiso'''

'''*kinsi''' — "to be soft"
* Kat. '''kiti'''
* Trin. '''zis''' (*kinsi-ki)
* JS '''ksiki''' (*kinsi-ki)
* Tty. '''kiso'''

'''*kipam''' — "earth"
* Pot. '''kipon'''
* Kat. '''kiha''' (III)
** '''kīmizi''' "to be low" (*kipam-mi-di)
* Trin. '''sip, spag'''
* JS '''kifan'''

'''*kipidi''' — "right side"
* Kat. '''kizi'''
* Trin. '''spil'''
* JS '''kpiji'''

'''*kiputa''' — "fingernail" (IP)
* Kat. '''kuda, kīda'''
* Trin. '''sput, siptak'''
* JS '''kputa'''
* Tty. '''-’fute'''
* Ttl. '''kakte, -kkuet'''

'''*kiri''' — "girl"
* Pot. '''kil'''
* Kat. '''kiri, kri'''
* Trin. '''sir, srik'''
* JS '''kiri'''
* Ttl. '''kel'''

'''*kisa''' — "to be cold"
* Pot. '''kisa'''
* Kat. '''kiza'''
* Trin. '''sas''' (*kisa-ki)
* JS '''ksaki''' "cold" (*kisa-ki)
** '''ksatjéi''' "corpse" (*kisa-timi-da)

'''*kisada''' — "squirrel"
* Kat. '''ksaza, kīsa'''
* Trin. '''ksal'''
* JS '''ksau'''

'''*kiti''' — "to slip"
* Kat. '''kidi'''
* Trin. '''sisit'''
* JS '''ktiki''' "fast", "nimble" (*kiti-ki)

'''*kitun''' — "to suffer"
* Kat. '''kidu''' (II)
* Trin. '''stuz''' "poor" (*kitun-ki)
* JS '''kitein'''
* Tty. '''c’yu''' "to be poor"

=== Ku ===

'''*ku''' — 1st person inclusive
* Wok. '''həhə'''
* Pot. '''kota''' (*ku-ta)
* Kat. '''kuda''' (*ku-ta)
* Trin. '''ku'''
* JS '''kuta''' (*ku-ta)
* Tty. '''kuha''' (*ku-gam)
* Ttl. '''qual''' (*ku-ra?)

'''*kuba''' — "wood"
* Kat. '''kuwa, kwa'''
* Trin. '''kuw, kwak'''
* JS '''kou'''
** '''kveiriki''' "wooden" (*kuba-miri-ki)

'''*kudam''' — "to give birth"
* Kat. '''kuza''' (III)
* Trin. '''kul, klab'''
* JS '''koun'''
** '''kounitta''' "infant" (*kudam-ninta)
** '''koutta''' "new mother" (*kudam-da)

'''*kugun''' — "shadow"
* Kat. '''kū''' (II)
* Trin. '''kûn'''
* JS '''kuvein''' "demon"

'''*kuki''' — "to need"
* Kat. '''kugi'''
* Trin. '''kuk, kiw'''
* JS '''kuki'''

'''*kuma''' — "box"
* Kat. '''kuma'''
* Trin. '''kum, kmak'''

'''*kumim''' — "shirt"
* Pot. '''kome'''
* Kat. '''kumi''' (III) "bodice"
** '''kumīmu''' "dress" (*kumim-bu)
** '''kīmikumi''' (III) "peasant" (*kimpin-kumim)
* Trin. '''kim, kimig'''
* Tty. '''kuvo'''

'''*kumpi''' — "brain" (IP)
* Wok. '''-hopi'''
* Kat. '''kūmi'''
* Trin. '''kub'''
* JS '''kuppi'''
* Tty. '''-kú'''

'''*kumsi''' — "to be blue"
* Pot. '''kunsi'''
* Kat. '''kupi'''
* Trin. '''gzis''' (*kunsi-ki)

'''*kumu''' — "to be loose"
* Kat. '''kumu'''
* Trin. '''kmus''' (*kumu-ki)
* JS '''kəuki''' "stupid" (*kumu-ki)
** '''kəutəí''' "to loosen" (*kumu-timi)

'''*kunkum''' — "tide"
* Wok. '''hoko'''
* Kat. '''kuku''' (III)
* JS '''kukkoun''' "hour"
** '''ksuppu''' "tide" (*kuNkum-bu)
* Tty. '''kyuku'''

'''*kunsa''' — "to be wrong"
* Kat. '''kuta'''
* Trin. '''gzas''' (*kunsa-ki)
* JS '''kussa'''
* Tty. '''kyuse'''

'''*kunta''' — "to die"
* Pot. '''kuta'''
* Trin. '''kud'''
* JS '''kutta'''
** '''kutrəí''' "to distort" (*kunta-rini)
* Sw. '''gú'tá'''

'''*kupam''' — "to be tall"
* Kat. '''kuhāmiri, kāmiri''' (*kupam-miri)
* Trin. '''kpaz''' (*kupam-ki)
* JS '''kpakki''' (*kupam-ki)

'''*kupan''' — "tree"
* Pot. '''kopa'''
* Kat. '''kuha, kū, ka''' (II)
* Trin. '''kup, kpag'''
* JS '''kufan'''
* Tty. '''kufyo'''

'''*kupi''' — "to be hollow"
* Kat. '''kuhi'''
* Trin. '''kpis'''
* JS '''kpiki'''
** '''kpifa''' "jar" (*kupi-pa)
* Tty. '''kufo'''

'''*kupu''' — "to wound"
* Kat. '''kuhu, kū, ku''' "to kill"
** '''kūdiga''' "spear" (*kupu-tika)
* Trin. '''kup, kpuw'''
* JS '''kufu'''
** '''kpəytta''' "wound" (*kupu-ninta)

'''*kupun''' — 8
* Pot. '''kopu'''
* Kat. '''kuhu'''
* Trin. '''kup'''
* JS '''kufu'''
* Sw. '''fowk'''
* Tty. '''kufyu'''
* Ttl. '''quekui'''

'''*kupun''' — "night"
* Kat. '''kuhu, kū, ku''' (II)
* Trin. '''kupup, kpug'''
* JS '''kufein'''
** '''kupséi''' "west" (*kupun-raga)

'''*kura''' — "to live", "to exist"
* Pot. '''koraha''' "living people" (*kura-da)
* Kat. '''kura'''
* Trin. '''kur, kraw'''
* JS '''kura'''
* Ttl. '''qual'''

'''*kuri''' — "to be bent"
* Kat. '''kuri'''
* Trin. '''kris''' (*kuri-ki)
* JS '''krifa''' "bend" (*kuri-pa)

'''*kuruku''' — "to thunder"
* Kat. '''krugu, kurugu"
* Trin. '''kruk'''
* JS '''kruku'''

'''*kusam''' — "neck", "throat"
* Kat. '''kuza''' (III)
** '''kuzāmini''' "necklace" (*kusam-pini)
* Trin. '''kus, ksag'''
* JS '''kusan'''
* Tty. '''kusa'''

'''*kuti''' — "moon"
* Kat. '''kudi'''
* Trin. '''kut, ktik'''
* JS '''kuti'''

'''*kutu''' — "rod"
* Kat. '''kudu''' "penis"
* Trin. '''kut, ktuk'''
* JS '''kutu'''

'''*kutum''' — "month"
* Kat. '''kudu''' (III)
* JS '''kutoun'''

== M ==

=== Ma ===

'''*ma''' — 2nd person
* Wok. '''mama'''
* Pot. '''ma'''
* Kat. '''ma'''
* Trin. '''ma'''
* JS '''ma'''
* Sw. '''wà'''
* Tty. '''meha''' (*ma-gam)
* Ttl. '''mal''' (*ma-ra?)

'''*maba''' — "war"
* Kat. '''mawa''' "battle"
** '''mawadagu''' "war" (*maba-taku)
* Trin. '''maw'''
* JS '''mau'''
* Tty. '''mya'''

'''*madan''' — "friend"
* Wok. '''mao-'''
* Kat. '''maza''' (II)
* Trin. '''mal, mlag'''
* JS '''maukkan''' (*madan-gam)
* Tty. '''-vezo, -mezo'''
* Ttl. '''-mdi'''

'''*madi''' — "to be white"
* Pot. '''mahi'''
* Kat. '''mazi'''
* Trin. '''mlis''' (*madi-ki)
* JS '''miki''' (*madi-ki)

'''*maga''' — "to be wise"
* Kat. '''māza''' "shaman" (*maga-da)
* Trin. '''mâs''' (*maga-ki)
* JS '''mei''' "to be careful"
** '''mvaki''' "wise" (*maga-ki)
** '''matjəí''' "to realize" (*maga-timi)

'''*magin''' — "to smell"
* Kat. '''mē''' (II)
* Trin. '''main'''
* JS '''majein'''
** '''nvakmajein''' "to smell good" (*nagan-ki-magin)
** '''tsukmajein''' "to smell bad" (*tutu-ki-magin)

'''*magu''' — "to sit"
* Wok. '''mā, magu'''
* Pot. '''maɰo'''
* Kat. '''mō'''
* Trin. '''mau'''
* JS '''maju'''
* Tty. '''mehu'''
* Ttl. '''mo'''

