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MediaWiki:Common.css

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/* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */

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Template:Stub

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:<div class='notice metadata' id='stub'>''This article is a [[:Category:Stubs|stub]]. Please help the wiki by [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=edit}} expanding it].''</div>
<includeonly>[[Category:Stubs|{{PAGENAME}}]]</includeonly><noinclude>[[Category:Stubs|*]]</noinclude>

Template:IPA

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{{{1}}}

Template:Edit

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[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{{1}}}|action=edit}} Edit me]

Template:Language

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{| style="clear:right" | {{blueinfobox}}
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#CCCCFF"| '''{{{language|Language}}}''' [{{{phonetic|ˈlæŋ.ɡwɪʧ}}}]
|-
| align="right" | ''Timeline/Universe''
| align="left" | {{{world|Conworld}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Period''
| align="left" | {{{date|Date}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Spoken in''
| align="left" | {{{place|Location}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Total speakers''
| align="left" | {{{speakers|Speakers}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Writing system''
| align="left" | {{{script|Script}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Classification''
| align="left" | {{{family|Protolanguage  Language}}}
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#CCCCFF"| '''Typology'''
|-
| align="right" | ''Basic word order''
| align="left" | {{{word-or|SVO}}}
|-
| align="right" | ''Morphology''
| align="left" | {{{mor-type|isolating}}}
|-
| align="right" |''Alignment''
| align="left" | {{{morphalign|NOM-ACC}}}
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#CCCCFF" | '''Credits'''
|-
| align="right" | ''Created by''
| align="left" | {{{author|User}}}
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | {{edit|Template:Conlang3}}
|-
|}

Template:Bluetable

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class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"

Template:Blueinfobox

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class="blueinfobox {{{1|}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"

Template:Akana

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{| style="clear:right" | {{blueinfobox}}
|-
! style="background:#ccf" | <center>'''[[Akana]]'''</center>
|-
| <center>'''[[Akana timeline|Timeline]]'''</center>
|-
| <center>'''[[Akana states|States]]'''</center>
[[Peilaš]] 
 [[Aiwa valley|Aiwa valley region]] 
  [[Empire of Athalē]] 
  [[Huyfárah]] 
  [[Ndak Empire]]
|-
| <center>'''[[Akana geography|Geography]]'''</center>
[[Peilaš]] 
 [[Aiwa valley]] 
  [[Kasca]] 
  [[Lasomo]] 
 [[Rathedān]]
|-
| <center>'''[[Languages of Akana|Languages]]'''</center>
[[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] 
[[Hitatc languages]] 
[[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]] 
Macro-Edastean languages 
 [[Edastean languages|Talo-Edastean languages]] 
 [[Proto-Xoronic|Xoronic languages]] 
[[Peninsular languages]] 
[[Western languages]]
|-
|
[[History of Akana|External history]] 
[[:Category:Akana|Related pages]] 
|-
| <center>{{edit|Template:Akana}}</center>
|}
<includeonly>[[Category:Akana]]</includeonly>

Category:Xoronic languages

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[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Western languages

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These languages belong to the Western family in the world of [[Akana]].

[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Isles languages

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The languages of the Isles family in the world of [[Akana]].

[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Hitatc languages

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[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages

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[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Edastean languages

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[[Category:Akana languages]]

Category:Akana by period

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[[Category:Akana]]

Category:Akana

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ʔAghïyï

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{{Conlang3
| language = ʔAghïyï
| phonetic = ˈʔɑ.ɣɯ.jɯ
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 5200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    ʔAghïyï
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = kodé
}}
{{Akana}}

'''ʔAghïyï''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 5200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Arie]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** [[Zhaj]] (c. 2500 YP)
****** [[Aríe]] (c. 3700 YP)
******* [[Arie]] (c. 4500 YP)
******** '''ʔAghïyï''' (c. 5200 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://www.soapboxindustries.com/zbb/aghiyi-IPA.html ʔAghïyï grammar] ''{broken link → [http://conlang.awardspace.com/zbbbackup/aghiyi-IPA.html backup]}''
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages|Aghiyi]]

Öhat

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

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{{Conlang3
| language = Öhat
| phonetic = øˈhat
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Southern Dāiadak    Öhat
| word-or = unknown
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Whimemsz
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Öhat''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. The original description was lost before the language could be finished. A backup copy of the document is available [http://conlang.awardspace.com/zbbbackup/oehat.htm here].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Aθáta]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[E'át]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** [[Yhát]] (c. 2400 YP)
****** '''Öhat''' (c. 3000 YP)
****** [[Erhadzy|Middle Erhadzy]] (c. 3200 YP)

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages|Oehat]]

Æðadĕ

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

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{{Conlang3
| language = Æðadĕ
| phonetic = ˈæ.ða.də
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 1000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Lasomo
| speakers = c. 2 million
| script = adapted Tjakori script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Æðadĕ
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = ebilein
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Æðadĕ''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken in [[Lasomo]] around 1000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is descended from the northeastern dialects of [[Adāta|Imperial Adāta]], showing significant influence from a [[Ndok Aisô]] substratum.

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** '''Æðadĕ''' (c. 1000 YP)

A descendant of Æðadĕ itself is [[Yād]].

== Sample ==
* ''Ævi-n sjeb Sjenkĕn-ro, ðjesk xizor, ðjesk æx læs æx Kāxd, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Tālo: Īlnu je-ro æb-ṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx miz-aj, iz ðjeskĕlĕs rūlzro vi hēgon īl je-n.''
* [ ˈæ.βin sjeb ˈsjen.kʰən.ɾɔ | ðjeskʰ ˈxi.zɔɾ | ðjeskʰ æx læs æx kʰaːxd | meːxtʰ æx zæm un æx ˈtʰaː.lɔ ‖ ˈiːl.nu ˈje.ɾɔ ˈæb.n̩ uβ ˈɔː.ba.ɡat.jə æx ˈmi.zaj | iz ˈðjes.kʰə.ləs ˈɾuːlz.ɾɔ βi ˈheː.ɡɔn iːl jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Sjenken-SUB, King great, King of Land of Kaxd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign-SUB be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://wiki.frath.net/%C3%86%C3%B0ad%C4%95 Æðadĕ grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages|Aedhade]]

Zhaj

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

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{{Conlang3
| language = Zhaj
| phonetic = ʑaɪ
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Zhaj
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = con quesa
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Zhaj''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Yād]] and a sister language of [[Yēt]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** '''Zhaj''' (c. 2500 YP)
***** [[Yēt]] (c. 2500 YP)

A descendant of Zhaj itself is [[Aríe]].

== Sample ==
* ''Khanıvin sı Shengan ur xız zijsuk, ngin zijsuk et Kod, ngin mixyt et zejm un thor: İrnu wetaluhin zher uv kajrel et mıze, hax! Ryrz isuhuzijsukar wengin xireho ır zher.''
* [ ˈkʰa.nɪ.vin sɪ ˈɕɛ.ŋan uɾ xɪz ˈzɪj.suk | ŋin zɪj.suk ɛt kod | ŋin ˈmi.xʉt ɛt zɛjm un tʰoɾ ‖ ˈɪɾ.nu ˈwɛ.ta.ɺu.hin ʑɛɾ uv ˈkaj.ɾɛɺ ɛt ˈmɪ.zɛ | hax | ɾʉɾz ˌi.su.ʔuˈzɪj.su.kaɾ ˈwɛ.ŋin ˈxi.ɾɛ.ʔo ɪɾ ʑɛɾ ]
* PRET-speak thus-OBJ Shengan great king, COPULA king of Kod, COPULA brother of sun and moon: before IMPERF-sit I-OBJ on throne of father-1sg:POS alas foreign all-PL-kingdom IMPERF-COPULA hostile to I
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://mechanopanda.com/wiki/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay Zhaj grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Zele

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Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Zele
| phonetic = ˈze.le
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Zeluzh
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]   Zele
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = brandrinn
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Zele''' is a language of the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]] spoken on the northern tip of the continent [[Zeluzh]] around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Zele''' (c. 0-200 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://www.r0ry.co.uk/Zele.doc Zele grammar sketch]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Yēt

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

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{{Conlang3
| language = Yēt
| phonetic = jɛːɔt
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Yēt
| word-or = unknown
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = ABS-ERG
| author = TzirTzi
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Yēt''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Yād]] and a sister language of [[Zhaj]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[Yād]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** '''Yēt''' (c. 2500 YP)
***** [[Zhaj]] (c. 2500 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://www.placid-acid.com/filesforoffsite/Grammar_Yet.doc Yēt grammar] ''{broken link → [http://conlang.awardspace.com/zbbbackup/yet.pdf backup]}''
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Yād

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Yād
| phonetic = jaːd
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 1600 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Lasomo
| speakers = c. 4 million
| script = adapted Tjakori script
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Northern Dāiadak    Yād
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = gsandi
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Yād''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken across [[Lasomo]] and much of the middle [[Aiwa valley|Eigə]] valley around 1600 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is a descendant of [[Æðadĕ]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** '''Yād''' (c. 1600 YP)

Two daughter languages of Yād itself are [[Zhaj]] and [[Yēt]].

== Sample ==
* ''Ēvin sheb Shenkan, dhyesk hīz, dhyesk ē les ē Kōd, mīht ē Zem un ē Tōl: Ilnu ye ēbin uv ūbach ē mīzē, iz dhyeskal rülz in hīgun il yen.''
* [ ˈeː.vin ʃeb ˈʃeŋ.kʰan | ðjesk xiːz | ðjesk eː les eː koːd | miːxt eː zem un eː tʰoːl ‖ ˈil.nu je ˈeː.bin uv ˈuː.baʧ eː ˈmiː.zeː | iz ˈðjes.kal ryːlz in ˈhiː.ɡun il jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Shenkan, King great, King of Land of Kōd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://www.tundria.com/Zompist/Yad-1.shtml Yād grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Yhát

2008-06-23T12:59:28Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Yhát
| phonetic = ʏˈhat
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 2400 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = Edastean  Dāiadak   Southern Dāiadak    Yhát
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Starsinger
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Yhát''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken around 2400 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is descended from [[E'át]].

== Genealogy ==
* [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Adāta]] (c. 0-200 YP)
*** [[Aθáta]] (c. 1000 YP)
**** [[E'át]] (c. 1600 YP)
***** '''Yhát''' (c. 2400 YP)

Yhát has at least two daughter languages itself. These are [[Öhat]] and [[Erhadzy]].

== Sample ==
* ''Tsínqan, tsískazar, tsísken Qáles, maláqan sám an sál, évvon tsif: Ilálpaj vin afpaqáken maládzin, aqóna hetsísklasa ádza rúlasa sin.''
* [ ˈʦiɴ.qən | ˈʦis.kə.zaʁ | ˈʦis.ken ˈqa.les | məˈla.qən sam an sal | ˈev.von ʦif ‖ iˈlal.paj vin əf.pəˈqa.ken məˈla.ʣin | əˈqo.nə heˈʦis.klə.sə ˈa.ʣə ˈʁu.lə.sə sin ]
* Tsínqan, greatking, king-POSS-3SG Qa=land, brother-POSS-3SG sun and moon, speak-PERF-3SG thus: SPRV-sit-INF 1SG-NOM on-throne-POS-3SG father-POSS-1SG, act.hostile-HAB-3PL PL-country-PL all-PL foreign-PL 1SG-DAT
''(taken from the [[Tsinakan text]])''

== See also ==
* [http://www.stokesinternet.com/lang/yhat.html Yhát grammar]
* [[Edastean languages]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Year of the Prophet

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Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
The '''Year of the Prophet''' ([[Adāta]]: ''lād ax rūnak'') is a calendar used in the [[Empire of Athalē]] in the conworld [[Akana]]. It marks the number of years since the death of the Prophet [[Zārakātias]], father of [[Anaitism]] (the dominant religion of Athalē).

While other lands and other times in Akana have certainly seen the use of many different calendars, for the sake of easy coordination of dates we use Year of the Prophet as our primary reference calendar for the conworld.

(Year of the Prophet is abbreviated '''YP'''; '''BP''' is used for years Before the Prophet)

[[Category:Akana]]

Xoronic languages

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
The '''Xoronic languages''' are those descended from [[Proto-Xoronic]], a language spoken on the [[Eiwəl Gourun]] circa -2500 YP, and are a family within the [[Macro-Edastean languages|Macro-Edastean grouping]].

*Macro-Edastean family
**...
**Xoronic family: [[Proto-Xoronic]] (c. -2500)
***[[Habeo languages|Habeo branch]]: Proto-Habeo (c. -1000)
****Hill Habeo (c. 100)
*****Red Habeo (c. 900)
******Northern Red Habeo (c. 1900)
******Southern Red Habeo (c. 1900)
*****White Habeo (c. 900)
****Plains Habeo (c. 100)
*****Yellow Habeo (c. 1100)
****River Habeo (c. 100)
*****Early Blue Habeo (c. 700)
******Late Blue Habeo (c. 1300)
***[[Damak|Damak branch]]: Old Damak (c. -500)
****Early Middle Damak (c. 600)
*****Middle Damak (c. 1100)
******Late Damak (c. 1800)

[[Category:Akana languages]]
[[Category:Xoronic languages|*]]

Western languages

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
The '''Western languages''' are a family of languages spoken in the world of [[Akana]], for the most part in the western areas of the continent [[Peilaš]] (hence the designation). Their common ancestor is [http://deinioljones.net/conlangs/western/proto.htm Proto-Western], which is estimated to have been spoken around -3500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

The most well-known members of the family are [[Gezoro]] and [[Tjakori]].

----
{{Stub}}

[[Category:Akana languages]]
[[Category:Western languages|*]]

Tsinakan text

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

== Tsinakan text ==

The '''Tsinakan text''' refers to an inscription found on a monumental stele some three miles outside the [[Kasca|Kasdgan]] city of Momuva'e, the old capital of the [[Ndak empire]]. The monument dates to approximately -1700 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] and recounts the deeds of the great emperor [[Tsinakan]]:
<div style="font-style: italic; margin-left: 2.5em;">Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king, king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon:

Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The neighboring foreign countries spoke thus: "his father was a valiant king. He had conquered enemy countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child."

When I, brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus:

"O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!"

The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.</div>

== Comparative translation ==

Translation of the Tsinakan text is a customary practice in Edastean philological tradition. This section presents a comparative overview of the first two lines in all major [[Edastean languages]].

=== Ndak Ta===
(''Proto-Edastean'', [[Kasca|Kasadgad]], c. -1900 YP)

* ''Mbi tsip Tsinakan, ngu lu diaka peras, ngu lu diaka âk lu lats um Kasadgad, ngu lu merkat âk Tol on Imbi: Isla raits i ob lu ospàk âk lu mebwe âki mpen, isla im as ewek lats sai, selkon.''
* [ mbi ʦip ˈʦɪ̃.na.kɐ̃n | ŋu lu ˈdi.ja.ka ˈpe.ras | ŋu lu ˈdi.ja.ka ɐ̃k lu laʦ ʊ̃m ˈka.sad.ɡad | ŋu lu ˈmer.kat ɐ̃k tol on ɪ̃m.bi ‖ ˈis.la rɑits i ob lu osˈpak ɐ̃k lu ˈme.bwe ˈɐ̃.ki m̩ˈpen | ˈis.la ɪ̃m as ˈe.wek laʦ sɑi | ˈsel.kɔ̃n ]

=== Dāiadak languages ===
==== Adāta ====
(''Common Dāiadak'', [[Rathedān]], c. 100 YP)

* ''Sinakan, dizaka xezor, dizaka ax las ax Kāxad, mēkat ax Zama on ax Thālo, ro abise sip: Īlanu i ro ape ob ōpākātia ax meze ai, eze dizakalas rūlas ro īr hēkon īla in.''
* [ ˈsi.na.kan | ˈdi.za.ka ˈxe.zor | ˈdi.za.ka ax las ax ˈkaː.xad | ˈmeː.kat ax ˈza.ma ɔn ax ˈtʰaː.lo | ro ˈa.bi.se sip ‖ ˈiː.la.nu i ro ˈa.pe ɔb oːˈpaː.kaː.tja ax ˈme.ze aj | ˈe.ze ˈdi.za.ka.las ˈruː.las ro iːr ˈheː.kɔn ˈiː.la in ]

==== Northern Dāiadak ====
'''Æðadĕ''' ([[Lasomo]], c. 1000 YP)

* ''Ævi-n sjeb Sjenkĕn-ro, ðjesk xizor, ðjesk æx læs æx Kāxd, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Tālo: Īlnu je-ro æb-ṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx miz-aj, iz ðjeskĕlĕs rūlzro vi hēgon īl je-n.''
* [ ˈæ.βin sjeb ˈsjen.kʰən.ɾɔ | ðjeskʰ ˈxi.zɔɾ | ðjeskʰ æx læs æx kʰaːxd | meːxtʰ æx zæm un æx ˈtʰaː.lɔ ‖ ˈiːl.nu ˈje.ɾɔ ˈæb.n̩ uβ ˈɔː.ba.ɡat.jə æx ˈmi.zaj | iz ˈðjes.kʰə.ləs ˈɾuːlz.ɾɔ βi ˈheː.ɡɔn iːl jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Sjenken-SUB, King great, King of Land of Kaxd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign-SUB be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.