'''*makan''' — "grain"
* Pot. '''maka'''
* Kat. '''maga''' (II)
** '''magānu''' "wheat" (*makan-bu)
** '''Magāmiri''' "Seed" (*makan-miri)
* Trin. '''mak'''
* JS '''kmakkein''' "seed" (*makan-kin)
** '''kmammu''' "grain" (*makan-mu)
* Tty. '''meko'''

'''*makata''' — "to be loud", "to make noise"
* Kat. '''magada'''
* Trin. '''maktas''' (*makata-ki)
* JS '''kmata'''
** '''maktaki''' "loud" (*makata-ki)

'''*mam''' — "mother" (IP)
* Pot. '''monha''', '''mommon'''
* Kat. '''ma''' (III)
* Trin. '''mam'''
* JS '''maun'''
* Tty. '''-va, -ma'''

'''*mamun''' — "to plant"
* Wok. '''mamo, manbo'''
* Pot. '''mamu''' "spring"
* Kat. '''mamu''' (II)
* Trin. '''mam'''
* JS '''moun'''

'''*manim''' — "mountain"
* Wok. '''mane'''
* Kat. '''mani''' (III)
* Trin. '''man'''
* JS '''meippu''' (*manim-bu)
* Tty. '''mel'''

'''*maNka''' — "to rest"
* Kat. '''maka'''
* Trin. '''mag'''
* JS '''makka'''

'''*mamki''' — "root"
* Wok. '''moki'''
* Kat. '''maki'''
* Trin. '''mag'''
* JS '''makki'''
* Tty. '''-’yéhvá''' "shoulderblade" (*tigi-mamki)

'''*mapam''' — "sweat"
* Kat. '''maha, mā''' (III)
* Trin. '''map'''
* JS '''mafan'''

'''*mariru''' — "field"
* Pot. '''mariro''' "village"
* Kat. '''mariru'''
** '''māruda''' (III) "garden" (*mariru-tam)
* Trin. '''rir'''
* JS '''marəú''' (*mariru-bu)
* Sw. '''bwar''' (?)
** '''ma'ro''' "chief" (?)
* Tty. '''meyyu'''

'''*masa''' — "food", "wheat"
* Pot. '''masa'''
* Trin. '''mas'''
* JS '''masa'''

'''*mata''' — "ear"
* Pot. '''mata'''
* Kat. '''mada'''
* JS '''tmata''' (*mata-ta)

=== Mi ===

'''*mi''' — "in"
* Kat. '''mi'''
* Trin. '''-mi'''
* JS '''mi'''
* Tty. '''vo'''
* Ttl. '''-jue'''

'''*mibam''' — "boat"
* Kat. '''miwa''' (III)
* Trin. '''miw, wag'''
* JS '''mein'''
* Tty. '''mye'''
* Ttl. '''juebo'''

'''*mibu''' — "wind"
* Kat. '''miwu'''
* Trin. '''mimiw'''
* JS '''məy'''
** '''mjəyri''' "breath" (*mibu-niri)

'''*midan''' — "to force"
* Kat. '''miza''' (II)
** '''Miramaza''' "Sun-friend" (*mira-madan)
* Trin. '''mil, mlib'''
** '''mil''' "force"
* JS '''mein''' "force"

'''*midun''' — "rain"
* Pot. '''mihu''' "early summer"
* Kat. '''mizu''' (II)
* Trin. '''milwil''' (*midun-bidi?)
* JS '''mivein'''

'''*migu''' — "sea"
* Kat. '''mī'''
** '''mīgi''' (II) "lagoon" (*migu-kin)
* Trin. '''mî'''
* JS '''miju'''

'''*mika''' — "lip" (IP)
* Kat. '''migada''' "two lips" (*mika-ta)
* JS '''miktatta''' (*mika-tam-ta)
** '''kmeiri''' "to kiss" (*mika-miri)
* Tty. '''-vŏke, -mke'''

'''*miki''' — 2
* Pot. '''miki'''
* Kat. '''migi'''
* Trin. '''mis'''
* JS '''miki'''
* Sw. '''wòtš'''
* Tty. '''mó'''
* Ttl. '''juek'''
** '''juekjuelke''' "twice" (*miki-niri-ki)

'''*mima''' — "into"
* Pot. '''homima''' (*du?-mima)
* Kat. '''mima'''
** '''mimagi''' (III) "to enter" (*mima-kim)
* Trin. '''-min'''
* Tty. '''vove'''
* Ttl. '''-juem'''

'''*mimpa''' — "hole"
* Pot. '''mempa'''
* Kat. '''mīma'''
* Trin. '''mib'''
* JS '''mippa'''
* Sw. '''wóypá'''

'''*mini''' — "to have"
* Pot. '''mini''' "to seize"
** '''minihira''' "farmer" (*mini-dira)
** '''miniru''' "harvest" (*mini-run?)
* Kat. '''mini'''
** '''minūmi''' "to release" (*mini-mumpi)
* Trin. '''min'''
* '''nis''' "to leave" (*mini?-sun)
* JS '''məi'''
** '''məikasi''' "grasp"
* Tty. '''mol''' "to hold"
** '''mol‘''' "coal tongs" (*mini-kim)

'''*miNki''' — "to hope"
* Kat. '''miki'''
* Trin. '''mig'''
* JS '''mikki'''

'''*miNku''' — "urine"
* Kat. '''miku'''
* Trin. '''mimig'''
* JS '''mikku'''

'''*minsin''' — "to be tired"
* Kat. '''miti''' (II)
* Trin. '''miziz''' (*minsin-ki)
* JS '''missein'''
** '''mistaka''' (*minsin-taka)
* Ttl. '''juii'''

'''*miNta''' — "group"
* Kat. '''mita'''
* Trin. '''mid'''
* JS '''mitta''' "litter of animals"
** '''tmeiri''' "to assemble" (*miNta-miri)
** '''tmou''' "group" (*miNta-bu)

'''*minti''' — "summer"
* Pot. '''meti''' "hot"
* Kat. '''miti'''
* JS '''mitti'''

'''*mipun''' — "to grow"
* Kat. '''mihu, mu''' (II)
** '''mīku, muku''' "to raise" (*mipun-ku)
* Trin. '''mip'''
* JS '''mifein'''
** '''pmutta''' "plant" (*mipun-da)
** '''miptəí''' "to sprout" (*mipun-timi)

'''*mira''' — "sun"
* Pot. '''mira'''
* Kat. '''mira'''
** '''miragawi''' "material world" (*mira-kabi)
** '''Miramaza''' "Sun-friend" (*mira-madan)
* Trin. '''mir, rak'''
* JS '''mira'''

'''*miri''' — "out"
* Pot. '''homil''' (*du?-miri)
* Kat. '''miri'''
* Trin. '''-mir'''
* Tty. '''vyo'''
* Ttl. '''-juel'''

'''*miri''' — "to smile"
* Kat. '''miri'''
* Trin. '''mir, riw'''
* JS '''mitrəí''' (*miri-timi)
** '''mriki''' "happy" (*miri-ki)

'''*mirun''' — "to be beautiful"
* Kat. '''miru''' (II)
* Trin. '''miruz''' (*mirun-ki)
* JS '''mrukki''' (*mirun-ki)
* Ttl. '''juevi'''

'''*miti''' — "ray"
* Kat. '''midi''' "grace" (?)
* Trin. '''mit''' (?)

=== Mu ===

'''*mu''' — "that"
* Kat. '''mu'''
** '''mumi''' "like that" (*mu-mi)
* Trin. '''mu'''
* Tty. '''mu'''
* Ttl. '''ṅue'''
** '''ṅual''' "that place" (*mu-ra?)

'''*mudan''' — "to stay"
* Kat. '''muza''' (II)
** '''muzdaga''' "to support" (*mudan-taka)
** '''muzaksira''' "tradesperson" (*mudan-ku-dira)
** '''muzaku''' "to support" (*mudan-ku)
* Trin. '''mul'''
* JS '''moun''' "to wait"

'''*mugan''' — "bean"
* Wok. '''muwo'''
* Kat. '''mō''' (II)
* JS '''mujan'''

'''*muku''' — "fruit"
* Pot. '''moko'''
* Kat. '''mugu'''
* Trin. '''muk, kuk'''
* JS '''muku'''
** '''skəyku''' "blackcurrant" (*sVki-muku)
* Ttl. '''ṅua'''

'''*mumma''' — "and then"
* Pot. '''mumma'''
* Kat. '''mūma'''
** '''kūma''' "neither/nor" (*kimi-mumma?)

'''*mumsan''' — "guts" (IP)
* Kat. '''mupa''' (II)
* Trin. '''muz'''
* JS '''mussan'''
* Tty. '''-muso'''

'''*muni''' — "shoe"
* Pot. '''moni'''
* Kat. '''muni'''
* Trin. '''mun, mnik'''
* JS '''məyta''' (*muni-ta)
* Tty. '''mul'''

'''*mupin''' — "toe" (IP)
* Kat. '''muhi, mū, mi''' (II)
* Trin. '''mup'''
* JS '''pmimmu''' (*mupin-mu)
* Tty. '''-vufi, -mufi'''

'''*mupum''' — "owl"
* Kat. '''muhu''' (III)
* JS '''pmuppu''' (*mupum-bu)

'''*murimi''' — "to be smooth"
* Kat. '''murimi'''
* Trin. '''rims''' (*murimi-ki)
* JS '''mrəi''' "to be calm"
** '''mrəifa''' "floor" (*murimi-pa)

'''*musugam''' — "to be famous"
* Wok. '''mushəwo, muhəgo'''
* Pot. '''mosoɰa'''
* Kat. '''muzō''' (III) "to be sacred"
* Trin. '''musoz''' (*musugam-ki)
* JS '''smujan'''

'''*mutun''' — "son"
* Wok. '''muto, -buton'''
* Pot. '''motu'''
* Kat. '''mudu''' (II)
* Trin. '''mut, tug'''
* JS '''mutein'''

== N ==

=== Na ===

'''*nabi''' — "to weigh"
* Kat. '''nawi''' "to hold up"
** '''nawizu''' (II) "to be heavy" (*nabi-sun)
* Trin. '''naw'''
* JS '''nei'''

'''*nadan''' — "to be sturdy"
* Kat. '''naza''' (II)
** '''nazdimi''' "to freeze" (*nadan-timi)
* JS '''naukki''' "hard" (*nadan-ki)

'''*nadi''' — "country"
* Wok. '''nā'''
* Kat. '''nazi'''
* Trin. '''nal'''

'''*nagan''' — "to be good"
* Kat. '''nā''' (II)
** '''nākazi''' "pleasure" (*nagan-kasi)
** '''nāku''' (II) "to help" (*nagan-ku)
* Trin. '''nânas''' (*nagan-ki)
* JS '''nvakki''' "good" (*nagan-ki)
** '''nvakmajein''' "to smell good" (*nagan-ki-magin)
** '''nvaksita''' "to taste good" (*nagan-ki-sita)
** '''njatta''' "hero" (*nagan-da)

'''*nakata''' — "to damage"
* Kat. '''nagada'''
* Trin. '''nakat'''
* JS '''knata'''
** '''nakteitta''' "destruction" (*nakata-ninta)
* Ttl. '''nete'''

'''*naku''' — "skin" (IP)
* Kat. '''nagu'''
* Trin. '''nak'''
* JS '''naku'''

'''*namki''' — "to hide"
* Kat. '''nākizu''' (II) "to be secret" (*namki-sun)
* Trin. '''nag'''
* JS '''nakki''' intr.
** '''naktaka''' tr. (*namka-taka)
* Tty. '''ná'''
** '''k’inak’o''' "cover" (*tim-kin-nanka-kim)
* Ttl. '''nok'''

'''*nampa''' — "to hear"
* Pot. '''nompa'''
* Kat. '''nāma'''
* Trin. '''nab'''
* JS '''nappa'''

'''*namti''' — "vagina", "vulva" (IP)
* Wok. '''noti'''
* Kat. '''nati'''
* Trin. '''nad'''
* Tty. '''-ná'''

'''*nanka''' — "to be long"
* Pot. '''naka'''
* Kat. '''naka'''
* Trin. '''gas''' (*nanka-ki)
* JS '''knaki''' (*nanka-ki)

'''*nanta''' — "to hate"
* Pot. '''nata'''
* Kat. '''nata'''
** '''natsira''' "enemy" (*nanta-dira)
* Trin. '''nad'''
* JS '''natta'''
** '''tnau''' "knife" (*nanta-da)

'''*napa''' — "to decide"
* Kat. '''tipanaha, tipana''' "to govern" (*tim-ra-napa)
** '''nagi, nāgi''' (III) "custom" (*napa-kim)
** '''nāgiru, nagru''' (III) "lord" (*napa-kim-rum)
* Trin. '''nap'''
* JS '''nafa'''
** '''pnaroun''' "chief" (*napa-rum)
** '''pnau''' "shaman" (*napa-da)

'''*nara''' — "fire"
* Wok. '''nara'''
* Kat. '''nara'''
* Trin. '''nar'''
* JS '''nrou''' (*nara-bu)

'''*naram''' — "to burn"
* Wok. '''naro'''
* Kat. '''nara''' (III)
* Trin. '''nar'''
* JS '''natrəí''' "to burn (intr.)" (*naram-timi)
** '''natraka''' "burn (tr.)" (*naram-taka)
* Tty. '''neyávye''' (*nara-timi-ba)
** '''neyávó''' "kindling wood" (*nara-timi-kim)

'''*nasim''' — "to fear"
* Wok. '''nahe, nashe''' "to hate"
* Kat. '''nazi''' (III) "to shake"
** '''nazgu''' "to frighten" (*nasim-ku)
* Trin. '''nas'''
* JS '''nasoun''' "to be surprised"

'''*nata''' — "tooth" (IP)
* Kat. '''nada'''
* Trin. '''nat'''
* JS '''natkiki''' (*nata-kiki)
** '''tnou''' "jaw" (*nata-bu)

'''*natin''' — "flower"
* Pot. '''nate''' "harvest sacrifice"
* Kat. '''nadi''' (II)
** '''Nadzuti''' "Flower-voice" (*natin-sunti)
* JS '''natein'''

=== Ni ===

'''*niban''' — "to wash"
* Kat. '''niwa''' (II)
* Trin. '''niw, wab'''
* JS '''nein''' "to dye"
** '''neikkoun''' "color" (*niban-kim)
** '''niptaka''' "to wash" (*niban-taka)

'''*nida''' — "fat"
* Kat. '''niza'''
* Trin. '''nil'''
* JS '''nei'''

'''*nidiri''' — "to be low"
* Kat. '''niziri, nizwi''' "to be dirty"
* Trin. '''nilirs''' (*nidiri-ki)
* JS '''niri''' "be subordinate"
** '''niriki''' "low" (*nidiri-ki)
* Tty. '''nozyo'''

'''*niga''' — "to shine", "to be bright"
* Pot. '''nijaha''' "gold" (*niga-da)
* Kat. '''nē''' "to be pure"
** '''nēgēnazu''' "gold" (*niga-ki-ganasu)
* Trin. '''nê'''
** '''nês''' "bright" (*niga-ki)
* JS '''nija''' "to stand out"
** '''njautan''' "star" (*niga-da-tam)
** '''nvakréi''' "east" (*niga-ki-raga)
** '''nitjəí''' "to brighten" (*niga-timi)

'''*nikan''' — "to care"
* Kat. '''niga''' (II)
* Trin. '''nik'''
* JS '''nikan''' "to worry"

'''*nimkan''' — "to swim"
* Pot. '''nenka'''
* Kat. '''nika''' (II)
* JS '''nikkan'''

'''*nimki''' — "to love"
* Pot. '''nenki'''
* Kat. '''niki''' "to have sex"
* Trin. '''nig'''
** '''gis, nigs''' "kind" (*nimki-ki)
* JS '''nikki'''
* Ty. '''nó'''

'''*nimpi''' — "to be clean"
* Kat. '''nīmi'''
* Trin. '''bis''' (*nimpi-ki)
* JS '''pniki''' (*nimpi-ki)

'''*nimtam''' — "daughter" (IP)
* Kat. '''nita''' (III)
* Trin. '''nid, dag'''
* JS '''nittan'''
* Tty. '''-lŏta, -nta'''

'''*nimti''' — "now", "present time"
* Pot. '''nenti'''
* Kat. '''nitida''' (*nimti-ta)
** '''nitiri''' "future" (*nimti-ri)
* JS '''tnəita''' (*nimti-dita)
* Ttl. '''joc'''

'''*niNtin''' — "number"
* Kat. '''niti''' (II)
* JS '''tnippu''' (*niNtin-bu)

'''*nipi''' — "to sneeze"
* Kat. '''nihi, nī, ni'''
* Trin. '''nip'''
* JS '''nifi'''
** '''nipkasi''' "sneeze" (*nipi-kasi)

'''*niri''' — "to get"
* Kat. '''niri'''
* Trin. '''nir'''
* JS '''niri'''
* Ttl. '''juekjuelke''' "twice" (*miki-niri-ki)
** '''cualjuelke''' "thrice" (*pira-niri-ki)

=== Nu ===

'''*nudu''' — "to look"
* Pot. '''noho'''
* Trin. '''nul'''
* JS '''nuvu'''
** '''nutvaka''' "to attract attention" (*nudu-taka)
** '''nusi''' "therefore" (*nudu?-si)

'''*numiN''' — "have sex"
* Wok. '''nonbe'''
* JS '''nəyn'''

'''*numna''' — "to eat"
* Wok. '''nona, nonda'''
* Pot. '''nunna'''
* Kat. '''nūna'''
** '''nūnaza''' "food" (*numna-da)
* JS '''nunna'''
** '''kəijunna''' "to starve" (*kimi-numna)
* Ttl. '''nuon'''

'''*numti''' — "sister" (IP)
* Pot. '''nunti'''
* Kat. '''nuti'''
* Trin. '''nud, dig'''
* JS '''nutti'''
* Tty. '''-lyú, -nyú'''

'''*numti''' — 9
* Pot. '''nunti'''
* Kat. '''nuti'''
* JS '''nutti'''
* Sw. '''nótš'''
* Tty. '''nyú'''
* Ttl. '''nuoc'''

'''*nupa''' — "to cook"
* Pot. '''nopa'''
* Kat. '''nuha, nū, na'''
* Trin. '''nup'''
* JS '''nuptaka''' (*nupa-taka)
** '''pnakoun''' "cauldron" (*nupa-kim)
** '''pnafa''' "hearth" (*nupa-pa)
* Tty. '''nufe, nufya'''

'''*nuri''' — "peace"
* Kat. '''nuri'''
* Trin. '''nur'''