'''Yād''' (c. 1600 YP)

* ''Ēvin sheb Shenkan, dhyesk hīz, dhyesk ē les ē Kōd, mīht ē Zem un ē Tōl: Ilnu ye ēbin uv ūbach ē mīzē, iz dhyeskal rülz in hīgun il yen.''
* [ ˈeː.vin ʃeb ˈʃeŋ.kʰan | ðjesk xiːz | ðjesk eː les eː koːd | miːxt eː zem un eː tʰoːl ‖ ˈil.nu je ˈeː.bin uv ˈuː.baʧ eː ˈmiː.zeː | iz ˈðjes.kal ryːlz in ˈhiː.ɡun il jen ]
* speak-PAST thus Shenkan, King great, King of Land of Kōd, brother of sun and of moon: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.

'''Zhaj''' (c. 2500 YP)

* ''Khanıvin sı Shengan ur xız zijsuk, ngin zijsuk et Kod, ngin mixyt et zejm un thor: İrnu wetaluhin zher uv kajrel et mıze, hax! Ryrz isuhuzijsukar wengin xireho ır zher.''
* [ ˈkʰa.nɪ.vin sɪ ˈɕɛ.ŋan uɾ xɪz ˈzɪj.suk | ŋin zɪj.suk ɛt kod | ŋin ˈmi.xʉt ɛt zɛjm un tʰoɾ ‖ ˈɪɾ.nu ˈwɛ.ta.ɺu.hin ʑɛɾ uv ˈkaj.ɾɛɺ ɛt ˈmɪ.zɛ | hax | ɾʉɾz ˌi.su.ʔuˈzɪj.su.kaɾ ˈwɛ.ŋin ˈxi.ɾɛ.ʔo ɪɾ ʑɛɾ ]
* PRET-speak thus-OBJ Shengan great king, COPULA king of Kod, COPULA brother of sun and moon: before IMPERF-sit I-OBJ on throne of father-1sg:POS alas foreign all-PL-kingdom IMPERF-COPULA hostile to I

'''Aríe''' (c. 3700 YP)

* ''Khénejin Shéŋanwur lhíphwamwur arírwu’wur, arírwu’wur Khwálha, míu’wur aréjma wón thwára, sý: Ýrnw wétalwu’in aréi wój khejrezla é’a mýrér, ‘éx! Weŋin worwyraj urwurirwukar wowire’wo ýr aréi.''
* [ ˈkʰeː.ne.jin ˈʃeː.ŋɑ.nʷuɹ ˈɮiː.pʰʷɒ.mʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ | ˈɑ.ɹiː.ɹʷu.ʔʷuɹ ˈkʰʷɒː.ɮɑ | ˈmiːɯ.ʔʷuɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːj.mɑ woːn ˈtʰʷɒ.ɹɑ | sʉː ‖ ʉːɹnʷ ˈwøː.tɑ.lʷu.ʔin ˈɑ.ɹeː.i woːj ˈkʰej.ɹe.tɬɑ ˈeː.ʔɑ ˈmɨː.ɹeːɹ | ʔeːx | ˈwø.ŋin ˈwo.ɹʷʉ.ɹɑj ˈɯ.ɹʷu.ɹi.ɹʷu.kɑɹ ˈwo.wy.ɹe.ʔʷo ɨːɹ ˈɑ.ɹeːi ]

'''Arie''' (c. 4500 YP)

* ''Wùen Shehŋan arirù jurun, arirùai Kwohlh, mihùai arem won twà: ynw wetalwùin are woi keretl è my are, ehx! Wehŋ ihrarirù rwaurai xihreu y are.''
* [ ˈwṵ.ʔen ˈʃɛ.ŋɑn ˈʔɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ ˈjɯ.ɹun | ˈʔɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ.ʔɑj kʷɔɬ | ˈmi.hṵ.ʔɑj ˈʔɑ.ɹem won tʷɑ̰ ‖ ʔɨnʷ ˈwe.tɑ.lʷo̰jn ˈʔɑ.ɹe wɔj ˈke.ɹetɬ ḛ mɨ ʔɑ.ɹe | ʔɛx | wɛŋ ˈʔɪ.ɹɑ.ɹi.ɹṵ ˈrʷɑɤ.ɹɑj ˈxɪ.ɹeɤ ʔɨ ʔɑ.ɹe ]
* PAST-speak Shehŋan-ANP(1) king-ANP mighty king-AP Kwohlh-ANP brother-AP sun-ANP and moon-ANP: before PAST-sit I-ABS on throne-ANP of father-AP I-ABS, alas! PAST-be all-king-ANP foreign hostile to I-ABS

==== Southern Dāiadak ====
'''Aθáta''' (southern Rathedān, c. 1000 YP)

* ''Áfsian sif Síncan, θíscesor, θíscān Câθlas, méxθāx Sáma 'n Θálo: Ílnu ápin of-pacátiān mésein, ése θísclas rúlas ir écon ilín.''
* [ ˈav.ʒan ʃɪf ˈʃɪŋ.kan ˈθɪʃ.ce.zɔɾ ˈθɪs.kān ˈkāð.las ˈmeʝ.ðāx ˈsa.man ˈθa.lo ‖ ˈɪl.nu ˈa.pɪn ɔf.pa.ˈka.cān ˈme.zeɪn ˈe.ze ˈθɪs.klas ˈɾu.las ɪɾ ˈe.cɔn il.ˈɪn ]
* speak-IMP-3SG thus Síncan king=great king-3SG Cāθ=land brother-3PL Sun and Moon: before sit-HAB-1SG on throne-3SG father-1SG all country foreign be-PERF hostile to-1SG

'''E’át''' (Milīr valley, c. 1600 YP)

* ''Avlavan shif Shinkan, shiscazar, shisken Kelas, mlaka’en sam an sal: Aplin iln afpakáca’en mlazhin, ejavax shisklazax azhax rulazax akan ilín.''
* [ ˈav.lə.vən ʃif ˈʃiŋ.kən | ˈʃis.cə.zər | ˈʃis.keːn ˈkeː.ləs | ˈmla.kə.ʔeːn sam an sal ‖ ˈap.lin əf.pəˈka.cə.ʔeːn ˈmla.ʒin | ˈeːja.vax ˈʃis.klə.zəx ˈa.ʒəx ˈru.lə.zəx ˈa.kən iˈlin ]
* speak-PERF-3SG thus Shinkan, greatking, king-3SG Ke=land, brother-3SG sun and moon: sit-HAB-1SG before on-throne-3SG father-1SG, be-PERF-3PL country-PL all-PL foreign-PL hostile to-1SG-ACC

'''Yhát''' (c. 2400 YP)

* ''Tsínqan, tsískazar, tsísken Qáles, maláqan sám an sál, évvon tsif: Ilálpaj vin afpaqáken maládzin, aqóna hetsísklasa ádza rúlasa sin.''
* [ ˈʦiɴ.qən | ˈʦis.kə.zaʁ | ˈʦis.ken ˈqa.les | məˈla.qən sam an sal | ˈev.von ʦif ‖ iˈlal.paj vin əf.pəˈqa.ken məˈla.ʣin | əˈqo.nə heˈʦis.klə.sə ˈa.ʣə ˈʁu.lə.sə sin ]
* Tsínqan, greatking, king-POSS-3SG Qa=land, brother-POSS-3SG sun and moon, speak-PERF-3SG thus: SPRV-sit-INF 1SG-NOM on-throne-POS-3SG father-POSS-1SG, act.hostile-HAB-3PL PL-country-PL all-PL foreign-PL 1SG-DAT

'''Erhádzy''' (c. 3700 YP)

* ''Tşíşərheaƞ û, Kálesenə tşíşeaƞ û, saƞzál-məláʻeaƞ êwoƞ Tşíƞkaƞ tşy éulëıwoƞ: Məláınə pəkákufaƞ áıbiƞ íl, áınə sŏtógunio wíƞsaƞ əkónëıo.''
* [ 'ʨi.ɕə.ɹʰɛ.ɑ̃ː uː | ˈkɑ.lɛ.sɛ.nə ˈʨi.ɕɛ.ɑ̃ː uː | sɑ̃ːˈzɑl.mə.lɑ.ʔɛ.ɑ̃ː ˈeːwɔ̃ː ˈʨĩːkɑ̃ː ʨɨ ˈɛ.u.leː.wɔ̃ː ‖ məˈlɑː.nə pəˈkɑ.ku.ɸɑ̃ː ˈɑː.bĩː il | ˈɑː.nə səˈto.ɡu.ni.o ˈwĩː.sɑ̃ː əˈko.neː.o ]
* great.king-ESS be-INF, Kalese-GEN king-ESS be-INF, sun.and.moon-brother-ESS be-PST-3SG Tşínkan-TOP thus say-HON-INF-HAB-PST-3SG: father-GEN throne-ADESS sit-HAB-1SG before-TOP, all-GEN foreign.country-NOM 1SG-DAT act.hostile-INF-HAB-PST-3PL

==== Ferahic ====
'''Adhāsth''' (Thāraspē, c. 1000 YP)

* ''N.N.''

'''Ayāsthi''' (Thāraspē, c. 1600 YP)

* ''Әr-àuıw şìp, Sìnacaṅ, àeıen’aċ şèatşeıoac ġèzoar, ən-àeıen’aċ şèatşeıoac’a làh’a Cáġat, ən-àeıen’aċ méċat’a zàma əṅ tsálo: Éılany àfeıen’aı əv-ōfáċāseı’a mèşş’aı, èşş làh ġèıl əċ-ər-vèʒy àfeıen’aċa ēıll-ìṅ as’-géċoṁ.''
* [ əˈɹɑ.wy.u ˈʃip | ˈʃi.nɑ.kɑ̃ | ˈɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔk ˈɦɛ.zɔ˞ | əˈnɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈʃɛ.ɑ.ʧe.ɔ.kɑ ˈlɑ.hɑ ˈkɑː.ɦɑt | əˈnɑ.e.ɛ.nɑx ˈmɛː.xɑ.tɑ ˈzɑ.mɑ ə̃ ˈʦɑː.lo ‖ ˈeː.lɑ.nɨ ˈɑ.ɸe.ɛ.næ ə.woːˈɸɑː.xɑː.se.ɑ ˈmɛʃ.ʃæ | ˈɛʃː ˈlɑh ˈɦel ə.xəɹˈwɛ.ʒɨ ˈɑ.ɸe.ɛ.nɑ.xɑ eːlˈlĩ ɑsˈʔɛː.xɔ̃ ]
* 3SG-AFF-speak-AOR.HON thus, Sinacan, PST.SG-PTCP-3SG emperor great, and=PST.SG-PTCP-3SG emperor-POSS country-POSS Caghad, and=PST.SG-PTCP-3SG brother-POSS sun and moon: before sit-PTCP-1SG ADESS=throne-POSS father-1SG, all country foreign 3PL-AFF-be.PST.PL-IMP sit-PTCP-3PL ALLAT-1SG INST-hostile

'''Å’gåf''' (Republic of Fadah, c. 2500 YP)

* ''Åxø ødaɡanø xep Sinakha, dagdisakha øge gadoğ, dagdisakhahåxø øgølådåxø øgøxaxad, dagbaixåfåxok øgødåm åsø faul: åfenø øxø dødafåxø øgophakhathjahåxø øgøbaxøxø sol ailådø, ødaixodø daulåh agøxke nai.''
* [ ˈɑ.xø øˈdæ.gæ.nø xep ˈsi.næ.kʰæ | dægˈdi.sæ.kʰæ ˈø.gɛ ˈgæ.dɔɰ | dægˈdi.sæ.kʰæ.hɑ.xø ø.gøˈlɑ.dɑ.xø ø.gøˈxæ.xæd | dægˈbæɪ.xɑ.fɑ.xɔk ø.gøˈdɑm ˈɑ.sø fæʊl ‖ ˈɑ.fɛ.nø ˈø.xø døˈdæ.fɑ.xø øˈgo.pʰæ.kʰæ.tʰʲæ.hɑ.xø ø.gøˈbæ.xø.xø sɔl ˈæɪ.lɑ.dø øˈdæɪ.xɔ.dø ˈdæʊ.lɑh æˈgøx.kɛ næɪ ]
* 3SG PRV-speak-3SG.PRF thus Sinakha, ESS-king the great, ESS-king-POSS.3SG GEN-land-POSS.3SG GEN-Kaxad, ESS-brother-POSS.3PL GEN-sun and moon: sit-1SG.PRF 1SG DAT-top-POSS.3SG GEN-throne-POSS.3SG GEN-father-POSS.1SG when before, PRV-hostile-3PL.PRF rival.country all 1SG.DAT

'''Yïåf''' (c. 3200 YP)

* ''Èvön Sinhan, gierha garoï, gierha ögcahad, baïhåt öghèimènra årüö ögfaor årüö: gièzåt puöïåftün gièofhèr ögbah ngüö, råïauien aïac ögdaoråh nai.''
* [ ˈɛ.vø̃ ˈʃĩ.hæ̃ | ˈʝeʀ.ɦæ ˈɡæ.ʀoɯ | ˈʝeʀ.ɦæ øɡ.ɡæˈhæd | bæɯ.hɑt øɡ.ɦɛ̃iˈmɛ̃.ʀæ ɑˈʀy.ø øɡˈvæ.oʀ ɑˈʀy.ø ‖ ˈʝɛ.zɑt puˈø.ɰɑf.tỹ ˈʝɛ.of.hɛʀ øɡˈbæh ˈŋy.ø | ʀɑˈɰæu.jẽ æˈɰæk øɡ.dæˈo.ʀɑh næj ]
* speak-PST-PRF-3SG Sinhan, king great, king ADJ-Cahad, brother ADJ-sun yes ADJ-moon yes: INESS-time NEG-sit-PST-PRF-1SG INESS-throne ADJ-father 1SG-ERG, foreign.country every ADJ-enemy 1SG-DAT

'''Ghaf''' (c. 3900 YP)