'''*nurum''' — "pleasure"
* Kat. '''nuru''' (III)
* Trin. '''nurnur'''
* JS '''nuroun'''
* Tty. '''nuyu''' "toy"

'''*nutudu''' — "hoe"
* Wok. '''nəsə̄'''
* Pot. '''notoho'''
* Kat. '''nuduzu'''
* Trin. '''tul'''
* JS '''tnuvu'''

== P ==

=== Pa ===

'''*pabi''' — "ribbon"
* Kat. '''hawi''' "belt"
** '''hawimiri''' "to be thin" (*pabi-miri)
* Trin. '''paw'''
* JS '''pei'''
* Sw. '''bowtš'''

'''*padi''' — "finger" (IP)
* Kat. '''hazi'''
* Trin. '''pal'''
* JS '''pitan''' (*padi-tam)
** '''pjəy''' "thumb" (*padi-bu)
* Tty. '''-fezo, -pezo'''

'''*paga''' — "sky"
* Pot. '''paɰa'''
* Kat. '''hā'''
* Trin. '''pâ'''
* JS. '''pei'''

'''*pagidi''' — "mussel", "shell"
* Kat. '''hawī''' "clam", "bivalve"
** '''hawīni''' "pearl" (*pagidi-pini)
* Trin. '''pail, pailak'''
* JS '''peiji'''

'''*pakan''' — "pain"
* Kat. '''haga''' (II)
** '''hagati''' "wound" (*pakan-kanti)
* Trin. '''pak'''
* JS '''pakan''' "disaster"
* Tty. '''peko'''

'''*paki''' — "to break"
* Kat. '''hagi'''
* Trin. '''pak, pakiw'''
* JS '''paki'''

'''*paku''' — "to change"
* Kat. '''hagu'''
* JS '''pkəytta''' "transformation" (*paku-ninta)
** '''paktəí''' "to go insane" (*paku-timi)
** '''pakutjéi''' "lunatic" (*paku-timi-da)

'''*pam''' — "but"
* Wok. '''fo'''
** '''pota''' "as" (*pam-ta)
* Pot. '''pon'''
* Kat. '''ha'''
* JS '''paun'''
* Ttl. '''po'''

'''*pamki''' — "bow"
* Wok. '''foki'''
* Pot. '''paki'''
* Kat. '''haki'''
* Trin. '''pag'''
* JS '''pakki'''
* Tty. '''pá'''

'''*pankam''' — "drum"
* Wok. '''foko'''
* Pot. '''pakon''' "to dance"
* Kat. '''haka''' (III)
* Trin. '''papag'''
* JS '''pkappu''' (*pankam-bu)

'''*pansa''' — "to be safe", "to be steady"
* Kat. '''hata'''
* Trin. '''psas''' (*pansa-ki)
* JS '''psaki''' "normal" (*pansa-ki)

'''*pansin''' — "to be strong"
* Pot. '''pase'''
* Kat. '''hati''' (II)
** '''hatikazi''' "power" (*pansin-kasi)
* Trin. '''bziz''' (*pansin-ki)
* JS '''passein''' "to win";
* '''psikki''' "strong" (*pansin-ki)
* Ttl. '''pii'''

'''*paNta''' — "body"
* Kat. '''hata''' "flesh", "meat"
** '''hātugi''' "shirt" (*paNta-puki)
* JS '''pteiri''' "thing" (*paNta-niri)

'''*paru''' — "grass"
* Pot. '''paro'''
* Kat. '''haru'''
* Trin. '''par'''
* JS '''prəu''' (*para-bu)

'''*patam''' — "milk"
* Pot. '''paton'''
* Kat. '''hada''' (III)
* Trin. '''pat'''
* JS '''patan'''
* Tty. '''peta'''

'''*pati''' — "pig"
* Pot. '''pati'''
* Kat. '''hadi'''
* Tty. '''pyé'''

=== Pi ===

'''*pi''' — "and", "however"
* Wok. '''fipi''' (*pi-pi)
* Pot. '''pi''' "or"
** '''ropi''' "despite" (*ru?-pi)
* Kat. '''hi''' "if/then"
* JS '''pi'''

'''*pibam''' — "to be grey"
* Kat. '''hiwa''' (III) "to be gloomy"
* Trin. '''pwaz''' (*pibam-ki)
* JS '''peikki''' (*pibam-ki)

'''*pida''' — "middle"
* Kat. '''hiza'''
* Trin. '''pil'''
* JS '''peitan''' (*pida-tam)
** '''pjou''' "main part" (*pida-bu)

'''*pigi''' — 5
* Pot. '''piji'''
* Kat. '''hī'''
* Trin. '''pî'''
* JS '''piji'''
* Sw. '''boy'''
* Tty. '''poho'''
* Ttl. '''cui'''

'''*piki''' — "bread"
* Pot. '''piki'''
* Kat. '''higi'''
** '''higōzu, higīzu''' "oven" (II) (*piki-gudun)
* Trin. '''pik'''
** '''pikit''' "to bake" (*piki-gitin?)

'''*pimaru''' — "turtle"
* Pot. '''pimaro'''
* Kat. '''himaru'''
* JS '''peiru'''

'''*pimka''' — "brother" (IP)
* Pot. '''penka'''
* Kat. '''hika'''
* Trin. '''pig, gak'''
* JS '''pikka'''
** '''pkata''' "twin" (*pimka-ta)
** '''tapkóu''' "enemy" (*tam-pimka-bu?)
* Tty. '''-foke, -k’e'''

'''*pin''' — "with"
* Kat. '''hi'''
* JS '''pin'''
* Tty. '''fi'''
* Ttl. '''cui'''

'''*piNkin''' — "flour"
* Wok. '''feke'''
* Kat. '''hiki''' (II)
* Trin. '''pipig'''

'''*piNti''' — "hair"
* Kat. '''hiti'''
* Trin. '''pid'''

'''*piNtu''' — "to hang"
* Kat. '''hitu'''
* Trin. '''pid'''
* JS '''pittu'''

'''*pipidi''' — "to join"
* Kat. '''hizi''', '''hīzi''' "to build"
* Trin. '''pil''' "to stick"
* JS '''pfiji''' "to adhere"

'''*pira''' — 3
* Pot. '''pira'''
* Kat. '''hira'''
* Trin. '''pir'''
* JS '''pira'''
* Sw. '''boyra'''
* Tty. '''pye'''
* Ttl. '''cual'''
** '''cualjuelke''' "thrice" (*pira-niri-ki)

'''*piran''' — "bird"
* Kat. '''hira''' (II)
* Trin. '''pir'''
* JS '''prakkein''' (*piran-kin)

'''*pirata''' — "to be mixed"
* Kat. '''hirada'''
* Trin. '''pirts''' (*pirata-ki)

'''*piri''' — "to think"
* Pot. '''pil'''
* Kat. '''hiri'''
* Trin. '''pir'''
* JS '''prəi''' (*piri-rini)

'''*pisan''' — "path"
* Kat. '''hizānu''' (II) "story", "destiny" (*pisan-bu)
* Trin. '''pis'''
* JS '''psattan''' (*pisan-tam)

=== Pu ===

'''*pudu''' — "to blow", "to breathe"
* Kat. '''huzu'''
* Trin. '''pul'''
* JS '''puvu'''

'''*puga''' — "hand" (IP)
* Pot. '''poɰa'''
* Kat. '''hō'''
* Trin. '''pû'''
* JS '''pjata''' (*puga-ta)
* Tty. '''-puhe'''

'''*puki''' — "cloth"
* Pot. '''poki'''
* Kat. '''hugi'''
** '''kāzugi, ksīgi''' "trousers" (*kasi-puki)
** '''hugīni''' "loom" (*puki-pini)
** '''hātugi''' "shirt" (*paNta-puki)
* Trin. '''puk'''
* JS '''puki'''
** '''pkəy''' "clothing" (*puki-bu)

'''*pun''' — "spirit"
* Kat. '''hu''' (II)
** '''hukawi''' "spirit world" (*pun-kabi)
** '''hutagu''' "god" (*pun-taku)
* JS '''pun'''

'''*puna''' — "to be brown"
* Kat. '''huna'''
* Trin. '''pnas''' (*puna-ki)
* JS '''pouki''' "brown" (*puna-ki)
** '''pouktəí''' "to rot" (*puna-ki-timi)

'''*puNta''' — "to marry"
* Kat. '''huta'''
* Trin. '''pud'''
* JS '''putta'''
** '''ptafa''' "wedding" (*puNta-pa)

'''*punu''' — "table"
* Pot. '''pono'''
* Kat. '''hunu'''
* Trin. '''pun'''
* JS '''pəu''' "flat surface"
** '''sanipəu''' "rice paddy" (*sanin-punu)

'''*pusun''' — "leaf"
* Kat. '''huzu''' (II)
* Trin. '''pus'''
* JS '''pusein'''
** '''psummu''' "vegetation" (*pusun-mu)

'''*putam''' — "hill"
* Wok. '''hoto''' "village"
* Pot. '''poton'''
* Kat. '''huda''' (III)
** '''hudapā''' "slope" (*putam-saga)
* JS '''putan'''
* Tty. '''puta''' "village"

== R ==

=== Ra ===

'''*ra''' — "for"
* Wok. '''-Ṽdira''' (*V-ni-ra)
* Pot. '''-ra'''
* Kat. '''ra'''
* Trin. '''-ra'''
* JS '''ra'''
* Tty. '''ye'''
* Ttl. '''-lue'''

'''*raban''' — "basket"
* Kat. '''rawa''' (II)
* Trin. '''raw, wag'''
* JS '''raun'''

'''*radim''' — "to open"
* Pot. '''rahe'''
* Kat. '''razi''' (III)
* Trin. '''ral'''
* JS '''rajoun''' tr., '''rissein''' intr. (*radim-sun)

'''*radun''' — "wasp"
* Kat. '''razu''' (II)
* Trin. '''ral'''
* Tty. '''yezyu'''

'''*raga''' — "side"
* Kat. '''rā'''
* Trin. '''râ'''
* JS '''rjata''' (*raga-ta)
** '''kupséi''' "west" (*kupun-raga)
** '''nvakréi''' "east" (*niga-ki-raga)

'''*ragibun''' — "scorpion"
* Kat. '''rēwu''' (II)
* Trin. '''rau, raunak'''
* JS '''rjəyn''' "mythical beast"

'''*raka''' — "to be closed"
* Kat. '''raga'''
** '''ragagu''' "to close" (*raka-ku)
** '''ragani''' "to end" (*raka-ni?)
* Trin. '''rak'''
* JS '''raka'''
** '''krei''' "to close" (*raka-ni?)
* Sw. '''rdže-'''

'''*ram''' — "what"
* Pot. '''ra'''
* Kat. '''ra'''
** '''rāmi''' "how" (*ram-mi)
* Trin. '''ran, rag'''
* JS '''rakkoun''' "why" (*ram-kim)
* Tty. '''ya'''
* Ttl. '''luo'''

'''*rampan''' — "bridge"
* Kat. '''rāma''' (II)
* Trin. '''rab'''
* JS '''rappan'''
* Tty. '''yapyo'''
* Ttl. '''luopi'''

'''*ramsa''' — "woman"
* Pot. '''ransa'''
* Kat. '''rapa'''
* Trin. '''raz'''
* Tty. '''yase'''
* Ttl. '''luos'''

'''*ramtam''' — "storm", "hurricane"
* Wok. '''roto'''
* Pot. '''ronton''' "late summer"
* Kat. '''rata''' (III)
* Trin. '''rarad'''
* JS '''trappu''' (*ramtam-bu)

'''*raNki''' — "tribe"
* Kat. '''rakiwu''' "nation" (*raNki-bu)
** '''Katapaki''' "Katapaki nation" (*kantam-raNki)
* Trin. '''rag'''
* JS. '''rakki'''
** '''krəy''' "nation" (*raNki-bu)

'''*raNta''' — "leather"
* Kat. '''rata'''
* Trin. '''rad'''

'''*rapam''' — "to meet"
* Pot. '''raponta''' "near" (*rapam-ta)
* Kat. '''raha, ra''' (III)
* Trin. '''rap'''
* JS '''rapsəí''' (*rapam-rini)
** '''prattaka''' "to combine" (*rapam-taka)
** '''rapmiri''' "to connect" (*rapam-miri)
* Tty. '''yefape''' (*rapam-ba)

'''*rapi''' — "autumn"
* Pot. '''rapi'''
* Kat. '''rahi'''
* Trin. '''rap'''
* JS '''rafi'''
* Tty. '''yefo'''

'''*rasa''' — "horn of an animal" (IP)
* Kat. '''razada, razda''' "pair of horns" (*rasa-ta)
* Trin. '''ras'''
* JS '''rasa'''
* Tty. '''-yese, -sese'''

'''*ratan''' — "to move"
* Pot. '''rata'''
* Kat. '''rada''' (II)
** '''rādiri''' "to return" (*ratan-riri)
* Trin. '''rat'''

=== Ri ===

'''*riban''' — "to be angry"
* Pot. '''reβa'''
* Kat. '''riwa''' (II) "to be bad"
* JS '''reikki''' (*riban-ki)

'''*ribi''' — "year"
* Kat. '''riwi'''
* Trin. '''riw'''
* JS '''rəi'''

'''*rida''' — "powder", "dust"
* Kat. '''riza'''
* Trin. '''ril'''
* JS '''rei'''

'''*ridin''' — "to be smooth"
* Kat. '''rizi''' (II)
* JS '''rikki''' (*ridin-ki)

'''*rika''' — "to learn"
* Kat. '''riga'''
** '''rigini''' "to teach" (*rika-ni?)
* Trin. '''rik'''
* JS '''krəi''' (*rika-ni?)

'''*rimpa''' — "to meet", "to fulfill"
* Kat. '''rīma'''
* Trin. '''rib'''

'''*rimpun''' — "lion"
* Pot. '''renpu'''
* Kat. '''rīmu'''
* Trin. '''rib, big'''
* JS '''rippein'''

'''*rimni''' — "to laugh"
* Kat. '''rīni'''
** '''Rīnidī''' "Laughing" (*rimni-tipi)
* Trin. '''rin'''
* JS '''rinni'''
* Tty. '''yon'''
** '''cuveyon’''' "ridiculous feature" (*tim-ruma-rimni-kim)

'''*rinu''' — "to be free"
* Kat. '''rinu'''
* Trin. '''nus''' (*rinu-ki)
* JS '''rəyku''' "to release" (*rinu-ku)

'''*ripa''' — "meat"
* Kat. '''riha, rī, ra''' "strength"
* Trin. '''rip'''
* JS '''rifa'''

'''*ripini''' — "to be secret"
* Kat. '''rīnizi''' (II) "spy" (*ripini-sudim)
* Trin. '''ripnis''' (*ripini-ki)
* JS '''prəiki''' (*ripini-ki)

'''*rirun''' — "arrow"
* Wok. '''riro'''
* Kat. '''riru''' (II)
* Trin. '''ririr'''
* JS '''rirein'''
* Tty. '''yoyu'''

'''*riti''' — "to be fast"
* Kat. '''ridi'''
* Trin. '''tis''' (*riti-ki)
* JS '''riti''' "to run"
** '''triki''' "fast" (*riti-ki)

=== Ru ===

'''*ru''' — "on"
* Kat. '''ru'''
* Trin. '''-ru'''
* JS '''ru'''
* Tty. '''yu'''
* Ttl. '''-ve'''

'''*ruba''' — "ball"
* Kat. '''ruwa'''
* Trin. '''ruw'''
* JS '''rou''' "bundle"
** '''roukein''' "lump" (*ruba-kin)
** '''rouvákki''' "radish" (*ruba-mamki)

'''*rudi''' — "to appear", "to be new"
* Kat. '''ruzi'''
* Trin. '''lis''' "new" (*rudi-ki)
* JS '''ruji'''
** '''vriki''' "new" (*rudi-ki)

'''*rugun''' — "sign"
* Kat. '''rū''' (II)
** '''Tiharū''' "Horse-omen" (*tipan-rugun)
* Trin. '''rûn'''
* JS '''rujein''' "picture"
** '''rumiri''' "to signify" (*rugun-miri)

'''*rukun''' — "hook"
* Kat. '''rugu'''
* Trin. '''ruk'''
* JS '''rukein'''
** '''kruppu''' "elbow" (*rukun-bu)

'''*rum''' — "man"
* Wok. '''rosoka''' "crowd" (*rum-tuNka)
* Pot. '''run'''
* Kat. '''ru''' (III)
** '''nāgiru, nagru''' (III) "chief" (*napa-kim-rum)
* Trin. '''rum'''
* JS '''run'''
* Ttl. '''vo'''

'''*ruma''' — "onto"
* Kat. '''ruma'''
* Trin. '''-run'''
* Tty. '''yuve'''
* Ttl. '''-vem'''

'''*rumpa''' — "bee"
* Kat. '''rūma'''
* Trin. '''rub'''
* JS '''ruppa'''
** '''prafa''' "beehive" (*rumpa-pa)

'''*runi''' — "tail" (IP)
* Kat. '''runi'''
* Trin. '''run'''
* JS '''rəy'''
* Tty. '''-yul, -sul'''

'''*runtu''' — "fog", "mist"
* Kat. '''rutu'''
* Trin. '''rud'''
* JS '''ruttu'''

'''*rupi''' — "to smoke", "to burn"
* Kat. '''ruhi, rū, ri''' "to be angry"
* Trin. '''rup'''
* JS '''rufi'''

'''*ruri''' — "off"
* Kat. '''ruri'''
* Trin. '''-rur'''
* Tty. '''yuy'''
* Ttl. '''-vel'''

== S ==

=== Sa ===

'''*sadin''' — "to feel"
* Kat. '''sazi''' (II)
* Trin. '''sal, lib'''
* JS '''sajein'''

'''*saga''' — "head" (IP)
* Kat. '''sā'''
* Trin. '''sâ'''
* JS '''sei'''

'''*sagina''' — "to be different"
* Kat. '''sēna'''
* Trin. '''sainas''' (*sagina-ki)
* JS '''sjei'''
** '''sjeiki''' "different"

'''*saku''' — "rat"
* Pot. '''sako'''
* Kat. '''sagu'''
* Trin. '''sak'''
* JS '''saku'''

'''*samsa''' — "eagle"
* Kat. '''sapa, spa'''
* Trin. '''saz'''
* JS '''sassa'''

'''*sanin''' — "rice"
* Wok. '''shane'''
* Kat. '''sani''' (II)
* Trin. '''san'''
* JS '''sani'''
** '''sanipəu''' "rice paddy" (*sanin-punu)