* ''Hyep jevö Šihä, jerhä garoğ ghe, jerhä jeKähäd, baghat dühiymrä äryö, dufaor äryö: Rëzat, retähyö darsoyaftu yehyö jöfer rebähöh, räghävrefäk äghöd hïrëho nay.''
* [ çɛ́p ˈʤɛ́vœ ʃiˈhæ̂ | ʤɛˈr̻æ̂ ɡɑˈrɔ̂ɰ ɣɛ́ | ʤɛˈr̻æ̂ ʤɛ.kæˈhæ̂d | bɑˈɣɑ̂t dy.hɪjmˈræ̀ æˈrʲœ̂ | duˈfɑ́or æˈrʲœ̂ ‖ rʌˈzɑ́t | rɛ.tæˈçœ̂ dɑr.sɔˈjɑ́f.tu jɛˈçœ̂ ʤœˈfɛ̂r rɛˈbǽ.hœh | ræ.ɣævˈrɛ̀.fæk æˈɣœ́d hɯ.rʌˈhɔ̀ náj ]
* thus SBJV-speak-3SG.PST Šihä, king[ABS] great DEF.SG, king[ABS] LOC-Kähäd, brother[ABS] DAT-sun and DAT-moon and: ABL-time ABL-REL SBJV.NEG-sit-1SG.MOD 1SG.ABS LOC-throne ABL-father=my, foreign.country[ABS]-PL all hostile 1SG.DAT

==== Khalanic ====
'''Mavakhalan''' (Khalanu, c. 1000 YP)

* ''Źnaką, źmêjenaka jêv-žzakǫ xezor, ǫ-jêv-śjąžzaka aźnla akoxaðą, ǫ-jêv-śjênmêka azama ǫ-aþolǫ, rovʼ śjêś: Ilan rope jê ov-źnôpokoťja aśjênmezej, roirapê eze śjêžzakalaso rula ate-hêkǫ ila-ję.''
* [ ˈʒna.kɑ̃ | ˈʒme.jɛ̃.na.ka jeβˈʒ̩.za.kɔ̃ ˈxɛ.zɔɹ | ɔ̃.jeβ.ʃɑ̃ˈʑ̩.za.ka aʒ.n̩ˈla aˈkɔ.xa.ðɑ̃ | ɔ̃.jeβ.ʃẽnˈme.ka aˈzɑ̃.ma ɔ̃.aˈθɔ.lɔ̃ | rɔβʲ ʃeʃ ‖ ˈi.lɑ̃n rɔˈpɛ je ɔβ.ʒnoˈpɔ.kɔʨ.ja a.ʃẽnˈmɛ.zɛj | rɔiˈra.pe ˈɛ.zɛ ʃeˈʑ̩.za.ka.la.sɔ ˈru.la a.tɛˈhe.kɔ̃ ˈi.la.jɛ̃ ]
* Źnakan-NOM, live-PTCP-3SG ESS=king-ACC.SG great, and=ESS=DEF.ACC.SG-king-CONS GEN-DEF.ACC.SG-land-CONS GEN-Koxadh-ACC.SG, and=ESS=DEF.ACC.SG-brother-CONS GEN-sun-CONS and=GEN-moon-ACC.SG, IND-speak-HAB.SG thus: before IND-sit-HAB.SG 1SG.NOM ADESS=DEF.ACC.SG-throne-CONS GEN-DEF.ACC.SG-father-1SG ANTIBEN-sit-IMP.PL all DEF.NOM-kingdom-NOM.PL foreign INST=hostile DAT=1SG.ACC

==== Koyic ====
'''Kozado''' (Abukho/NW Khalanu, c. 1200 YP)

* ''Ze Senoko, ze šerú šazu, ze ðezoklo kahodo ze šerú ok, ze Zom pa ze Thal ze mekot oka, ro abes sep: Ilo e ro o oth ze mez oz ze pakeþe ok apeža, ez ðezoklo rylo ro ba šeko il oz.''
* [ ze ˈse.no.ko | ze ɕeˈru ˈɕa.zu | ze ˈðe.zok.lo ˈka.ho.do ze ɕeˈru ok | ze zom pa ze tʰal ze ˈme.kot oka | ro ˈa.bes sep ‖ ˈi.lo e ro o otʰ ze mez oz ze ˈpa.ke.θe ok ˈa.pe.ʑa | ez ˈðe.zok.lo ˈrɨ.lo ro ba ˈɕe.ko il oz ]

=== Fáralo languages ===

==== Fáralo ====
(Huyfárah, c. 100 YP)

* ''Siš Siənčæn ebí, kraš lu-diágə æm lu-laš Kazəgad ouwa lu-meokát æm lu-iodol luŋ-iəboun, sip: Isə lu-epén i na epélo æm æč badew, ædešei ege lu-klaš heil iəm čosk.''
* [ siʃ ˈsi.ən.ʧæn ɛˈbi | kraʃ lu.diˈa.ɡə æm luˈlaʃ ˈka.zə.ɡad ˈo.wa lu.mewˈkat æm luˈiw.dɔl luˈŋi.ə.bon | sip ‖ ˈi.sə lu.ɛˈpɛn i na ɛˈpɛlɔ æm æʧ ˈba.dew | ˈæ.dɛ.ʃe ˈɛ.ɡɛ luˈklaʃ hel ˈi.əm ʧɔsk ]
* NULL.AUX Siənčæn speak, brave the-Edák.ruler to.it the-land Kazəgad and the-younger.brother to.them the-sun the-moon-and, thus: before the-sit-PST I in chair to.him my father, stay-PST.PL all the.PL-land foreign to.me hostile

==== Namɨdu====
(Southern Huyfárah, c. 1100 YP)

* ''Sis Sɨntsen, kros atsak yelos Akozyad, wa amekot yelɨdoł wa yeluñɨb, me bi: Isłu hyeppen i mu lepeło yebodde i epe, sed yak kasyoł ɨm uro esnek.''
* [ sis ˈsɨn.ʦɛn | kɾʌs ɐˈʦak jɛˈlʌs ɐˈkʌz.jad | wɐ ɐˈmɛ.kʌt jɛˈlɨ.dʌʟ wɐ jɛˈlu.ɲɨb | mɛ bi ‖ ˈis.ʟu ˈhjɛp.pɛn i mu lɛˈpɛ.ʟɔ jɛˈbʌd.dɛ i ˈɛ.pɛ | ˈsɛd jak kɐˈsjʌʟ ɨm ˈu.ɾɔ ˈɛs.nɛk ]
* NULL.AUX Tsinakan / brave APP-king DAT-land APP-Kasadgad / and APP-younger.brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon / speak QUOT / before start-PAST I on throne DAT-father I sit / NULL.AUX-IMP all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile act-PL

== Source ==

The Tsinakan text is not an original creation. Rather, it is an ancient Hittite text [http://www.premiumwanadoo.com/cuneiform.languages/en_trad_KBo_III_4_obv_col1.htm] which was edited and abridged by [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]] for use in Akana. As can be seen, some of the peculiar English usage in the text (e.g. "oxes") is comes straight from the Hittite translation and is not due to any error on our part.

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Edastean languages|*{{PAGENAME}}]]

Tlaliolz

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

= History =

The Tlaliolz ([[Fáralo]]: ''Talo'') were a people living in the forest of [[Lu Tal]] north of the [[Aiwa valley|Eigə river]], to the west of [[Huyfárah]] and northeast of [[Lasomo]].

Legends say that the Tlaliolz and the [[Ndak empire|Ndak]] were once one people, but that they split when the
Tlaliolz turned their backs on Ombasi in favor of a new religion. These tales are doubtful, as the Tlaliolz were
worshipping a mother goddess they called ''Adasi'', so perhaps there was another reason for the split, lost in
the mists of time. They largely escaped the later Ndak conquests by packing up and moving into the deep
forests north of the river, into which armies had great difficulty penetrating.

In classical times the Tlaliolz suddenly came to historic significance: During the Etou Civil War in Huyfárah, a group of Fáralo rebels called the ''Epuonim'' (or [[Puoni]]) escaped into the Tal in 295 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. They were welcomed and sheltered by the natives, and in time these two groups became one people. However, in 318-319 YP the Huyfárah emperor [[Etou III]] set out to invade the Tal, conquered it, and deported 2/3 of its population to Ussor as slaves. The remaining Talo and Puoni fled south, crossed the Eigə river, and finally settled in the land of [[Kuaguatia]] southwest of [[Kasca]].

* ''A more detailed account of these events can be found [[Huyfárah#Civil_War|here]].''

= Language =

== Genealogy ==
Tlaliolz is the only known language of the Talo branch of Talo-Edastean, which in turn is part of the larger Macro-Edastean family. It is most closely related to [[Ndak Ta]], the language of the ancient [[Ndak empire]], and [[Andagg]], spoken on the upper Bwimbai. Another, more remote relative of Tlaliolz is [[Proto-Xoronic]], the ancestor of the [[Habeo languages]] and [[Damak]].

* Proto-Macro-Edastean (c. -3500 YP)
** Proto-Talo-Edastean (c. -2500 YP)
*** Andaggic
**** [[Andagg]] (c. -1900 YP)
*** Talo
**** '''Tlaliolz''' (wordlist from 300 YP)
*** Edastean
**** [[Ndak Ta]] (c. -1900 YP)
***** [[Edastean languages]]
** [[Proto-Xoronic]] (c. -2500 YP)

== Attested words ==

The only currently known words of the Tlaliolz language around 300 YP are the following:

* ''falzam'' - birch
* ''k’eomun'' - daisy
* ''qʷotsfeloz'' - flight, exodus
* ''qʷotsfi'' - to flee
* ''q’utɬa'' - sack
* ''līk’litsa'' - ash (tree)
* ''lōfleātsa'' - ring
* ''mak’āt'' - hat
* ''meotɬo'' - to freeze
* ''mētɬatso'' - shoe
* ''moyanāta'' - ??? (definition is missing)
* ''naokʷi'' - fur
* ''nazwā'' - wren
* ''nāsqak'' - pain
* ''setiek'' - longbow
* ''sūzatsa'' - press
* ''tayolam'' - bronze
* ''teatsi'' - arrow
* ''tastsefa'' - tin
* ''tatstɬik’'' - shirt, tunic
* ''tiliozo'' - principle, conviction
* ''toezo'' - to pack
* ''tɬaliolz'' - the Tlaliolz people
* ''tɬeyōk’ā'' - blue jay
* ''tuq’antis'' - gemstone

== Phoneme inventory ==

=== Consonants ===

This seems sufficient to reconstruct a phoneme inventory. Some thoughts about it:
* No /p/ occurs in the list. We could posit it, but I kinda like the idea of the /f/ actually being [ɸ] coming from erosion of former *p. The [ɸ] realization is supported by pre-Puoni dropping the sound from loans despite having had /f/ in its inventory at the time.
* Ejective and labialized versions of /k/ and /q/ occur - so it seems reasonable to asume there would also be a set that are ejective plus labialized, despite their not appearing in this list.
* The only voiced obstruent is /z/, which probably does not represent a purely voicing-based contrast with /s/ since voicing is not contrastive elsewhere. Instead the /z/ may have been rhotic-like, or differed from /s/ in precise POA, or in apicality/laminality - or any combination of these. In the table below I'll assume that /z/ was a dental approximant.
* There is no evidence here of any /ŋ/ or /ɴ/, but they might simply not occur in these particular words. There may also have been labialised versions of these since /ŋʷ/ is common in Ndak Ta.

This gives us:

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! !! labial !! dental !! alveolar !! lateral !! velar !! labio-velar !! uvular !! labio-uvular
|- align="center"
! plosive
| style="color:#666666" | (p)
| t || ʦ || tɬ || k || kʷ || q || qʷ
|- align="center"
! ejective
| || || || || k’
| style="color:#666666" | (kʷ‘)
| q’
| style="color:#666666" | (qʷ’)
|- align="center"
! nasal
| m || || n ||
| style="color:#666666" | (ŋ)
| style="color:#666666" | (ŋʷ)
| style="color:#666666" | (ɴ)
| style="color:#666666" | (ɴʷ)
|- align="center"
! fricative
| ɸ || || s || || || || ||
|- align="center"
! approximant
| || z || || l || j || w || ||
|-
|}

=== Vowels ===

* Tlaliolz appears to have had a fairly standard five-vowel system with a length distinction.
* Vowel sequences that are known to occur are '''ie io ea eo oe ao''', but they may not really be phonemic diphthongs if the phonology allowed vowels to occur freely in hiatus.

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! !! front !! central !! back
|- align="center"
! high
| i · iː || || u · uː
|- align="center"
! mid
| e · eː || || o · oː
|- align="center"
! low
| || a · aː ||
|-
|}

=== Further notes ===

* The note from which we get ''Adasi'' (cognate with NT ''Ombasi'') came from the Ndak era, two millennia earlier than the above list. So there is no particular reason to believe that Fáralo-era Tlaliolz retained a /d/.
* NT arose from a parent stock which had uvulars; the nasal vowels came from loss of a former */ɴ/, and a former */q/ merged with /k/ in pre-Ndak. So I'd be willing to bet that the uvular stops are retentions, not innovations.
* Where did the ejectives come from? I couldn't say, but here's one possibility. I see an /nt/ cluster in the list, but no clusters of nasal plus dorsal stop. So perhaps the old */ŋk/ and */ɴq/ clusters are the source of /k’ q’/ (a similar development to Adata's getting aspirated stops from the same clusters). Given the frequency of /ŋkw/ in NT though, if this is indeed the origin of Tl. ejectives, I would definitely expect to see some /kʷ’ qʷ’/.
* Where did the /tɬ/ come from? Maybe some vowels were lost between unvoiced plosives (most likely */t/, but maybe */k/ as well) and */l/.
* It should be noted that ''Ombasi'' was not a single root, but a compound of ''omo''+''dasi'' (mother+goddess). So we don't need to posit a POA switcheroo in Tlaliolz, as its /d/ in ''Adasi'' is original. It was NT that had the unusual rule of stops assimilating to prior nasals (this is why NT -bu has reflexes of -du and -gu, or similar, in various daughters). And further, it is likely that only the -dasi/-basi portions are directly cognate, with the Tlaliolz a- not being related to omo.

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Akana languages]]

Proto-Xoronic/Lexicon

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
What follows is not so much a lexicon of [[Proto-Xoronic]] but a list of its morphemes, some of which are grammaticalized (and thus nonlexical).

{| {{bluetable2}}

|-
| style="background:#ccccff!important; color:black!important; font-weight:bold!important" align="left" | morpheme
| style="background:#ccccff!important; color:black!important; font-weight:bold!important" align="left" | irreg. forms
| style="background:#ccccff!important; color:black!important; font-weight:bold!important" align="left" | part of speech
| style="background:#ccccff!important; color:black!important; font-weight:bold!important" align="left" | gloss
|-
| :qə || || nominal suffix || absolutive dual suffix (on pronouns, applied to sing./dual form)
|-
| a:h || || n. suffix || many (used with collectives and count nouns)
|-
| a:ha || oha:-, oha:- || n. || unmarried woman
|-
| a:ha || oha:-, oha:- || poss. n. || daughter
|-
| a:hah || || final || well, in a good way, with good results
|-
| a:hah || || n.p. || good
|-
| a:hapə || aha:hapə-, ma:hapə || n. || boy
|-
| a:hapə || aha:hapə-, ma:hapə || poss. n. || son
|-
| a:hi || || mass || snow
|-
| a:hi || || n. || flurry
|-
| a:ho || || n.p. || chief, head
|-
| a:hpe || || erg. v1 || freeze
|-
| a:hsa || || preverb || stop, cease
|-
| a:lle || || mass || light
|-
| a:lle || alle:ti, alle:- || n. || day, period of daylight
|-
| a:mu || || acc. v1 || spit
|-
| a:na || || acc. v1 || descend
|-
| a:ne || || mass || hair
|-
| a:ne || || n. || hair
|-
| a:nəta || || poss. n. || body
|-
| a:nkoqqə || || n.p. || askew, crooked, wrong
|-
| a:nqəta: || || erg. v2 || need
|-
| a:nqəta: || || preverb || need to
|-
| a:pohi || || mass || fruit
|-
| a:ppo || || n. || farmer
|-
| a:sonqu || -, ma:sonqu || n. || flower
|-
| a:ttə || || acc. v2 || take care of, tend to
|-
| a:ttə || || erg. v2 || store, keep
|-
| a:ttu || || erg. v2 || promise
|-
| a:ttu || || erg. v3 || promise
|-
| a || || n. suffix || third person human singular possessive ("his", "her")
|-
| a || || pron. || third person human singular ("him" or "her"), 3rd p. human dual ("those two") (pl. form is ok)
|-
| ahənqa:h || || coll. || sign, tracks
|-
| ahəpo || || erg. v1 || cheer up
|-
| ahəpo || || n.p. || happy
|-
| ahəttih || || mass || water
|-
| ahəttih || || n. || river
|-
| ahətto:nkə || || mass || saltwater
|-
| ahətto:nkə || || n. || sea
|-
| ahləni || || final || unclearly, with circumlocutions
|-
| ahləni || || n.p. || unclear, obscured
|-
| ahləni || || preverb || in the dark, in unclear conditions
|-
| ahnaqqən || || acc. v1 || dry out
|-
| ahnaqqən || || acc. v2 || dry
|-
| ahnaqqən || || n.p. || dry
|-
| aho:kon || || poss. n. || father's father
|-
| aho:muh || || poss. n. || father's mother
|-
| ahtə || || prep. || to
|-
| ahtətə || || prep. || towards
|-
| alatti || || mass || sky
|-
| alatti || || n. || weather condition
|-
| alpo || || erg. v1 || rest
|-
| amma:soh || || n. || snake
|-
| amma || || final || clandestinely, sneakily
|-
| amma || || n. || worm
|-
| ana:ne || || poss. n. || head of hair
|-
| anəhtu || || erg. v2 || learn, meet, know (personally)
|-
| anqa || || coll. || air
|-
| anqə || || prep. || by, by means of
|-
| apaqqə || || erg. v1 || sin, commit a crime
|-
| appəhma || || final || moderately
|-
| aqətinqəh || || n. || captive
|-
| aqsu || || n.p. || ugly
|-
| as || || prep. || without, besides, except for
|-
| asəhtonqə || || v0 || be windy
|-
| asi || || mass || fire
|-
| asinə || || acc. v2 || split, divide
|-
| asinə || || erg. v1 || divide, split up (oneselves)
|-
| asinə || || erg. v2 || share
|-
| asinə || || preverb || to each other, reciprocally (decreases v by 1)
|-
| asne: || || acc. v1 || fly, swim
|-
| asne: || || erg. v2 || fly to, swim to
|-
| asp || || voice || causative
|-
| aspah || || acc. v2 || create, make
|-
| aspahpah || || erg. v1 || was born (pres. tense only morphologically, past tense only semantically)
|-
| ata:hmə || || preverb || northwards
|-
| atta || || prep. || into
|-
| atti || || acc. v1 || stand up
|-
| atti || || acc. v2 || stand up, help up, prop up
|-
| atti || || erg. v1 || stand
|-
| atti || || preverb || perfect aspect
|-
| e:nka || enko:ti, e:nko- || n. || thing
|-
| e:nkohi || || mass || liver
|-
| e:nkohi || || poss. n. || liver
|-
| e || || modal || imperative (only 2nd person subj.)
|-
| e || || n. suffix || first person singular possessive ("my")
|-
| e || || pron. || first person singular ("me"), 1st p. exclusive dual ("him/her/it and me") (pl. form is hik)
|-
| ehəpi || || erg. v1 || experience
|-
| eho || || n. suffix || all, every
|-
| eholah || || coll. || darkness
|-
| eholah || ehola:ti, ehola:h- || n. || night, period of darkness
|-
| ehpəhma:p || || acc. v1 || lose weight, starve (usu. without implic. of death) (neg. connot., unlike mahlulu)
|-
| ehpəhma:p || || n.p. || light
|-
| ekku || || acc. v2 || kill
|-
| eklipuhi || || coll. || twentyfour
|-
| eklo:hi || || coll. || twentythree
|-
| eklo || || coll. || twenty
|-
| ekloki || || coll. || twentyone
|-
| eklokiki || || coll. || twentytwo
|-
| ekloliski || || coll. || twentynine
|-
| eklotaməmo:hi || || coll. || twentyeight
|-
| eklotohi || || coll. || twentyfive
|-
| eklottəki || || coll. || twentysix
|-
| eklottəkiki || || coll. || twentyseven
|-
| em || || acc. v2 || turn
|-
| ema: || || n. || symbol, sign
|-
| ema: || || poss. n. || name
|-
| emem || || acc. v1 || turn, spin, revolve
|-
| empəhma || || erg. v2 || use
|-
| empəhma || || preverb || so as to, for the purpose of (adds a subordinate clause as an argument)
|-
| emsana || || v0 || flood
|-
| enaqətta || || erg. v2 || know about, be familiar with (impersonal)
|-
| enka:nqi || || coll. || war
|-
| enka:nqi || || n. || war
|-
| epakək || || erg. v2 || irritate
|-
| epə || || complementizer || how, manner or instrumental complementizer
|-
| epəta:nqək || || v0 || be bright, sunny
|-
| eppi:hi || || coll. || one hundred three
|-
| eppi:hilo || || coll. || one hundred thirty
|-
| eppi || || n. || hundred
|-
| eppi || || n. || the Moon
|-
| eppiki || || coll. || one hundred one
|-
| eppikiki || || coll. || one hundred two
|-
| eppiklo || || coll. || one hundred twenty
|-
| eppiliski || || coll. || one hundred nine
|-
| eppiliskilo || || coll. || one hundred ninety
|-
| eppilo || || coll. || one hundred ten
|-
| eppiloki || || coll. || one hundred eleven
|-
| eppipuhi || || coll. || one hundred four
|-
| eppipuhilo || || coll. || one hundred forty
|-
| eppitaməmo:hi || || coll. || one hundred eight
|-
| eppitaməmo:hilo || || coll. || one hundred eighty
|-
| eppitohi || || coll. || one hundred five
|-
| eppitohilo || || coll. || one hundred fifty
|-
| eppittəki || || coll. || one hundred six
|-
| eppittəkiki || || coll. || one hundred seven
|-
| eppittəkikilo || || coll. || one hundred seventy
|-
| eppittəkilo || || coll. || one hundred sixty
|-
| esəka:mlə || -, ma:səka:mlə || n. || story
|-
| etahənqə || || poss. n. || elder
|-
| etlə || || modal || atelic
|-
| ettə || || n.p. || another, more
|-
| ettəki || || coll. || six
|-
| ettəkiki || || coll. || seven
|-
| ettəkikilo || || coll. || seventy
|-
| ettəkilo || || coll. || sixty
|-
| ə:h || || poss. n. || female cousin
|-
| ə:kate:h || || final || by horse
|-
| ə:kate:h || || n. || horse
|-
| ə:məme || || n. || fly
|-
| ə:muh || || poss. n. || mother, aunt, mother's mother, or mother's sister
|-
| ə:n || || acc. v2 || inhabit, farm, make use of (of land)
|-
| ə:pa:nqə || || n. || swamp
|-
| əha: || || n.p. || foreign
|-
| əha || || prep. || out of, outside of
|-
| əhka:t || || n. || door
|-
| əhmalmu || || n.p. || heavy
|-
| əhmoppo || || erg. v2 || remember
|-
| əhpa:spi || || coll. || sand
|-
| əhpap || || n. || shield
|-
| əhpitta || || acc. v2 || spill
|-
| əhqə || || n. || cow, steer, head of cattle
|-
| əhtam || || preverb || away from the river
|-
| əhtanqa || || n. || chief, headman
|-
| əkal || || n. || knife
|-
| əkanqəka || || n.p. || angry
|-
| əkaq || || pron. || that
|-
| əkəh || || n. || path
|-
| əkəkaq || || n. || there
|-
| əkikko || || acc. v2 || stiffen, make rigid, hold still
|-
| əkikko || || n.p. || stiff, rigid
|-
| əkikkoko || || erg. v1 || become thick, stiff (of a liquid)
|-
| əkka:l || || prep. || until, as far as
|-
| əkkanko || || erg. v1 || laugh
|-
| əkkaplo || || acc. v2 || augment, strengthen
|-
| əkkaplo || || n.p. || thick
|-
| əkkas || || n.p. suffix || very
|-
| əkketti || || acc. v2 || scrape
|-
| əkkə:s || || final || by foot, by use of the feet, by walking
|-
| əkkə:s || əkke:sti, - || n. || foot
|-
| əkkimpo || || acc. v2 || sharpen
|-
| əkkimpo || || initial || slender rigid object
|-
| əkkimpo || || n.p. || sharp
|-
| əkkimpo || əkkimpo:ti, əkkimpo: || n. || stick
|-
| əkkimpotekkonqə || || n. || whetstone
|-
| əkko || || nominal adjectivalizing suffix || -like, with the manner of
|-
| əkko || || prep. || like, as, in the manner of
|-
| əkkoknə || || preverb || backwards, back
|-
| əkkolo || || n.p. || old (nonhuman)
|-
| əkoho || || acc. v2 || sharpen
|-
| əkoho || || n.p. || sharp
|-
| əkohtə || || acc. v2 || dull, blunt
|-
| əkohtə || || n.p. || dull, blunted
|-
| əkum || || n.p. || high
|-
| əkwa:n || || acc. v2 || chew
|-
| əkwa:n || || erg. v1 || chew
|-
| əloqhipmə || || final || incompetently
|-
| əm || || conj. || and
|-
| əmə || || initial || mushy matter
|-
| əmpehqi || || n.p. || necessary
|-
| əmpi || || acc. v1 || sit down
|-
| əmpi || || erg. v1 || sit
|-
| ən || || vb. suffix || perfective
|-
| ənkahta || || acc. v2 || have sex with
|-
| ənkahta || || erg. v1 || sleep
|-
| ənkahta || || erg. v2 || sleep with, beside
|-
| ənkani || || n. || neck, handle, narrow part
|-
| ənkippa || || final || deeply, pervasively
|-
| ənkippa || || n. || root
|-
| ənkippa || || poss. n. || toe
|-
| ənko:h || || n. || fur, hide
|-
| ənko:nqə || || erg. v2 || believe, trust in
|-
| ənko:nqə || || erg. v3 || trust ... about
|-
| ənko || || n. suffix || a few (used with collectives and count nouns)
|-
| ənnəto:n || || acc. v2 || clean away, expunge, drive out
|-
| ənnəto:n || || n.p. || pure, clean
|-
| ənnəto:non || || acc. v1 || boil water
|-
| əntəti || || mass || blood
|-
| əpah || opa:n, opa:- || n. || ox
|-
| əpakəkək || || erg. v1 || be abrasive, be irritating
|-
| əpakəkək || || n.p. || rough
|-
| əpana: || || erg. v2 || worship
|-
| əpanqəpo || || mass || rope
|-
| əpanqəpo || || n. || rope
|-
| əpappul || || mass || strength
|-
| əpaqqeli || || acc. v3 || get ... from, be given ... by
|-
| əpaqqeli || || erg. v2 || have
|-
| əpaqqəli || || acc. v2 || get, acquire
|-
| əpas || || erg. v1 || whisper
|-
| əpat || || n.p. || knowledgeable, learned
|-
| əpəmpe || || acc. v2 || lose at, be beaten at
|-
| əpəmpə || || acc. v3 || lose ... to
|-
| əpippo || || acc. v2 || rub, massage
|-
| əpispi || || erg. v2 || reprimand
|-
| əpma || -, epma:- || n. || star
|-
| əpmikkul || || acc. v2 || buy
|-
| əpmikkul || || acc. v3 || pay ... for
|-
| əpo:tə || || conj. || either ... or
|-
| əpo || || preverb || again
|-
| əponətu || || acc. v2 || stab
|-
| əppa:ho || əppa:hti, - || n. || fish
|-
| əppap || || coll. || music
|-
| əppəta: || || poss. n. || home, source
|-
| əppi || || prep. || between, among
|-
| əppinqə || || v0 || be raining
|-
| əppipo || || n.p. || guilty
|-
| əppistə: || || acc. v2 || organize
|-
| əppistə: || || final || sequentially, systematically
|-
| əppistə: || || mass || organization, order
|-
| əppistə: || || n. || ordering, organizational scheme, methodology
|-
| əppistə: || || n.p. || ordered, organized
|-
| əppol || || acc. v2 || shorten, compress, abridge
|-
| əppol || || initial || flat flexible object
|-
| əppol || || n.p. || short
|-
| əppuhme: || || acc. v2 || push
|-
| əppula || || n. || stranger
|-
| əppula || || n.p. || strange, novel
|-
| əppunəmo || || acc. v2 || carry
|-
| əptətən || || n. || penis
|-
| əpuhmit || || acc. v2 || warm
|-
| əpuhmitət || || erg. v1 || be warm
|-
| əpuhmitət || || n.p. || warm
|-
| əpuhmitət || || poss. n. || lover
|-
| əpuhtə || || n.p. || to the (usu. addressee's) right
|-
| əqa:hlun || || coll. || steppe
|-
| əqa:pla || əqeple:n, əqeple:- || n. || sheep
|-
| əqa:to || -, ma:qato || n. || rabbit
|-
| əqqokoh || || erg. v1 || lie
|-
| əqqokoh || || erg. v2 || deceive
|-
| əs || || preverb || occasionally
|-
| əta:nkə || || n. || hill, slope
|-
| əta:tə || || preverb || this year
|-
| ətahə || || acc. v2 || fight
|-
| ətas || || conj. || but
|-
| ətehmo:ki || || acc. v1 || search
|-
| ətehmo:ki || || acc. v2 || search for
|-
| əteqqa || || final || emotionally, out of emotion, in the heat of the moment
|-
| əteqqa || || n.p. || emotional, of the emotions
|-
| əteto || || n. || male, masculine
|-
| əteto || ətetu:n, ətetu:- || n. || male (usu. animal)
|-
| ətət || || modal || durative (applied to a usu. punctual vb.)
|-
| ətətti || || n. || yonder
|-
| ətiho || || erg. v2 || make normal, disguise, conceal
|-
| ətiho || || n.p. || normal
|-
| əto || || n.p. || full, complete
|-
| əto || || pron. || second person singular ("you"), 2nd p. dual ("you two", "you and him/her/it") (pl. form is tuk)
|-
| ətoha: || || acc. v2 || bleach
|-
| ətoha: || || erg. v1 || be bright
|-
| ətoha: || || erg. v2 || light up, reveal
|-
| ətoha: || || mass || brightness
|-
| ətoha: || || n.p. || white, bright
|-
| ətohi || || coll. || five
|-
| ətohilo || || coll. || fifty
|-
| ətohippi || || coll. || five hundred
|-
| ətohten || || n.p. || solemn, regal
|-
| ətta:lə || || n. || lamp, lantern
|-
| əttampe || || acc. v2 || give away
|-
| əttampe || || acc. v3 || give
|-
| əttanqi || || acc. v1 || soak
|-
| əttanqi || || acc. v2 || soak
|-
| əttanqi || || initial || soft round object
|-
| əttanqi || || n.p. || soft
|-
| əttapme || || acc. v2 || soil, get dirty
|-
| əttapme || || n.p. || dirty
|-
| ətte:moh || || poss. mass || love
|-
| ətte:n || || acc. v2 || kiss
|-
| əttesa:nqa || || n. || walking stick
|-
| ətti || || pron. || yon
|-
| əttinom || || erg. v1 || breathe
|-
| ətto || || modal || should
|-
| əttokikippi || || coll. || seven hundred
|-
| əttokippi || || coll. || six hundred
|-
| əttu:le || || mass || tomorrow
|-
| əttu:le || || n.p. || tomorrow's
|-
| əttu:le || || preverb || tomorrow
|-
| əttuha || || complementizer || why, reason complementizer
|-
| ətuppo || || acc. v2 || sniff
|-
| ətuppo || || erg. v2 || smell
|-
| h || || nominal suffix || plural absolutive suffix
|-
| ha: || || n.p. || blue
|-
| ha:h || || n.p. || female, feminine
|-
| ha:h || he:ti, he:- || n. || female (usu. animal)
|-
| ha:honkə || || preverb || southwards
|-
| ha:mu || || poss. n. || father's sister
|-
| haqqəpapəm || || acc. v1 || climb, rise
|-
| haqqəpapəm || || acc. v2 || raise, lift
|-
| hattə || || erg. v2 || know that (obj. arg. is clausal)
|-
| hattəqo || || erg. v2 || know how to (obj. arg. is clausal)
|-
| he:m || || n. || cloud
|-
| hekinqəta || || erg. v2 || control, influence
|-
| heskun || || n.p. || large body of people, nation
|-
| heskun || || n.p. || populous, well-populated
|-
| hə || || mass || meat
|-
| həka:tla || || mass || wood
|-
| həka:tla || || n. || log
|-
| həpə || || acc. v2 || swallow
|-
| həpə || || erg. v2 || drink
|-
| həpəpə || || erg. v1 || drink
|-
| həttitto || || mass || metal
|-
| həttitto || || n. || metal implement
|-
| hi:m || || mass || luck, serendipity
|-
| hi:m || || n. || windfall, occurance of luck
|-
| hi:m || || n.p. || lucky
|-
| hi || || n. || fist
|-
| hi || || vb. suffix || future tense
|-
| hik || || pron. || first person exclusive plural ("them and me") (sing./dual form is e)
|-
| himoha: || || erg. v1 || rot
|-
| himoha: || || n.p. || rotten
|-
| himohe:nka || || coll. || wood rot, termite colony
|-
| ho: || || modal || iterative (applied to a usu. punctual vb.)
|-
| ho:se || || complementizer || when, temporal complementizer
|-
| hohi: || -, ma:hohi: || n. || mouse
|-
| honkim || || mass || tea
|-
| hota: || || mass || sweat
|-
| hota:muh || || n. || mother
|-
| hotami:pohi || || n. || father
|-
| hu:k || || n. || fence
|-
| hu:mu || || acc. v1 || make a mistake, err
|-
| hu:mu || || n.t. || wrong
|-
| huhka:t || || n. || gate
|-
| huhu:k || || n. || wall
|-
| huqo || || erg. v2 || blame
|-
| i:təha:m || i:təha:pi, - || poss. n. || arm
|-
| ih || || modal || hortative
|-
| ihəma || || acc. v2 || sew
|-
| iho || || complementizer || absolutive relative clause complementizer
|-
| ihos || || acc. v2 || take
|-
| ihos || || acc. v3 || take ... from
|-
| ihsa || || prep. || before
|-
| ik || || n. suffix || first person exclusive plural possessive ("my and their")
|-
| ikipmə || || final || poorly, in a bad way, with bad effect
|-
| ikipmə || || n.p. || bad
|-
| ikkuk || || n. suffix || first person inclusive plural possessive ("my and you two's" or more, "my, your, and his/her/its", "my, your, and their")
|-
| ikkuk || || pron. || first person inclusive plural ("me and you two" or more, "me, you, and him/her/it", "me, you, and them") (dual form is sa:kə)
|-
| iklanə || || acc. v2 || scratch
|-
| iko || || acc. v2 || build up, stablize
|-
| iko || || n.p. || solid, stable
|-
| ikti || || n. suffix || first person exclusive dual possessive ("my and his/her/its")
|-
| immesə || || preverb || up
|-
| imo || || poss. n. || head
|-
| in || || n.p. suffix || comparative/superlative/equalitive
|-
| ina || || erg. v2 || see
|-
| intəhattə || || erg. v2 || be in favor of (obj. arg. is clausal)
|-
| ipəle || || acc. v2 || beat, best
|-
| ippi: || || coll. || grass
|-
| ippulə || || acc. v1 || fish
|-
| ipsi || || preverb || toward the river
|-
| ipu || || final || nearly, almost
|-
| ipu || || n.p. || nearly a
|-
| ipuhi || || coll. || four
|-
| ipuhilipuhi || || coll. || fortyfour
|-
| ipuhilo:hi || || coll. || fortythree
|-
| ipuhilo || || coll. || forty
|-
| ipuhiloki || || coll. || fortyone
|-
| ipuhilokiki || || coll. || fortytwo
|-
| ipuhiloliski || || coll. || fortynine
|-
| ipuhilotaməmo:hi || || coll. || fortyeight
|-
| ipuhilotohi || || coll. || fortyfive
|-
| ipuhilottəki || || coll. || fortysix
|-
| ipuhilottəkiki || || coll. || fortyseven
|-
| ipuhippi || || coll. || four hundred
|-
| isəke || || n.p. || clean
|-
| iske || || erg. v1 || be burnt
|-
| iske || || erg. v2 || burn, char, singe
|-
| iske || || mass || charcoal
|-
| iske || || n.p. || black
|-
| ismu || || final || with force, by force
|-
| ismu || || n.p. || strong
|-
| itto:nkə || || mass || salt
|-
| ittu || || erg. v1 || fall
|-
| ittu || || erg. v2 || fail at
|-
| k || || nominal suffix || plural nominative suffix (applied to nouns only for plural, not mass)
|-
| ka || n. || there
|-
| kalli || || modal || must
|-
| kanqətətu:m || || erg. v1 || be powerful
|-
| katat || || n. || arrow
|-
| ken || || voice || reflexive
|-
| kenkə || || acc. v1 || walk