'''*saNkana''' — "edge"
* Kat. '''skana, sakana'''
* Trin. '''zgan'''
* JS '''skau'''

'''*sanpa''' — "steam"
* Kat. '''sāna'''
* Trin. '''sab'''
* JS '''sappa'''

'''*santi''' — "to say"
* Pot. '''sati'''
* Kat. '''sati, sti'''
** '''hitati''' "to agree with" (*pin-santi)
* Trin. '''sad'''
* Ttl. '''sic'''

'''*sapi''' — "to end"
* Kat. '''sārini, sirini''' "to perish" (*sapi-rini)
* Trin. '''sap'''
* JS '''spifa''' "end" (*sapi-pa)
** '''sapkasi''' "end" (*sapi-kasi)

'''*satun''' — "to cover"
* Kat. '''saduki''' (III) "blanket" (*satun-kim)
** '''satini''' (II) "to hide" (*satun?-rini)
* JS '''stukkoun''' "blanket" (*satun-kim)

=== Si ===

'''*si''' — "this"
* Pot. '''si'''
* Kat. '''si'''
** '''simi''' "like this" (*si-mi)
* Trin. '''si'''
* JS '''si'''
** '''səikoun''' "like this" (*si-ni-kim)
** '''nusi''' "therefore" (*nudu?-si)
* Tty. '''sŏ'''
* Ttl. '''e'''
** '''al''' "this place" (*si-ra?)
** '''aj''' "thus" (*si-mi)

'''*siba''' — "worm"
* Kat. '''siwa'''
* Trin. '''siw'''
* JS '''seitan''' (*siba-tam)

'''*sidam''' — "family"
* Pot. '''sihon'''
* Kat. '''siza''' (III)
* Trin. '''sil, lag'''
* JS '''sein'''
* Tty. '''sozat’u''' "relative" (*sidam-timtu)

'''*sigi''' — "to sleep"
* Kat. '''sī'''
* Trin. '''sî'''

'''*sikinmi''' — "flea"
* Kat. '''skīni, sikīni'''
* Trin. '''skim'''
* JS '''siknəý'''
* Tty. '''sóno'''

'''*sikun''' — "to sew"
* Kat. '''sigu''' (II) "to stitch"
* Trin. '''sik, skub'''
* JS '''sikein'''
** '''skuppa''' "stitch" (*sikun-pa)

'''*sima''' — 6
* Pot. '''sima'''
* Kat. '''sima'''
* Trin. '''sim'''
* JS '''sei'''
* Sw. '''že'''
* Tty. '''sve'''
* Ttl. '''em'''

'''*simka''' — "winter"
* Pot. '''senka'''
* Kat. '''sika'''
* Trin. '''sig, zgak'''

'''*simni''' — "shrimp"
* Kat. '''sīni'''
* Tty. '''sno'''

'''*simsimma''' — "mole"
* Kat. '''spīma, sipīma'''
* Trin. '''zim'''
* JS '''tsimma'''
** '''kjeitsimma''' "hedgehog" (*?-simsimma)

'''*simu''' — "to climb"
* Wok. '''shimu, henbu'''
* Kat. '''simu'''

'''*siNki''' — "snow"
* Kat. '''siki'''
* Trin. '''sisig'''
* JS '''sikki'''

'''*sinna''' — "breast" (IP)
* Wok. '''hendata''' (*sinna-ta)
* Kat. '''sīnada''' "two breasts" (*sinna-ta)
* JS '''snata''' (*sinna-ta)
* Tty. '''-sine'''

'''*sinni''' — "to see"
* Pot. '''seni'''
* Kat. '''sīni'''
* JS '''sinni''' "to think", "to remember"
* Tty. '''sin, sinye'''
** '''tomsin’''' "mirror" (*tim-mi-sinni-kim)
* Ttl. '''ij'''

'''*sinta''' — "to be happy"
* Pot. '''seta'''
* Kat. '''sita, sta'''
* Trin. '''zdas''' (*sinta-ki)
* JS '''sitta''' "to succeed"
** '''staki''' "effective" (*sinta-ki)

'''*sinun''' — "louse"
* Pot. '''sinu'''
* Kat. '''sinu''' (II)
* Trin. '''sinin'''
* JS '''səymmu''' (*sinun-mu)
* Tty. '''slyu'''

'''*sipa''' — "name" (IP)
* Kat. '''siha'''
* JS '''sifa'''
** '''spaviki''' "famous" (*sipa-dudi-ki)
* Sw. '''zbawuye''' "to be famous" (*sipa-dudi)
* Tty. '''sofe'''

'''*sipin''' — "to fly"
* Pot. '''sipe'''
* Kat. '''sihi''' (II)
* Trin. '''sisip'''
* JS '''sifein'''
** '''sipkasi''' "journey" (*sipin-kasi)

'''*sira''' — "snake"
* Kat. '''sira'''
* Trin. '''sisir'''
* JS '''srou''' (*sira-bu)

'''*siri''' — "to be sweet"
* Kat. '''siri''' "to be kind"
* Trin. '''sris''' (*siri-ki)
* JS '''sriki''' (*siri-ki)

'''*sita''' — "to taste"
* Kat. '''sita'''
* Trin. '''sitit'''
* JS '''sita'''
** '''nvaksita''' "to taste good" (*nagan-ki-sita)
** '''tsuksita''' "to taste bad" (*tutu-ki-sita)
* Tty. '''sotya''' (*sita-ba)

'''*siti''' — "to be sour"
* Kat. '''sidi'''
* Trin. '''stis''' (*siti-ki)

'''*situm''' — "knot"
* Kat. '''sidu, stu''' (III)
* Trin. '''sit'''
* JS '''sitoun'''

'''*situn''' — "to tie"
* Kat. '''sidu, stu''' (II)
* Trin. '''sit'''
* JS '''sitein'''

=== Su ===

'''*subun''' — "shore", "river bank"
* Wok. '''shū'''
* Pot. '''soβu'''
* Kat. '''suwu, swu''' (II)
* Trin. '''suw'''
* JS '''səun'''

'''*sudin''' — "to give"
* Wok. '''shū, hude'''
* Pot. '''sohe'''
* Kat. '''suzi, si''' (II)
** '''suksuzi, sukāzi''' "to conduct rituals" (*sumka-sudin)
* Kat. '''rīnizi''' (II) "spy" (*ripini-sudim)
* Trin. '''sul, slib'''
* JS '''sujein'''

'''*sugi''' — "to be short"
* Pot. '''soɰi'''
* Kat. '''sū, sē'''
* JS '''siki''' (*sugi-ki)

'''*sugun''' — "shame"
* Kat. '''sū''' (II)
* Trin. '''sûn'''

'''*suku''' — "to fall"
* Kat '''sugu, sku'''
* Trin. '''suk, skuw'''
* JS '''suku'''
* Tty. '''suko''' (*suku-ba)
* Ttl. '''sua'''

'''*sumin''' — "spring" (season)
* Pot. '''some''' "flower"
* Kat. '''sumi''' (II)
* Trin. '''sum, smig'''
* JS '''səyn'''

'''*sumpu''' — "island"
* Kat. '''sūmu''' "dry land"
* Trin. '''sub'''
** '''Zbur, Zubrik''' "Trinesian islands" (*sumpu-ri)
* JS '''spukein''' (*sumpu-kin)
* Tty. '''supo'''

'''*sumka''' — "power"
* Pot. '''sunka'''
* Kat. '''suka'''
** '''suksuzi, sukāzi''' "to conduct rituals" (*sumka-sudin)
* Trin. '''sug'''
* JS '''sukka'''
** '''skou''' "magic" (*sumka-bu)

'''*sunki''' — "fish"
* Pot. '''suki''' "disgusting"
* Kat. '''suki, ski'''
* Trin. '''susuk'''
* JS '''sukki'''

'''*sunti''' — "voice" (IP)
* Pot. '''suti'''
* Kat. '''suti, sti'''
** '''sutiduka''' "language" (*sunti-tuNka)
** '''Kataputi''' "Kataputi language" (*kantam-sunti)
** '''Nadzuti''' "Flower-voice" (*natin-sunti)
* Trin. '''sud'''
* JS '''stəy''' (*sunti-bu)
* Tty. '''-syú'''

'''*sura''' — "mouth" (IP)
* Kat. '''sura, swa'''
* Trin. '''sur'''
* JS '''sura'''
** '''srata''' "ears" (*sura?-ta)
* Tty. '''-suye'''

'''*surin''' — "brush"
* Kat. '''suri, swi''' (II)
* Trin. '''susur'''
* JS '''surein''' "reed"

'''*suru''' — "time"
* Pot. '''sol'''
* Kat. '''suru'''
* Trin. '''surur'''
* JS '''suru'''
* Sw. '''zwor, zo'ror'''
* Tty. '''suy'''

'''*susina''' — "cow", "cattle"
* Pot. '''sosina'''
* Kat. '''sina, susina'''
* Trin. '''sin, sunak'''
* JS '''tsei'''

== T ==

=== Ta ===

'''*ta''' — "at"
* Pot. '''-ta'''
* Kat. '''ta'''
* Trin. '''-ta'''
* JS '''ta'''
* Tty. '''te'''
* Ttl. '''-te'''

'''*taba''' — "bag"
* Kat. '''tawa'''
** '''tētawa''' "winnowing fan" (*tigan-taba)
* Trin. '''taw'''
* JS '''tveiri''' "to hold" (*taba-miri)
** '''tveiréi''' "bag" (*taba-miri-da)