|-
| kenkə || || erg. v2 || walk to
|-
| keq || || acc. v2 || throw
|-
| keq || || acc. v3 || throw ... to
|-
| kes || || n. || seed
|-
| kə || || nominal suffix || nominative dual suffix (on pronouns, applied to sing./dual form)
|-
| kəhmin || || prep. || with
|-
| kəlhu || || poss. mass || guts
|-
| ki || || n. || finger
|-
| ki || || n. || one
|-
| kiki || || n. || two, couple
|-
| kikippi || || coll. || two hundred
|-
| kippə: || || n. || word
|-
| kiqqəpa: || || acc. v2 || tie
|-
| kiske || || erg. v2 || endanger
|-
| kiske || || n.p. || dangerous
|-
| kiskike || || erg. v1 || be in danger
|-
| ko:mu || || n. || house
|-
| kohim || || acc. v1 || change
|-
| kohim || || erg. v1 || be round
|-
| kohim || || initial || hard round object
|-
| kohim || || n.p. || round
|-
| kohu || || initial || obviative inhuman
|-
| kokkimpo || kokkimpo:ti, kokkimpo:- || n. || blade
|-
| komma:h || || final || by speech
|-
| komma:h || || poss. n. || tongue
|-
| konəhtu || || preverb || apart, into pieces
|-
| kota || || acc. v2 || pack, prepare (of a thing)
|-
| kota || || erg. v2 || prepare (of a person), train
|-
| kota || || n.p. || ready, prepared, capable
|-
| kotata || || erg. v1 || ready oneself, train
|-
| koto:ki || || n. || turtle
|-
| kuma:qqə || || acc. v2 || heal, repair
|-
| kuma:qqə || || erg. v1 || heal, convalesce
|-
| la: || || prep. || in, on
|-
| la:hsa || || erg. v1 || love
|-
| la:səkka: || || final || needlessly, unnecessarily
|-
| laha || || preverb || down
|-
| lahənkə || || n. || plain
|-
| lamiq || || preverb || somewhere
|-
| lamiq || || pron. || some, a few
|-
| lamiqepə || || preverb || somehow
|-
| lamiqepə || || pron. || some way
|-
| lamiqəttuha || || preverb || for some (usu. unknown) reason
|-
| lamiqəttuha || || pron. || some reason
|-
| lamiqiq || || pron. || somewhere
|-
| lamiqqi || || pron. || somebody, something
|-
| lapenqə || || acc. v2 || paint
|-
| lapenqə || || erg. v2 || be forward towards
|-
| lapenqə || || n.p. || red
|-
| lapenqəqə || || erg. v1 || blush, redden
|-
| lappi || || prep. || along, via, during
|-
| lappin || || modal || instead of (adds clausal arg. for substituted action or condition)
|-
| le:htu || || mass || milk
|-
| lehtəla: || || n. || married woman
|-
| lehtəla: || || poss. n. || wife
|-
| lə:qa || || n. || god
|-
| lə:tah || || final || known by sight
|-
| lə:tah || ləta:hti, ləta:h- || poss. n. || eye
|-
| ləlo || || n. || instance of fog
|-
| ləppa || || n. || craftsman
|-
| li:nka || || n. || layer, level
|-
| lilamiq || || preverb || sometime
|-
| lilamiq || || pron. || sometime
|-
| lilo || || coll. || all the time
|-
| lilo || || preverb || always
|-
| lima || || mass || no time
|-
| lima || || preverb || never
|-
| limik || || mass || reeds
|-
| lin || || conj. || so, thus, therefore
|-
| lipuhi || || coll. || fourteen
|-
| lis || || acc. v2 || stock, store
|-
| lis || || coll. || surplus
|-
| lis || || erg. v1 || stay, remain
|-
| lis || || n.t. || remaining, to go
|-
| lis || || preverb || still, yet
|-
| lisis || || acc. v1 || be saved, be in storage
|-
| liski || || coll. || nine
|-
| liskilo || || coll. || ninety
|-
| liskippi || || coll. || nine hundred
|-
| lo:hi || || coll. || thirteen
|-
| lo || || coll. || ten
|-
| lo || || n.p. || every (is applied to sing. n., forms a coll. n.)
|-
| lo || || preverb || everywhere
|-
| loki || || coll. || eleven
|-
| loki || || coll. || everyone, everything
|-
| lokiki || || coll. || twelve
|-
| loliski || || coll. || nineteen
|-
| lolo || || coll. || everywhere
|-
| lopə || || coll. || every way
|-
| loppi || || n. || thousand
|-
| losu || || preverb || forwards, forth
|-
| lotaməmo:hi || || coll. || eighteen
|-
| lotə || lute:ti, lute:- || n. || man
|-
| lotə || lute:ti, lute:- || poss. n. || husband
|-
| lotohi || || coll. || fifteen
|-
| lottəki || || coll. || sixteen
|-
| lottəkiki || || coll. || seventeen
|-
| lu:pəmə || || n. || feather
|-
| lu || || modal || habitual
|-
| luhəh || || acc. v1 || masturbate
|-
| luhəh || || acc. v2 || stroke
|-
| luhmi || || acc. v2 || smooth
|-
| luhmi || || erg. v1 || be smooth
|-
| luhmi || || n.p. || smooth
|-
| lukin || || n. || chair, seat
|-
| lutte || || preverb || quickly, in a hurry
|-
| luttenqəs || || erg. v1 || hurry
|-
| ma:həh || || mass || food
|-
| ma:nqə || || mass || today
|-
| ma:nqə || || n.p. || today's
|-
| ma:nqə || || preverb || today
|-
| ma:nqəhqə || || mass || cattle
|-
| ma:nquk || || erg. v2 || complain about
|-
| ma:ta || || acc. v2 || launch, fire, throw
|-
| ma:ta || || acc. v2 || shoot, shoot at, attack
|-
| ma || || preverb || nowhere
|-
| ma || || pron. || none, no
|-
| mahlu || || erg. v1 || narrow, get narrower (not used of actual movement)
|-
| mahlu || || initial || slender flexible object
|-
| mahlu || || n.p. || narrow
|-
| mahlulu || || acc. v1 || lose weight, get thinner (pos. connot., unlike ehpəhma:p)
|-
| mahtən || || acc. v2 || realize
|-
| mahtən || || erg. v2 || understand
|-
| maki || || mass || nobody, nothing
|-
| mama || || mass || nowhere
|-
| mastu || mestu:ti, mestu:- || n. || person
|-
| mattuha || || mass || no reason
|-
| mattuha || || preverb || for no reason
|-
| menqəh || || poss. n. || male cousin
|-
| mepə || || mass || no way
|-
| mepə || || preverb || there is no way that, it is impossible that
|-
| məhpa:m || || erg. v1 || cry
|-
| məhpo || || modal || because (adds a clausal argument for the result)
|-
| məhpok || || n.p. || far
|-
| məhpok || || preverb || far
|-
| məlkonqət || || poss. n. || brother
|-
| məpa: || || n.p. || to the (usu. addressee's) left
|-
| məpaqlə || || n. || leaf
|-
| məpemmə || || mass || milk
|-
| məpi || || erg. v2 || say
|-
| məpi || || erg. v3 || tell
|-
| məpi || || preverb || tell to (decreases v by 1, has teller as subj., told as obj.)
|-
| mi:pohi || || poss. n. || father
|-
| mi || || conj. || or
|-
| mi || || n. suffix || no, none
|-
| minqəmpi || || erg. v1 || sing
|-
| mipu:səm || mipuse:pi, - || poss. n. || hip
|-
| miqqə || || erg. v2 || travel to
|-
| miqqəsi || || erg. v1 || look
|-
| mitət || || erg. v2 || raise, teach, develop
|-
| mitətə || || erg. v1 || mature
|-
| mitətə || || n.p. || old (of a human), elderly
|-
| mitkon || || poss. n. || uncle, mother's father, or mother's brother
|-
| mo || || initial || proximate inhuman
|-
| mohəmi || || n.p. || stupid
|-
| mohu || || final || emotionally, by the emotions
|-
| mohutti || || poss. n. || heart
|-
| molate:h || || n. || deer
|-
| mono || || modal || seem to
|-
| mosaqqə || || n.p. || full
|-
| mosəhmi || || acc. v2 || suck
|-
| mu || || post-modal verbal prefix || negation
|-
| muhə || || erg. v1 || grow
|-
| muhə || || final || with a scattering motion (used of a group of discrete items or people)
|-
| muhə || || initial || group of discrete items or people
|-
| muhə || || n. || cluster, group
|-
| muppəma: || || n. || eel
|-
| musan || || final || skillfully
|-
| musan || || n.p. || savvy, skilled
|-
| musanqə || || n. || winter
|-
| muttu: || || erg. v2 || measure, count
|-
| nam || || erg. v1 || become sick
|-
| nam || || erg. v2 || sicken
|-
| nam || || n. suffix || some, a little (used with masses)
|-
| nam || || n.p. || sick, ill
|-
| namo || || acc. v1 || hunt, hunt for
|-
| namo || || acc. v2 || hunt, hunt for
|-
| nampepəm || || acc. v1 || swell
|-
| napənki || || poss. coll. || property, estate
|-
| nappam || || acc. v1 || shrink, dessicate
|-
| nappam || || acc. v2 || shrink, dessicate
|-
| nappam || || n.p. || small
|-
| nemo:hi || || n.p. || brown, tan, orange
|-
| nə || || initial suffix || plural
|-
| nəhta || || preverb || stop, desist
|-
| nəhtettən || || erg. v1 || float
|-
| nəhtəhottə || || n.t. prefix || greatly
|-
| nəhtəhottə || || preverb || greatly
|-
| nəhti || || prep. || for, for the purpose of, so as to do, with respect to, about
|-
| nəqa: || || n. || egg
|-
| nətat || || prep. || all around, about, throughout
|-
| nətəq || || n. || tree
|-
| nətəqquk || || coll. || forest
|-
| nəti || || acc. v2 || touch
|-
| nəti || || final || by hand
|-
| nuhta || || modal || possibly
|-
| nun || || acc. v2 || lose, misplace
|-
| nunnun || || erg. v1 || wander, get lost
|-
| nuttə || || acc. v1 || die
|-
| nuttə || || erg. v1 || be dead (only pres. tense)
|-
| o: || || n.p. || half of a
|-
| o:h || || prep. || for, for the sake of
|-
| o:hi || || n. || three, trio
|-
| o:hilipuhi || || coll. || thirtyfour
|-
| o:hilo:hi || || coll. || thirtythree
|-
| o:hilo || || coll. || thirty
|-
| o:hiloki || || coll. || thirtyone
|-
| o:hilokiki || || coll. || thirtytwo
|-
| o:hiloliski || || coll. || thirtynine
|-
| o:hilotaməmo:hi || || coll. || thirtyeight
|-
| o:hilotohi || || coll. || thirtyfive
|-
| o:hilottəki || || coll. || thirtysix
|-
| o:hilottəkiki || || coll. || thirtyseven
|-
| o:hippi || || coll. || three hundred
|-
| o:ho || || mass || yesterday
|-
| o:ho || || n.p. || yesterday's
|-
| o:ho || || preverb || yesterday
|-
| o:hpa || || acc. v2 || hit
|-
| o:hpapa || || acc. v1 || be hit, get hurt
|-
| o:k || || erg. v1 || calm down
|-
| o:k || || erg. v2 || calm down
|-
| o:k || || final || calmly
|-
| o:k || || n.p. || calm
|-
| o:nəma || || acc. v2 || play, play with
|-
| o:nəma || || erg. v1 || play
|-
| o:soh || || n. || tail
|-
| o:ttə || || n. || vegetable
|-
| o || || acc. v2 || do, make, complete, perform
|-
| o || || proverb || proverb
|-
| oh || || pron. suffix || some of, part of (applied to plural pronouns)
|-
| oha: || || preverb || now
|-
| oha: || || pron. || this
|-
| ohattə || || erg. v1 || be uncertain whether (arg. is obj. clause, no subj.)
|-
| ohoha: || || n. || here
|-
| ohsanqə || || erg. v1 || forget
|-
| ohtu || || erg. v2 || go to
|-
| ohtutu || || erg. v1 || arrive
|-
| ok || || modal || volitive (1st person), optative (2nd, 3rd persons)
|-
| ok || || n. suffix || third person human plural possessive ("its/their" (of a mass), "those three's" or more)
|-
| ok || || pron. || third person human plural ("it/them" (of a mass), "those three" or more) (sing./dual form is a)
|-
| okoh || || final || known by a first-person account
|-
| okoh || okti, ok- || poss. n. || ear
|-
| okti || || n. suffix || third person human dual possessive ("those two's")
|-
| olattu || || acc. v2 || listen to
|-
| olattu || || erg. v1 || be hearing
|-
| olattu || || erg. v2 || hear
|-
| olti || || acc. v2 || run through, run (of a distance)
|-
| olti || || erg. v2 || run to
|-
| oltiti || || acc. v1 || run
|-
| ona: || || n.p. || empty, hungry
|-
| onəhtunqə || || erg. v1 || diminish, weaken
|-
| onəhtunqə || || n.p. || thin
|-
| ontəti || || erg. v1 || blow
|-
| opolmə:h || || coll. || grain
|-
| oq || || modal || punctual (applied to a usu. durative vb.)
|-
| os || || modal || be supposed to (future reputative)
|-
| osa || || acc. v2 || wake
|-
| osa || || erg. v1 || be awake
|-
| osasa || || acc. v1 || wake
|-
| osəhto || || n.p. || new
|-
| osmo || || acc. v2 || steal
|-
| ospi || || acc. v2 || till, plow
|-
| ospi || || n.p. || green
|-
| ottə || || erg. v2 || dig for, dig up
|-
| ottətə || || acc. v1 || dig
|-
| pa: || || n.p. || big
|-
| pa:kkəmu || || erg. v2 || fear
|-
| pa:pa || || erg. v2 || raise, grow
|-
| pah || || erg. v2 || call, summon
|-
| pasmappi || || erg. v2 || make secret
|-
| pasmappi || || final || secretly
|-
| pasmappi || || n.p. || secret
|-
| pe:lah || || final || related in some way to the spiritual world
|-
| pe:lah || || n.p. || ghostly, ephemeral
|-
| pe:mə || || acc. v2 || cut down, insult, humble
|-
| pe:mə || || n.p. || low, shallow (of waters), flat
|-
| pe:məmə || || acc. v1 || bow
|-
| pekəhma || || n.p. || ultimate, farthest
|-
| peq || || complementizer || verbal clause-nominalizer and nominative relative clause complementizer
|-
| pə:nka || || poss. n. || back
|-
| pisa: || || erg. v3 || send
|-
| pisa: || || preverb || by proxy, through an intermediary
|-
| po:mənqə || || final || silently
|-
| po:mənqə || || mass || smoke
|-
| po:sa || || n. || field
|-
| po || || modal || may (permissive)
|-
| pokənkə || || erg. v1 || vomit
|-
| pon || || n. || island
|-
| ponenqə || -, ma:ponenqə || n. || plant
|-
| ponko || || poss. n. || nose
|-
| ponqə || || modal || if ... then (applied to vb. giving result, adds clausal argument for condition)
|-
| postu || || erg. v1 || be aggressive
|-
| puhattə || || erg. v1 || be possible that (arg. is obj. clause, no subj.)
|-
| puk || || prep. || for each, per
|-
| pus || || final || early
|-
| pus || || n.p. || early
|-
| q || || nominal suffix || singular absolutive suffix
|-
| qa:mi || || erg. v2 || watch
|-
| qa:t || || modal || probably
|-
| qahpəm || || preverb || last year
|-
| qammi || || n. || bed, sofa, mat
|-
| qatat || qata:ti, qata:- || n. || steer
|-
| qə:kə || || n. || edge
|-
| qinah || || erg. v3 || ask (one obj. arg. may be nominal, meaning "ask about", or clausal, meaning "ask whether")
|-
| qinsa || || n. || storyteller, teacher
|-
| qo || || initial || solid square object
|-
| quhi || || n. || stone
|-
| qukka: || || erg. v1 || be broken (only pres. tense)
|-
| qukka: || || erg. v2 || break
|-
| qukka:ka || || erg. v1 || break
|-
| qusa || || n.p. || enjoyable, likeable
|-
| s || || n.p. suffix || used when prefixed to a singular human noun
|-
| s || || voice || passive
|-
| sa: || || n. || bird
|-
| sa:həti || || n.t. || healthy
|-
| sa:kə || || pron. || first person inclusive dual ("you and me") (pl. form is ikkuk)
|-
| sa:kti || || n. suffix || first person inclusive dual possessive ("your and my")
|-
| sa:s || || acc. v1 || flow, continue
|-
| sa:tə || || n. || year
|-
| sahənqi || sahenqi:n, sahenqi:- || poss. n. || cuspid, fang
|-
| sakho || || n. || cliff
|-
| sakkakk || || erg. v2 || get used to, become familiar with
|-
| sakkakk || || n.p. || familiar
|-
| salma: || || acc. v2 || lengthen, stretch
|-
| salma: || || n.p. || long
|-
| salma:ma || || acc. v1 || stretch, limber up
|-
| satən || || n.t. prefix || a little, somewhat, partially
|-
| satən || || preverb || a little, somewhat, partially
|-
| sə:tət || səte:ti, - || n. || riverbank
|-
| səhtoh || || acc. v1 || cool off by swimming
|-
| səhtoh || || acc. v2 || cool by immersion
|-
| səhtoh || || n.p. || clammy
|-
| səma: || || coll. || speech
|-
| səma: || || n. || sentence
|-
| si:q || || conj. || neither ... nor
|-
| si || || numeral n. adjectivalizing prefix || forms an ordinal noun prefix from a cardinal number
|-
| sihta || || prep. || through
|-
| sikkata:t || || n. || bow
|-
| sikkoho || || poss. n. || bone
|-
| simo: || || erg. v2 || like, enjoy
|-
| sosmo:h || || acc. v2 || greet
|-
| sosmo:h || || erg. v2 || know (personally)
|-
| su || || initial || fluid
|-
| su || || n. suffix || third person inhuman singular possessive ("its")
|-
| su || || pron. || third person inhuman ("it", "them")
|-
| suk || || n. suffix || third person inhuman plural possessive ("its/their" (of a mass), "those three's" or more)
|-
| sukti || || n. suffix || third person inhuman dual possessive ("those two's")
|-
| sumu || sumi:-, sumi:- || n. || cow
|-
| sunəte || || acc. v2 || straighten, correct
|-
| sunəte || || n.p. || straight, correct
|-
| sus || || complementizer || where, locative complementizer
|-
| ta:hətti || || final || safely
|-
| ta:hətti || || mass || safety
|-
| ta:hətti || || n. || shelter
|-
| ta:pəm || || preverb || together
|-
| tahqa:no || || mass || home, homeland
|-
| talih || tuli:-, ma:talih || n. || dryad
|-
| tam || tatam-, - || poss. n. || hand
|-
| taməmo:hi || || coll. || eight
|-
| taməmo:hilo || || coll. || eighty
|-
| taməmo:hippi || || coll. || eight hundred
|-
| tas || || modal || volitive (2nd or 3rd person subj. only)
|-
| te:nqəti || -, ma:tenqəti || poss. n. || louse
|-
| tekki: || || poss. n. || finger
|-
| tekko || || acc. v2 || pull
|-
| tekko || || erg. v1 || be capable, strong
|-
| tekko || || preverb || be able to
|-
| tekkonqə || || mass || stone
|-
| tekkonqə || tekkonqe:ti, tekkonqe:- || n. || stone, rock
|-
| təha:nkə || || erg. v2 || wash, scrub
|-
| təmpah || || mass || grease, fat
|-
| tətanto || || mass || illness
|-
| təte:h || || n. || dog
|-
| tətunkə || tətunke:ti, - || poss. n. || knee
|-
| ti || || initial suffix || dual
|-
| ti || titi, ma:ti || poss. n. || flea
|-
| tihattə || || erg. v2 || believe that (obj. arg. is clausal)
|-
| timmi || timmi:-, timmi:- || poss. n. || child
|-
| tinəhto || || n.t. || wide
|-
| tiqohattə || || erg. v2 || suspect that (obj. arg. is clausal)
|-
| to: || || acc. v2 || eat
|-
| to: || || vb. suffix || past tense
|-
| to:pe || || erg. v2 || hold, support, hug
|-
| to:to || || acc. v1 || eat
|-
| to || || n. suffix || second person singular possessive ("your")
|-
| toh || -, ma:toh || n. || lake
|-
| tomo || || initial || obviative human
|-
| totu || || erg. v1 || be possible
|-
| totu || || n.p. || possible
|-
| tuhpa: || || mass || horn
|-
| tuhpa: || || n. || horn, antler
|-
| tuk || || n. suffix || second person plural possessive ("you three's" or more, "your and their", "you two's and his/her/its")
|-
| tuk || || pron. || second person plural ("you three" or more, "you and them", "you two and him/her/it") (sing./dual form is əto)
|-
| tukti || || n. suffix || second person dual possessive ("you two's", "your and his/her/its")
|-
| tupe:hti || || acc. v1 || attack
|-
| tupe:hti || || acc. v2 || attack
|-
| tus || || n. || the Sun
|-
| tutət || || acc. v2 || close in on, approach, get nearer to
|-
| tutətət || || acc. v1 || get better, move closer (to one's goal)
|-
| tutətət || || n.p. || near, close
|-
| u:hma || || mass || dirt, soil
|-
| u:kkə || || acc. v2 || moisten
|-
| u:kkə || || n.p. || wet
|-
| u:menqəh || || poss. n. || friend
|-
| u:pəhmu || || preverb || recently
|-
| u || || modal || future (precedes other modals)
|-
| u || || prep. || after, following
|-
| uhenə || || final || well
|-
| uhmu || || preverb || soon
|-
| ul || || n. suffix || each (used with count nouns)
|-
| ullok || || acc. v2 || move against, work against, oppose
|-
| um || || acc. v1 || live
|-
| um || || erg. v1 || be alive (only pres. tense)
|-
| um || || prep. || from, made of, made by
|-
| umahattə || || erg. v1 || be unlikely that (arg. is obj. clause, no subj.)
|-
| umə:h || || poss. n. || sister
|-
| uməhpu || || n.p. || deep, high
|-
| uməki || || acc. v1 || hug (dual or pl. subj.)
|-
| uməki || || acc. v2 || squeeze
|-
| umpa || || n. suffix || much (used with masses)
|-
| up || || prep. || at
|-
| usma:q || || acc. v2 || dye
|-
| usma:q || || n.t. || yellow
|-
| usoh || || acc. v2 || taste
|-
| utta: || || acc. v2 || tickle
|-
| utu || || n.p. || cruel
|-
|}

[[Category:Xoronic languages]]

Proto-Xoronic

2008-06-23T12:59:27Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Proto-Xoronic
| phonetic = N/A
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 3500-2500 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = [[Eiwəl Gourun]]
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = [[Macro-Edastean languages|Macro-Edastean]]
| word-or = verb-initial
| mor-type = agglutinative
| morphalign = split-S
| author = [[Serf:Mrzetler|pocketful of songs]]
}}
{{Akana}}
'''Proto-Xoronic''' is a language that was spoken sometime between c. -3500 and c. -2500 YP somewhere in the high steppes of the [[Aiwa valley]]. It was the ancestor of the [[Habeo languages]] and [[Damak]].

==Phonology==
PX's probable phonemic inventory is:
<table cellpadding="10">
<tr><td valign="top">
<table cellpadding="5">
<tr><td align="center">p</td><td align="center">t</td><td align="center">k</td><td align="center">q</td><td align="center"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">m</td><td align="center">n</td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">l</td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">h</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">s</td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td></tr>
</table>
</td><td valign="top">
<table cellpadding="5">
<tr><td align="center">i  </td><td> </td><td align="center">  u</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">e  </td><td align="center">ə</td><td align="center">  o</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td align="center">a</td><td> </td></tr></table>
</td></tr>
</table>
Vowel length is also phonemic; there are two degrees, and the longer will be shown here with a following colon (:).

A syllable consists of an optional consonant (any), a vowel, long or short, and an optional consonant ((C)V(:)(C)). Vowels will not be in contact within morphemes.

Little can be said for certain of allophony other than that a nasal in a consonant cluster will assimilate to the other consonant's point of articulation provided it's nonglottal, and that when vowels come into contact on a morpheme boundary a certain method of elision is done: Certain vowels take precedence for retention when in contact, with ''u'' and ''i'' being highest; then ''o'' and ''e''; next, ''a''; and finally ''ə''. In a meeting of two vowels of different levels, the higher one will be retained, and, when two of the same level meet, the first is retained. If either of the vowels is long, the unelided vowel will be long; if neither is, it will not be.

In a cluster of ''k'' and ''q'', in either order, the second will assimilate to the first.

If an illegal cluster would be formed by morphology, an epenthetic ''ə'' will be inserted at each morpheme boundary within that consonant cluster progressively until it is phonologically acceptable.

==Grammatical typology==
PX is a split-S, VSO, agglutinative, mostly suffixing, prepositional language, with head-marking for possession and dependent-marking for case and objects of prepositions. Lexical classes are: count, mass, and collective nouns; adjectival nominal prefixes; impersonal verbs; verbs with accusative and ergative alignment times intransitive, monotransitive, and ditransitive valences; lexical verbal prefixes (preverbs) and suffixes (finals); prepositions; and classifiers (initials). A relative is fronted to the start of its clause and a matrix clause nominal argument or adverbial can be fronted to the start for topicalization. Tense is obligatorily marked, mood and aspect are not. The numbers are singular, dual, and plural. Pronominally, the first inclusive, first exclusive, second, third human, and third inhuman persons times the three numbers are distinguished with the exception of a first inclusive singular, which is semantically invalid.