'''*tabibi''' — "fish eggs"
* Kat. '''twiwi, tōwi'''
* JS '''teijəý''' (*tabibi-mu)

'''*tada''' — "father" (IP)
* Pot. '''taha''', '''tata'''
* Kat. '''taza'''
* JS '''tau'''
** '''tauta''' "parents" (*tada-ta)
* Tty. '''-teze'''
* Ttl. '''tde'''

'''*tagan''' — "wall"
* Kat. '''tā''' (II)
** '''tānu''' "fortification" (*tagan-bu)
* Trin. '''tân'''
* JS '''tein'''
* Tty. '''teho'''

'''*tagi''' — "face" (IP)
* Kat. '''tē'''
* Trin. '''tai, tik'''
* JS '''taji''' "front"
* Tty. '''-teho'''

'''*takan''' — "knife"
* Pot. '''taka'''
* Kat. '''taga''' (II)
* Trin. '''tak, tkag'''
* JS '''takan'''
* Tty. '''teko'''
* Ttl. '''tei'''

'''*taku''' — "to be narrow"
* Pot. '''tako'''
* Kat. '''tagu'''
* Trin. '''tkus''' (*taku-ki)

'''*tam''' — "not"
* Wok. '''so'''
* Pot. '''ton'''
* Kat. '''ta'''
* JS '''taun'''

'''*tama''' — "to"
* Pot. '''βatama''' (*ba?-tama)
* Kat. '''tama'''
* Trin. '''-tan'''
* JS '''tau'''
* Tty. '''teve'''
* Ttl. '''-tem'''

'''*tama''' — "to be deep"
* Kat. '''tama'''
* Trin. '''tmas''' (*tama-ki)
* JS '''tauki''' (*tama-ki)

'''*tampa''' — "hammer"
* Kat. '''tāma'''
* Trin. '''tab, dbak'''
* JS '''tappa''' "hand"
** '''tpakoun''' "hammer" (*tampa-kim)

'''*tamta''' — "to put"
* Pot. '''tonta'''
* Kat. '''tata'''
* Trin. '''tad, daw'''
* JS '''tatta'''

'''*tamu''' — "past"
* Pot. '''tamo'''
* Kat. '''tamu'''
* Trin. '''tam'''
* Ttl. '''taṅ-, -tṅue'''

'''*tansa''' — "to be warm"
* Kat. '''tata'''
* Trin. '''dzas''' (*tansa-ki)
* JS '''tsaki''' (*tansa-ki)

'''*taNtu''' — "to be cruel"
* Kat. '''tatu''' "to torture"
* Trin. '''dudus''' (*taNtu-ki)
* JS '''tattu'''

'''*tapa''' — "to be flat"
* Pot. '''tapapa''' "field" (*tapa-pa)
* Kat. '''taha, tā, ta'''
* Trin. '''tpas''' (*tapa-ki)
* JS '''tpaki''' (*tapa-ki)
** '''tpafa''' "plains" (*tapa-pa)

'''*tapam''' — "to step"
* Kat. '''taha, ta''' (III) "to walk"
* JS '''tap'''
** '''tapnitta''' "footprint" (*tapam-ninta)

'''*tara''' — "enemy"
* Trin. '''tar'''
* JS '''tara''' "problem"

'''*tari''' — "from"
* Pot. '''βatari''' (*ba?-tari)
* Kat. '''tari'''
* Trin. '''-tar'''
* Tty. '''tey'''
* Ttl. '''-tel'''

'''*tatu''' — 7
* Pot. '''tato'''
* Kat. '''tadu'''
* Trin. '''tat'''
* JS '''tatu'''
* Sw. '''dol'''
* Tty. '''tetu'''
* Ttl. '''tat'''

=== Ti ===

'''*ti''' — 1st person exclusive
* Wok. '''shishi'''
* Pot. '''ti'''
* Kat. '''ti'''
* Trin. '''ti'''
* JS '''ti'''
* Sw. '''dže'''
* Tty. '''toha''' (*ti-gam)
* Ttl. '''cal''' (*ti-ra?)

'''*tigan''' — "to shake"
* Wok. '''shiwo, tigo'''
* Kat. '''tē''' (II) "to sort"
** '''tētawa''' "winnowing fan" (*tigan-taba)
** '''tēku''' "to shock" (*tigan-ku)
* Trin. '''tên'''
* JS '''tijan'''
** '''tvaksəý''' "earthquake" (*tigan-ka[ks]i-bu)

'''*tigi''' — "wing" (IP)
* Kat. '''tīda''' "two wings" (*tigi-ta)
* Trin. '''tî'''
* JS '''tita''' (*tigi-ta)
* Tty. '''-’oho, -ího'''
** '''-’ohvá, -íhvá''' "shoulderblade" (*tigi-maNki)

'''*tika''' — "stick"
* Kat. '''tiga'''
** '''kūdiga''' "spear" (*kupu-tika)
* Trin. '''tik'''
* JS '''tika'''
** '''tkari''' "tripod" (*tika-ri)

'''*tiki''' — 100
* Pot. '''tiki'''
* Kat. '''tigi''' 100
** '''tigiwu''' 1000 (*tiki-bu)
* Trin. '''tis'''
* JS '''tiki'''
* Tty. '''kezyekˀo''' (*kada-tiki)
* Ttl. '''cek'''

'''*tikidi''' — "to be sharp"
* Kat. '''tigizi, tigzi'''
** '''tigzigi, tigizgi''' (III) "sword" (*tikidi-kim)
* Trin. '''tiklis''' (*tikidi-ki)

'''*tikun''' — "frog"
* Kat. '''tigu''' (II)
* JS '''tikein'''

'''*timka''' — "bug"
* Pot. '''tenka'''
* Kat. '''tika'''
* Trin. '''tig'''
* JS '''tikka'''

'''*timpa''' — "music"
* Kat. '''tīma'''
* Trin. '''tib'''
* JS '''tippa'''

'''*timpama''' — "left side"
* Kat. '''tama, tīma'''
* Trin. '''tpam'''
* JS '''tpau'''

'''*timtu''' — "person"
* Wok. '''shetə'''
* Pot. '''Tento'''
* Kat. '''titu''' "citizen"
** '''tituniri''' "social rank" (*timtu-niri)
* Trin. '''tid, duk'''
* JS. '''tsuta''' "couple" (*timtu-ta)
** '''tsuri''' "three people" (*timtu-ri)
* Tty. '''sozat’u''' "relative" (*sidam-timtu)

'''*timun''' — "tick (bug)"
* Kat. '''timu''' (II)
* Trin. '''tim'''
* JS '''təykkein''' "flea" (*timun-kin)

'''*tinadam''' — "spider"
* KAt. '''tinaza''' (III)
* Trin. '''tnal'''
* JS '''tjaun'''

'''*tinmi''' — "to join"
* Kat. '''tīmi''' "to fix"
* Trin. '''tin'''
* Tty. '''tim'''
** '''tomtim’''' "rowlock" (*tim-mi-tinmi-kim)

'''*tinpan''' — "excrement"
* Wok. '''shepo'''
* Kat. '''tīna''' (II)

'''*tinsi''' — "to be awake"
* Kat. '''titi'''
* Trin. '''dzis''' (*tinsi-ki)
* JS '''tissi'''
** '''tistəí''' "to wake up" (*tinsi-timi)

'''*tipan''' — "horse"
* Pot. '''tpaha''' (*tipa-da)
* Kat. '''tiha''' (II)
** '''Tiharū''' "Horse-omen" (*tipan-rugun)
* Trin. '''tip, tpag'''

'''*tipi''' — "star", "point"
* Pot. '''tipi''' "god"
* Kat. '''tīwu''' (*tipi-bu)
** '''tīmiri, timiri''' "be important"
** '''Rīnidī''' "Laughing" (*rimni-tipi)
* Trin. '''titip'''
** '''tipnas''' "iron" (*tipi-ganasu)
* JS '''tifi'''
* Tty. '''fo'''
* Ttl. '''cac'''

'''*tipin''' — "mouse"
* Pot. '''tipe'''
* Kat. '''tihi, tī, ti''' (II)
* JS '''tpikkein''' (*tipin-kin)
* Tty. '''fi'''

'''*tiraki''' — "to be quiet"
* Kat. '''tragi, tiragi'''
* Trin. '''tirkis''' (*tiraki-ki)

'''*tiri''' — "to pull"
* Kat. '''tiri, tri'''
* Trin. '''tir'''

'''*tirun''' — "needle"
* Kat. '''tiru, tru''' (II)
* JS '''tirein'''

'''*tisan''' — "knee" (IP)
* Kat. '''tsata, tizda''' "two knees" (*tisan-ta)
* Trin. '''tis, tsag'''
* JS '''tisan'''
* Tty. '''-’oso, -ico'''

'''*tisu''' — "roof"
* Wok. '''shihə'''
* Kat. '''tizu'''
* Trin. '''titis'''
* JS '''tisu'''
* Sw. '''džez'''

'''*titaru''' — "crawfish"
* Kat. '''tidaru, tidru'''
* JS '''tsaru'''

=== Tu ===

'''*tuban''' — "egg"
* Pot. '''toβa'''
* Kat. '''tuwa, twa'''
* Trin. '''tuw, twag'''
* JS '''toun'''