==Alignment==
PX is a split-S language -- that is, an active-stative language with lexical selection. It has two alignment systems, selected for by a lexical quality of verbs. The first is accusative in both nominal inflection for case and unmarked constituent order, and the second is ergative in unmarked order, in that the subject of a transitive verb will follow the object, and in case-marking. These case-marking systems relate morphologically like so:
<table><tr><td> </td><td>Accusative</td><td>Ergative</td></tr><tr><td>S (v1 SUBJ)</td><td>nominative</td><td>absolutive</td></tr><tr><td>A (v2 SUBJ)</td><td>nominative</td><td>nominative</td></tr><tr><td>P (v2 OBJ)</td><td>absolutive</td><td>absolutive</td></tr></table>
The abbreviations above are S for subject (conventionally meaning, in discussing alignment, the argument of an intransitive verb), A for agent (conventionally meaning, etc.), P for patient, and v for valence, with the following number showing the lexically specified number of arguments: v0 for an impersonal, v1 for an intransitive, v2 for a monotransitive, etc. Verbs with an accusative alignment are called accusative verbs, and so for ergatives.
These examples demonstrate this system with ''əmpi'' 'sit', an acc. v1; ''nəhtettən'' 'float', an erg. v1; ''lapenqə'' 'paint', an acc. v2; and ''anəhtu'' 'meet', an erg. v2:
*a.
**'''Ǝmpito: a la: lukinəq.'''
**əmpi-to: a la: lukin-q
**sit.ACC.V1-PAST 3SG.HUMAN in chair-ABS.SG
**''He or she sat in the chair.''
*b.
**'''Nəhtettənto: aq la: ahəttihəq.'''
**nəhtettən-to: a-q la: ahəttih-q
**float.ERG.V1-PAST 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG in river-ABS.SG
**''He or she floated in the river.''
*c.
**'''Lapenqəhi e əhka:təq.'''
**lapenqə-hi e əhka:t-q
**paint.ACC.V2-FUT 1SG door-ABS.SG
**''I'm going to paint the door.''
*d.
**'''Anəhtuto: u:menqəheq e up kaq.'''
**anəhtu-to: u:menqəh-e-q e up ka-q
**meet.ERG.V2-PAST friend-1SG.POSS-ABS.SG 1SG at there-ABS.SG
**''I met my friend there.''

==Nouns==
Nouns are divided into three classes: collectives, masses, and countables, and each of these is further divided into those that are obligatorily possessed and those that are not.

===Morphology===
Countables take the following number/case suffixes:
<table><tr><td>Declension</td><td>Nominative</td><td>Absolutive</td></tr>
<tr><td>Singular</td><td>-</td><td>-q</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dual</td><td>-kə</td><td>-:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>Plural</td><td>-k</td><td>-h</td></tr></table>
Masses take only the nominative null and absolutive ''-q'' of the singular, while collectives take null for the nominative and ''-h'' for the absolutive.
When the syllable of a vowel lengthened by the nominative dual suffix is preceded by a syllable with another long vowel, that preceding vowel is shortened.

====Possession====
The possessive suffixes are:
<table><tr><td>Possession</td><td>Sing.</td><td>Dual</td><td>Pl.</td></tr>
<tr><td>1st Exc.</td><td>-e</td><td>-ikti</td><td>-ik</td></tr>
<tr><td>1st Inc.</td><td> </td><td>-sa:kti</td><td>-ikkuk</td></tr>
<tr><td>2nd</td><td>-to</td><td>-tukti</td><td>-tuk</td></tr>
<tr><td>3rd Human</td><td>-a</td><td>-okti</td><td>-ok</td></tr>
<tr><td>3rd Inhuman</td><td>-su</td><td>-sukti</td><td>-suk</td></tr></table>

====Irregular nouns====
Certain nouns have irregular dual and/or plural forms. Some of these forms remain as they are in the nominative and take the normal absolutive suffixes, while others take both cases' suffixes. Examples:
<table cellpadding="5"><tr><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''a:lle, alle:ti, alle:-'' 'day'</td></tr>
<tr><td>a:lle</td><td>a:lleq</td></tr>
<tr><td>alle:ti</td><td>alleti:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>alle:k</td><td>alle:h</td></tr>
</table>
</td><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''a:sonqu, -, ma:sonqu'' 'flower'</td></tr>
<tr><td>a:sonqu</td><td>a:sonquq</td></tr>
<tr><td>a:sonquqə</td><td>a:sonqu:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>ma:sonqu</td><td>ma:sonquh</td></tr>
</table>
</td><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''əqa:pla, əqeple:n, əqeple:-'' 'sheep'</td></tr>
<tr><td>əqa:pla</td><td>əqa:plaq</td></tr>
<tr><td>əqeple:n</td><td>əqeple:nqə</td></tr>
<tr><td>əqeple:k</td><td>əqeple:h</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''lotə, lute:ti, lute:-'' 'man'</td></tr>
<tr><td>lotə</td><td>lotəq</td></tr>
<tr><td>lute:ti</td><td>luteti:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>lute:k</td><td>lute:h</td></tr>
</table>
</td><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''okoh, okti, ok-'' 'ear'</td></tr>
<tr><td>okoh</td><td>okohəq</td></tr>
<tr><td>okti</td><td>okti:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>okək</td><td>okəh</td></tr>
</table>
</td><td align="center" valign="top">
<table>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">''sumu, sumi:-, sumi:-'' 'cow'</td></tr>
<tr><td>sumu</td><td>sumuq</td></tr>
<tr><td>sumi:kə</td><td>sumi:qə</td></tr>
<tr><td>sumi:k</td><td>sumi:h</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr></table>
A form that takes normal morphology in both cases has a suffixed hyphen in its dictionary form, used above and in the lexicon.

====Noun compounding====
Nouns can be compounded head-finally.

==Verbs==
Verbs are divided into seven classes: impersonals (v0) and accusative and ergative intransitives (acc. v1, erg. v1), monotransitives (acc. v2, erg. v2), and ditransitives (acc. v3, erg. v3). v1+ each have an argument called a subject, which is prototypically an EXPERIENCER or AGENT:
*e.
**'''Ǝnkahta oh.'''
**ənkahta o-h
**sleep.ERG.V1 3PL.HUMAN-ABS.PL
**''They're sleeping.''
*f.
**'''Osato: e aq.'''
**osa-to: e a-q
**wake.ACC.V2-PAST 1SG 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG
**''I woke him or her.''
Less prototypically, roles somewhat similar to those may be used:
*g.
**'''Osato: tus aq.'''
**osa-to: tus a-q
**wake.ACC.V2-PAST the.sun 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG
**''The sun woke him or her.'' (a FORCE)
*h.
**'''Utta:to: lu:pəmə aq.'''
**utta:-to: lu:pəmə a-q
**tickle.ACC.V2-PAST feather 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG
**''The feather tickled him or her.'' (an INSTRUMENT)
v2 and v3 have a direct object argument, which is centered on the PATIENT role:
*i.
**'''Ekkuto: təte:h ma:hohi:h.'''
**ekku-to: təte:h ma:hohi:-h
**kill.ACC.V2-PAST dog mouse.PL-ABS.PL
**''The dog killed (some) mice.''
And v3 has an indirect object role, which is associated with a RECIPIENT or POSSESSOR role and less so with a SOURCE role. The placement of this argument is flexible:
*j.
**'''Ǝttampehi aq e əqa:toq.'''
**'''Ǝttampehi e aq əqa:toq.'''
**'''Ǝttampehi e əqa:toq aq.'''
**əttampe-hi e əqa:to-q a-q
**give.ACC.V3-FUT 1SG rabbit-ABS.SG 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG
**''I'll give him or her a rabbit.''

===Morphology===
A verb is built on this template:

<table><tr><td align="center">'''(Preverb(s))''' +</td><td align="center">'''(Modal(s))''' +</td>
<td align="center">'''(Negativity)''' +</td><td align="center">'''(Initial)''' +</td><td align="center">'''Stem'''</td><td align="center">+ '''(Final(s))'''</td><td align="center">+''' Voice'''</td>
<td align="center">+ '''Tense'''</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Optional</td><td align="center">Optional</td>
<td align="center">Optional ''mu-''</td><td align="center">Optional</td><td align="center">Verbal head</td><td align="center">Optional</td><td align="center">Obligatory;   null for active,   ''-s'' for passive,   ''-asp'' for causative,   ''-ken'' for reflexive</td>
<td align="center">Obligatory;   null for pres.,   ''-to:'' for past,   ''-hi'' for future</td></tr></table>

====Preverbs====
Preverbs are verbal prefixes that most often describe direction, location, or time, though there are some modal-like and manner preverbs. Possibly the most commonly used preverb is ''atti-'', perfect aspect. That and two others, ''ahləni-'' 'in the dark' and ''ipsi-'' 'toward the river', are shown here:
*k.
**'''Attipaqqəli e suq.'''
**atti-əpaqqəli e su-q
**PERF-get.ACC.V2 1SG 3.INHUMAN-ABS.SG
**''I've gotten it.'' or ''I have it.''
*l.
**'''Ahlənitehmo:kito: e əqeple:h.'''
**ahləni-ətehmo:ki-to: e əqeple:-h
**in.the.dark-search.for.ACC.V2-PAST 1SG sheep.PL-ABS.PL
**''I searched for the sheep in the dark.''
*m.
**'''Ipsikenkəhi e.'''
**ipsi-kenkə-hi e
**toward-the-river.walk.ACC.V1-FUT 1SG
**''I'll go toward the river.''

====Modals====
Modals are a group of prefixes that change the meaning of the verb without changing its arguments. The modals ''etlə'', an atelicity marker, and ''kalli'', a strong obligative ('must') are shown here:
*n.
**'''Ma:tato: a molate:həq.'''
**ma:ta-to: a molate:h-q
**shoot.ACC.V2-PAST 3SG.HUMAN deer-ABS.SG
**''He or she shot a deer.''
*o.
**'''Etləma:tato: a molate:həq.'''
**etlə-ma:ta-to: a molate:h-q
**ATELIC-shoot.ACC.V2-PAST 3SG.HUMAN deer-ABS.SG
**''He or she shot at a deer.''
*p.
**'''Kallima:tahi əto molate:həq.'''
**kalli-ma:ta-hi əto molate:h-q
**must-shoot.ACC.V2-FUT 2SG deer-ABS.SG
**''You must shoot a deer.''
*q.
**'''Kallima:ta əto molate:həq.'''
**kalli-ma:ta əto molate:h-q
**must-shoot.ACC.V2 2SG deer-ABS.SG
**''You really should be shooting a deer.''
*r.
**'''Kallima:tato: əto molate:həq.'''
**kalli-ma:ta-to: əto molate:h-q
**must-shoot.ACC.V2-PAST 2SG deer-ABS.SG
**''You really ought to have shot a deer.''

====Initials====
Intials are a group of classifiers that are used in a way similar to incorporation. They indicate an object or instrument, obviate what they indicate, and show the action as done to/with the referrent as conventional. Adding an initial to a v2+ verb may remove an object argument or not, as desired. The initials and what they prototypically refer to are:
*''əkkimpo'' : a slender rigid object,
*''əmə'' : mushy matter,
*''əppol'' : a flat flexible object,
*''əttanqi'' : a soft round object,
*''kohim'' : a hard round object,
*''kohu'' : an inhuman, obviated at discourse-level,
*''mahlu'' : a slender flexible object,
*''mo'' : an inhuman, proximate at discourse-level,
*''muhə'' : a group of discrete items or people,
*''qo'' : a solid square object,
*''su'' : fluid,
*''tomo'' : a human, obviated at discourse-level.
Initials other than ''su'' and ''əmə'' can be made dual with the suffix ''-ti'' and plural with ''-nə''.
Here are some examples of initials in use:
*s.
**'''A:ttəto: molate:hhahəttihəq e əm oha:suhəpə.'''
**a:ttə-to: molate:h-hə-ahəttih-q e əm oha:-su-həpə
**keep.ERG.V2-PAST deer-meat-water-ABS.SG 1SG and now-CL:FLUID-drink
**''I saved some venison broth and I'm drinking it now.
*t.
**'''Ponqemahlu:ttə um nətəqəq ma:həhtoq əto, ənkahta la: nətəqqukəh.
**ponqə-e-mahlu-a:ttə um nətəq-q ma:həh-to-q əto, ənkahta la: nətəqquk-h
**thus-IMP-CL:SFO-keep.ERG.V2 from tree-ABS.SG food-2SG.POSS-ABS.SG 2SG, sleep.ERG.V1 in forest-ABS.PL
**''If you sleep in the forest, hang your food from a tree (with a rope).''

====Finals====
Finals are verbal suffixes that indicate manner or means. Here are two examples, with ''ə:kate:h'' 'by horse' and ''komma:h'' 'by speech':
*u.
**'''Ohtu:kate:hto: ohoha:q ekə.'''
**ohtu-ə:kate:h-to: ohoha:-q e-kə
**go.to.ERG.V2-by.horse-PAST here-ABS.SG 1SG-DUAL
**''We (two) came here by horse.''
*v.
**'''Kanqətətu:nkomma:h aq.'''
**kanqətətu:m-komma:h a-q
**be.powerful.ERG.V1-by.speech 3SG.HUMAN-ABS.SG
**''He or she is a powerful speaker.'' or ''He or she amasses power by his or her speech.''

====Compounding====
A verb-verb pair can be compounded to form a verb that has the arguments of the second member and means 'to X to Y' or 'to X Ying' (from the compound ''XY'').
*w.
**'''Simo:tohi e muppəma:h.'''
**simo:-to-hi e muppəma:-h
**enjoy.ERG.V2-eat.ACC.V2-FUT 1SG eel-ABS.PL
**''I'm going to enjoy eating the eels.''
These verbs may share affixes, as above, and also have their own, in this way:
<table cellpadding="5"><tr><td>Shared prefixes</td><td>Verb 1 prefixes</td><td>Verb 1 stem</td><td>Verb 1 suffixes</td><td>Verb 2 prefixes</td><td>Verb 2 stem</td><td>Verb 2 suffixes</td><td>Shared suffixes</td></tr></table>
*x.
**'''Qahpəmmonosimo:ppəhmamonənamokkə:slə:tahto: a.'''
**qahpəm-mono-simo:-appəhma-mo-nə-namo-əkkə:s-lə:tah-to: a
**last.year-seem.to-like.ERG.V2-moderately-CL:PROX.INHUMAN-PL-hunt.ACC.V2-by.foot-sight.evidential-PAST 3SG.HUMAN
**''I saw last year that he or she seemed to somewhat like hunting those (animals) on foot.''

===Proverbal ''o''===
''o'' 'do, make', an acc. v2, can be used as a proverb, a dummy (semantically null) verb that deictically indicates an action or state mentioned or implied in discourse.
*y.
**'''Enaqətta peq simo:to əto muppəma:h e ətas mumahluno.'''
**Enaqətta peq simo:-to əto muppəma:-h e ətas mu-mahlu-nə-o
**know.ERG.V2 NOM'IZER enjoy.ERG.V2-eat.ACC.V2 2SG eel-ABS.PL 1SG but NEG-CL:SFO-PL-PROVERB
**''I know you like to eat eels but I don't.''

==Lexicon==

See [[Proto-Xoronic/Lexicon]].