'''*tubiNta''' — "testicle" (IP)
* Wok. '''tubeta'''
* Kat. '''twita, tuwita'''
* JS '''təytta'''

'''*tubira''' — "swallow"
* Pot. '''toβira''' "bird"
* Kat. '''twira, tuwira'''
* Trin. '''twir, twirak'''
* JS '''təyra'''

'''*tuda''' — "cloud"
* Kat. '''tuza, tsa'''
* Trin. '''tul'''
* JS '''tou'''
** '''tvou''' "bad weather" (*tuda-bu)

'''*tudun''' — "mosquito"
* Kat. '''tuzu, tsu''' (II)
** '''tuzduka''' "swarm" (*tudun-tuNka)
* JS '''tuvein'''

'''*tuganta''' — "to be dark"
* Pot. '''toɰata'''
* Kat. '''tōta'''
* Trin. '''tôdas'''
* JS '''tutjaki''' "dark" (*tuganta-ki)
** '''tutjəí''' "to grow dark" (*tuganta-timi)

'''*tugi''' — "dog"
* Pot. '''toɰi'''
* Kat. '''tū'''
** '''tūda''' (III) "puppy" (*tugi-tam)
* Trin. '''tû'''
* JS '''tuji'''
* Tty. '''tuho'''
* Ttl. '''tui'''

'''*tugun''' — "nose" (IP)
* Pot. '''toɰu'''
* Kat. '''tū''' (II)
* Trin. '''tûn'''
* JS '''tujein'''
* Tty. '''-tuhyu'''

'''*tuku''' — "topic"
* Kat. '''tugu'''
* Trin. '''tuk'''
* JS '''tuk'''
** '''tkəu''' "discussion" (*tuku-bu)
** '''tkufa''' "meeting" (*tuku-pa_

'''*tukugu''' — "to be true"
* Pot. '''tokoɰo'''
* Kat. '''tugû'''
* Trin. '''tukus''' (*tukugu-ki)
* JS '''tkuvu'''

'''*tum''' — "to be dead"
* Pot. '''tunha''' "ancestor" (*tum-da)
* Kat. '''tu''' (III)
** '''tutawu''' "ancestor" (*tum-da-bu)
* Trin. '''tuz'''
* JS '''tukki''' "dead" (*tum-ki)
** '''tuttəí''' "to die" (*tum-timi)

'''*tum''' — 3rd person feminine
* Wok. '''soso'''
* Pot. '''tun'''
* Kat. '''tu'''
* Trin. '''tum'''
* JS '''tun'''
* Sw. '''dò'''
* Tty. '''tuka''' (*tum-gam)
* Ttl. '''tuos''' (*tum-ra?)

'''*tumpa''' — "nut"
* Kat. '''tūma'''
* Trin. '''tub'''
* JS '''tpatan''' (*tumpa-tam)

'''*tuNka''' — "pot"
* Kat. '''tuka'''
** '''tukōzu''' "kiln" (*tuNka-gudun)
* Trin. '''tug'''

'''*tunti''' — "to use"
* Pot. '''tuti'''
* Kat. '''tuti'''
* Trin. '''tud'''
* JS '''tutti'''
** '''tutrəí''' "to perform poorly" (*tunri-rini)
* Tty. '''tyutye''' (*tunti-ba)
* Ttl. '''tuic'''

'''*tupa''' — "hat"
* Kat. '''tuha'''
* Trin. '''tup'''
* JS '''tufa'''

'''*tupi''' — "soul" (IP)
* Kat. '''tuhi, tū, ti''' "person"
* Trin. '''tutup'''
* JS '''tufi'''
* Tty. '''-tufo'''

'''*tutu''' — "to be bad"
* Pot. '''toto'''
* Kat. '''tudu''' "to be ill"
* Trin. '''tus''' (*tutu-ki)
* JS '''tsuki''' (*tutu-ki)
** '''tsukmajein''' "to smell bad" (*tutu-ki-magin)
** '''tsuksita''' "to taste bad" (*tutu-ki-sita)

'''*tutu''' — "tree trunk"
* Kat. '''tudu''' "body", "torso"
* Trin. '''tut'''
* JS '''tutu'''
** '''tsukein''' "tree stem" (*tutu-kin)
* Tty. '''tuto'''

== Unknown formants ==

=== Wokatasuto ===

* '''-doki''' "hair"
* '''aku''' "only"
* '''heshire, hehire''' "to fear"
* '''ufu''' "small settlement"

=== Potonsuti ===

* '''pihi''' "flat"
* '''mal''' "few"
* '''poso''' "several"
* '''taso''' "to listen"
* '''mire''' "clean"
* '''kâsa''' "to admire"
* '''kuno''' "to shun"
* '''sopipa''' "spirit world"
* '''tal''' "therefore"
* '''mapâ''' "alcohol"
* '''ba-''', '''ho-''' (elements of adpositions)
* '''hukosa''' "to abandon"
* '''kijâ''' "but"
* '''niti''' "to save"
* '''sopani''' "captors"
* '''talta''' "surprisingly"
* '''teku''' (?)

=== Kataputi ===

* '''hizi''' "to starve"
* '''hitu''' "to bake"
* '''wō''' "or"
* '''higada''' "city"
* '''hakrita''' "commerce"
* '''Hawuhū''' "Anatolionesians"
* '''Hazāka''' "Hazāka plains"
* '''titi''' "cake"
* '''nō''' (II) "to be full"
* '''kātagi''' "leech"
* '''Kukōha''' "Kukōha inlet in Tagimī'''
* '''Tagimī''' "Tagimī Great Bay"
* '''tatuzi''' "to cut"

=== Trinesian ===

* '''rûk''' "frog"
* '''kid''' "ear"
* '''sisik''' "to starve"
* '''kuguk''' "to imprison"

=== Jouki Stəy ===

* '''đtəy''' "hair"
* '''kjei''' "spine", "quill"
* '''mjəiri''' "tingle", "itch"
* '''tsəy''' "feast"
* '''nukvissi''' "roof opening", "chimney"
* '''jikka''' "to reciprocate"
* '''mjəy''' "apparently"
* '''miji''' "maybe"
* '''pifein''' "to tell"
* '''pummu''' "to spare one's life"
* '''Jouki''' "Jouki nation"
* '''Prousoun''' "Prousoun island"
* '''Təisi''' "Təisi capital"

=== Tetey ===

* '''ute''' "person"

== Internal loanwords ==

=== Wokatasuto ===

'''Wohata''' "Wohata coast"
* Kat. '''Wēhata'''

=== Potonsuti ===

'''Tento''' "Tento people"
* Kat. '''Tētu'''

=== Kataputi ===

'''higada''' "city"
* JS '''jikađa'''
** '''kjatta''' "village"

'''nākiru''' "chief"
* JS '''naukiru''' "mayor"

'''tukōzu''' "kiln"
* JS '''tkousu''' "oven"

=== Jouki Stəy ===

'''Jouki''' "Jouki nation"
* Kat. '''Gōki'''

== External loanwords ==

These words were probably not a part of the Proto-Dumic vocabulary and were introduced later.

=== Macro-Anatolionesian ===

'''cwocwo''' "shoal of fish"
* JS '''kvouku'''

'''hmahma''' "dune"
* Kat. '''mimi'''

'''kakant''' "windstorm"
* Kat. '''kigita''' "hurricane"

'''kañshra''' "iron"
* Kat. '''kēnasa'''
* JS '''keinasa'''

'''khwa''' "river"
* JS '''Ku''' "Ku river"

'''kniŋ''' "silver"
* Kat. '''haki''' (II)
* JS '''jaki'''

'''kret''' "to fish"
* Wok. '''kokirete''' "fishing season"
** '''kokirefono''' "fisherboat"

'''ksas sim''' "grass island"
* Kat. '''Kōsima''' "Kyosshin island"

'''ktam''' "head"
* JS '''kutan''' "forehead"

'''nwa''' "rope"
* Kat. '''wuna'''

'''ñok''' "peninsula", "cape"
* Kat. '''nuka''' "shore"

'''paryun''' "sailor"
* Kat. '''piru''' (II)

'''puhk''' "storm", "rough seas"
* Kat. '''pōka'''
* JS '''pukka'''

'''pyun''' "boat"
* Wok. '''kokirefono''' "fisherboat"

'''pyupyun''' "flotilla"
* Wok. '''pufono''' "fisherman"
* Kat. '''pupuna''' "fleet"

'''sam''' "shark"
* Kat. '''si''' (III)

'''sim''' "island"
* JS '''sin''' "small island"

'''sisim''' "archipelago"
* Kat. '''sisi''' (III)
** '''sizgigi''' "island" (*-kiki)

'''tahp''' "noble", "precious"
* Kat. '''tēputa''' "nobility"

'''tatak''' "mountain range"
* Kat. '''Tidika''' "Tidika mountains"

'''tko''' "octopus"
* Kat. '''haku'''

'''tmats''' "otter"
* JS '''tmauta'''

'''twuk''' "winter"
* JS '''təuka'''

'''wath''' "coast", "beach"
* Kat. '''wita'''
* JS '''jatta'''

'''wan''' "strait"
* Kat. '''wi''' (II) "channel"

'''woh sim''' "big island"
* Kat. '''Wōsima''' "Ōshin island"

[[Category:Lexicography]]
[[Category:Dumic languages|*]]
[[Category:Reconstructed languages|Dumic]]