===Kinship terms===
<table border="0">

<tr><td colspan="3"> </td><td>♂Aho:kon</td><td>=</td><td>♀Aho:muh</td><td colspan="3"> </td><td>♂Mitkon</td><td>=</td><td colspan="4">♀Ǝ:muh</td></tr>

<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>┌────</td><td>┬─────</td><td>┴</td><td>─────</td><td>┐</td><td> </td><td>┌────</td><td>──────</td><td>┴</td><td>┬────</td><td>┐</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>

<tr><td>♂Mitkon</td><td>=</td><td>♀Ha:mu   </td><td>♂Mi:pohi</td><td>=</td><td>♀Ǝ:muh   </td><td>♂Mi:pohi</td><td align="center">=</td><td>♀Ǝ:muh   </td><td>♂Mitkon</td><td>=</td><td>♀Ǝ:muh   </td><td>♂Mitkon</td><td>=</td><td>♀Ǝ:muh</td></tr>

<tr><td>┌────</td><td align="center">┴</td><td>┐</td><td>┌─────</td><td align="center">┴</td><td>┐</td><td>┌─────</td><td align="center">──┼──</td><td>┐</td><td>┌─────</td><td align="center">┴</td><td>┐</td><td>┌────</td><td align="center">┴</td><td>┐</td></tr>

<tr><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td><td>♂Məlkonqət</td><td> </td><td>♀Umə:h</td><td>♂Məlkonqət</td><td align="center">[Ego]</td><td>♀Umə:h</td><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td></tr>

<tr><td>├────</td><td>─</td><td>┐</td><td>├─────</td><td>─</td><td>┐</td><td>┌─────</td><td align="center">──┴──</td><td>┐</td><td>┌─────</td><td>─</td><td>┤</td><td>┌────</td><td>─</td><td>┤</td></tr>

<tr><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td><td>♂A:hapə</td><td> </td><td>♀A:ha</td><td>♂A:hapə</td><td> </td><td>♀A:ha</td><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td><td>♂Menqəh</td><td> </td><td>♀Ǝ:h</td></tr>
</table>
The culture is patrilineal, meaning all relatives who are connected to ego by only males are in his lineage. The terms are applied in this way:
<table border="1"><tr><td rowspan="2"> </td><td colspan="2">Within lineage</td><td colspan="2">Outside lineage</td></tr>
<tr><td>Male</td><td>Female</td><td>Male</td><td>Female</td></tr>
<tr><td>-1+ gen.</td><td>mi:pohi</td><td>ha:mu</td><td>mitkon</td><td>ə:muh</td></tr>
<tr><td>own gen.</td><td>məlqonkət</td><td>umə:h</td><td rowspan="3">menqəh</td><td rowspan="3">ə:h</td></tr>
<tr><td>+1 gen.</td><td>a:hapə</td><td>a:ha</td></tr>
<tr><td>+2+ gen.</td><td>mi:hapə</td><td>mi:ha</td></tr></table>
There are exceptions in ego's direct male ancestors and their wives above his parents' generation:
<table border="1"><tr><td> </td><td>Ancestor</td><td>Wife</td></tr>
<tr><td>-3+ gen.</td><td>umi:kon</td><td>umi:muh</td></tr>
<tr><td>-2 gen.</td><td>aho:kon</td><td>aho:muh</td></tr></table>

===Basic color terms===

<table border="0">
<tr><td align="center" colspan="5" bgcolor="#ffffff">Ǝtoha:-</td><td align="center" colspan="5" bgcolor="#000000">Iske-</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ff0000">Lapenqə-</td><td align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#e07030">Nemo:hi-</td><td align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#daff40">Usma:q-</td><td align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#00ff00">  Ospi-  </td><td align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#0000ff">  Ha:-  </td></tr>
</table>

[[Category:Xoronic languages]]

Proto-Isthmus

2008-06-23T12:59:26Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

Proto-Isthmus was spoken perhaps a thousand years before [[Ndak Ta]] (ca. -3000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]), in the isthmus region separating the main continent from the smaller northeastern one. The '''Isthmus languages''' descended from it form one of the two divisions of the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Eigə-Isthmus family]]; the other division is the '''Eigə Valley languages''', comprising [[Ngauro]] and the [[Miwan languages]].

Only six Isthmus languages survived as of the year 100 YP; those that did fell into two branches. In Western Isthmus we find the closely related sister languages '''Feråjin''' and '''Faraghin'''[http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Faraghin], spoken in [[Huyfárah]], and the more divergent '''Boesin''' ([[Fáralo]] exonym), spoken in [[Qedik]] territory north of the Northern Mountains. Two Eastern Isthmus languages survive on the northwest coast of the northeastern continent ('''Kietek''' and '''Ka'alikora''') and a third remains on the Isthmus itself, known in Fáralo as '''Doroh'''. Of them all, only Doroh was spoken by a great number of people, perhaps half a million, and only Doroh and Feråjin (or rather, descendants of them) survived into the second millennium YP.

== Diachronics of Proto-Isthmus ==

''NOTE: not all diachronic changes between Proto-Isthmus and its daughters are listed, only those that are known at this time.''

Phonemes that have been reconstructed for Proto-Isthmus are /p t ʈ ts k b d ɖ dz g f s m n l j a e i o u/.

Prefixes for pronouns included:
* as- (genitive/accusative)
* dza- (dative)

We will be using the pronouns of Isthmus languages to illustrate their development. The reconstructed personal pronouns of Proto-Isthmus are as follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asda || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || asguʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tujn || astujn || dzatujn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || asfe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || njo || asnjo || dzanjo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || asmis || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || asludz || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || asbej || ?
|}

Though we can posit the forms of the other dative pronouns, shown as "?" (e.g. **dzaguʈ), no reflexes of such forms can be identified in any Isthmus language. Indeed, Faraghin is the only Isthmus language to retain any of the dative pronouns, and their reconstruction - or if they were truly even datives - remains uncertain. The only corroboration comes from, firstly, certain locative adverbs in Doroh that appear to be reflexes of Proto-Isthmus nouns with the same morphology; and secondly, some adverbial noun forms that appear in archaic Boesin poetry, in which the meaning is directional (comparable to English ''-wards'').

=== Western Isthmus ===

''' Pre-Western Isthmus '''

Developments leading to pre-Western Isthmus include the following.

*First, stress moved to the first syllable of each word that had an onset of at least one consonant. Then, any unstressed vowels before the onset were lost. At some point after this, some final vowels were also dropped, particularly from grammatical words.

*s became voiced when adjacent to a voiced consonant.

*j was lost as a phone in all environments. At the beginning of words and between vowels, it merged into dz. It was also lost outright when adjacent to i. After this, the sequences oj, ej, and aj merged into the diphthong ai, after which all remaining instances of j before or after a vowel merged into ɨ.

At this stage, the inventory of personal pronouns is reconstructed as follows.
{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || zda || dzad
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || zguʈ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || stɨn || dzatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || sfe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || znɨ || dzan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || zmis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || ludz || zludz ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || skai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || zbai ||
|}

''' Western Isthmus '''

Further developments led to Western Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Boesin and the Ferogh languages.

*Before or after s, or z, all stops became their corresponding fricatives: p t k b d g > ɸ θ x β ð ɣ / _s, _z, s_, z_
*This included the affricates ts and dz. Then, s and z were lost not only from clusters with the new fricatives but also from all other clusters, no matter their position in the cluster. This too included the former affricates.

*The fricative ɸ subsequently merged into the preexisting phoneme f, and the retroflex stops became postalveolar affricates.

The reconstructed pronoun table for Western Isthmus follows.

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ða || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || ɣutʃ ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || θɨn || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨ || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || mis ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luð ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || xai ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || βai ||
|}

==== Ferogh Languages ====

It was a change in grammar rather than a change in sounds that most greatly marked the initial divergence of Western Isthmus into Boesin and the Ferogh languages. Many of the genitive/accusative personal pronouns had merged with the nominatives in Western Isthmus, leaving the pronoun system highly defective. In Proto-Boesin, the loss of many gen/acc forms was simply tolerated, while in pre-Proto-Ferogh, it was resolved by the suffixation of postpositions. The nominative forms were left alone, while new accusatives were formed by suffixing -iθ to the nominatives, and new genitives were formed by suffixing -um to the old genitive/accusatives. This resulted in:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || daiθ || ðaum || ðad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃiθ || ɣutʃum ||
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨniθ || θɨnum || ðatɨn
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || feiθ || feum ||
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nɨiθ || nɨum || ðan
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mis || misiθ || misum ||
|-
| '''3pl''' || luð || luðiθ || luðum ||
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kaiiθ || xaium ||
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || baiiθ || βaium ||
|}

Sound developments that led to Proto-Ferogh include the following.

* s > ʃ
* θ > s
* ð > r
* a+i > ai
* ai+i > ai
* a+u > au
* ai+u > ai
* e > a / _i, _u
* ɨ > 0 / _V
* e > ɛ
* o > ɔ
* n > 0 / finally after unstressed vowels, except in certain suffixes

* Some pronouns and other grammatical forms were contracted to monosyllables, but not all.

* The remaining dative forms became used for both singular and plural, instead of being restricted to singular as in Western Isthmus.

* The dative forms also took on a locative function; and for 3sg-inanimate, 3-pl, and interrogative/relative, the genitive pronouns took on the additional functions of both dative and locative.

After these sound changes, the Proto-Ferogh pronouns were as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dais || raum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gutʃ || gutʃis || ɣutʃum || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɨn || tɨnis || sum || ratɨ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fais || faum || ratɨ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nɨ || nis || num || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃum || miʃum
|-
| '''3pl''' || lur || luris || lum || lum
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kai || kais || xaim || xaim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bai || bais || βaim || βaim
|}

===== Faraghin =====

The development of Faraghin from Proto-Ferogh included the following sound changes:

* ɛ, ɔ > a
* i > e
* ɨ > i
* ai > oi
* au > eu
* β > b
* t > tʃ / _i
* i > 0 / tʃ_#
* u > o / except before n or labials, or after the second syllable

Thus, the personal pronouns of Faraghin (in phonemic transcription) are:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || dois || reum || rad
|-
| '''1pl''' || gotʃ || gotʃes || ɣotʃom || rad
|-
| '''2sg''' || tʃin || tʃines || som || ratʃ
|-
| '''2pl''' || fa || fois || feum || ratʃ
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nes || nom || ran
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meʃ || mes || meʃom || meʃom
|-
| '''3pl''' || lor || lores || lom || lom
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || koi || kois || xoim || xoim
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || boi || bois || boim || boim
|}

===== Feråjin =====

The Feråjin began as a tribal division of the Faraghin. Later their speech diverged. By the year 100 YP, the following developments had occurred, leaving Feråjin in the position of being neither clearly a dialect of Faraghin nor clearly a separate language.

* ɔ > ɒ
* u > o
* ɨ > u (stressed)
* ɨ > i (unstressed)
* ɛ > e
* ai > e:
* au > a:
* a(:) > æ(:)
* β > w
* ɣ > j
* tʃ > ʃ
* Vr, Vl > V: / _C, _#
* Vm > V: / _#

* Separate dative forms were lost. The functions of dative and locative were taken on, as in some of Faraghin's pronouns, by the genitive form.

After these changes, the table of Feråjin pronouns was as follows:

{|
| || NOM    || ACC    || GEN
|-
| '''1sg''' || dæ || de:s || ræ:
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʃ || gos || joʃo:
|-
| '''2sg''' || tin || tins || so:
|-
| '''2pl''' || fe || fe:s || fæ:
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ni || nis || no:
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || miʃ || mis || miʃo:
|-
| '''3pl''' || lo: || lo:s || lo:
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || ke: || ke:s || xe:
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || be: || be:s || we:
|}

==== Boesin ====

=== Eastern Isthmus ===

''NOTE: This section is intended as a starting point for anyone willing to describe Doroh or another of the Eastern Isthmus languages.''

Developments between Proto-Isthmus and Eastern Isthmus, the last common ancestor of Doroh, Kietek, and Ka'alikora, include the following:

* b d ɖ dz g > p t ʈ ts k / [-voice]_, _[-voice], _#
* l > ɬ / [-voice]_ (swallowing up the fricative component of f s ts)
* V > 0 / (m,n,l,j)_C when unstressed
* f > w / except (p,m,n,l,j)_
* n l s > ɳ ɭ ʂ / [+rflex]_, _[+rflex]
* n > ŋ / _[-coronal]
* epenthetic stops were introduced between nasal consonants and fricatives: mf ms ns > mpf mps nts
* a > o / _C+(o,u) when unstressed
* aw ow uw > ow u u / _C, _#
* (s)Cj > (sʲ)Cʲ / exceptions: ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence Cwj became Cuj
* jC > Cʲ / _# except that ɬ was not palatalised, and the sequence jw# became ju#
* ij uj > ej oj
* kw gw ŋw sw > kʷ gʷ ŋʷ sʷ
* w > 0 / C_
* s > h / _#

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || asta || dzada
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || oskuʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tonʲ || ostonʲ || dzotonʲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || asʷe || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || nʲo || osʲnʲo || dzonʲo
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || asmih || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || askej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || aspej || ?
|}

==== Doroh ====

===== Early Doroh =====

Phonetic developments leading to Early Doroh most notably include lenition of intervocalic plosives on the one hand and the appearance of rounded vowels on the other. The latter appears to have been an areal development that Doroh has in common with its neighbour Lotoka, a language of the [[Peninsular_languages|Peninsular]] family.

* s > h / V_C
* b d ɖ dz g > β ɾ ɻ z ɣ / V_(ʲ,ʷ)V
* p t ʈ k > b d ɖ g / V_V
* n ŋ l > ɲ ɲ ʎ / _ʲ (but not if preceded by sʲ zʲ)
* s z > ʃ ʒ / _(i,ʲ)
* ʂ > ʂʷ
* Cʲo Cʷe > Cø
* Cʲu Cʷi > Cy
* ew iw > ø y / except _V
* sʷ > ʂʷ
* ʈʲ ɖʲ kʲ gʲ > ʈʂ ɖɻ tʃ dʒ
* ɣʲ ɣʷ > j w
* ʲ ʷ > 0
* dz dʒ > z ʒ / #_, [+voice]_

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || ahta || zaɾa
|-
| '''1pl''' || guʈ || ohkuʈ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || toɲ || ohtoɲ || zodoɲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || oʃnø || zoɲø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || mih || ahmih || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || luts || oɬuts || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || kej || ahkej || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || bej || ahpej || ?
|}

===== Late Doroh =====

As testified by Doroh borrowings in the eastern dialects of Fáralo, preaspiration on consonants simplified over the course of the centuries by first developing into homoorganic fricatives or glides, and later forming geminates. This was accompanied by the loss of single word-final plosives and by an extension of the vowel system. The sound changes between Early and Late Doroh can be summarized as follows:

* ɾ ɣ > ʀ
* j > 0 / (e,i,ø,y)_(C,#)
* w > 0 / (o,u,ø,y)_(C,#)
* e ø o > ɛ œ ɔ / _C($,#)
* i y u > e ø o / _(h,ʀ,ɬ)
* hp ht hʈ hk > fp st ʂʈ xk
* hC > CC
* ps ks > pf kx / except #_, _[+stress]
* ɬ > tɬ / (V,N)_
* p t ʈ k > ʔ / V_#
* fp st ʂʈ xk > pp tt ʈʈ kk / V_
* mb nd ɳɖ ŋg > mm nn ɳɳ ŋŋ / V_V, V_#

{|
| || NOM    || GEN/ACC    || DAT
|-
| '''1sg''' || da || atta || zaʀa
|-
| '''1pl''' || goʔ || ɔkkoʔ || ?
|-
| '''2sg''' || tɔɲ || ɔttɔɲ || zodɔɲ
|-
| '''2pl''' || we || aʂø || ?
|-
| '''3sg-anim''' || ɲø || ɔʃnø || zoɲø
|-
| '''3sg-inan''' || meh || ammeh || ?
|-
| '''3pl''' || lots || ɔtɬots || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-anim''' || ke || akke || ?
|-
| '''int/rel-inan''' || be || appe || ?
|}

== Lexicon ==

I present the next step in the development of a '''PROTO-ISTHMUS LEXICON''', reconstructed from the Faraghin wordlist (plus Radius' work on pronouns).

I haven't attempted any semantic shifting at all, so the meanings of many of the roots and affixes are subject to change. Some of the affixes and derivations you can see here may originate from later than PI, and some of the roots may be spurious (e.g. if the Faraghin word is actually a loan).

Since many Faraghin phonemes come from multiple PI sources that have merged, I've decided to represent the multiple possible reconstructions with variables, represented by capitals (don't mistake them for SAMPA!). This way we can put off deciding the exact form of many words, which should make it slightly easier to retcon in some cognates with Miwan and Ngauro.

The '''variable definitions''' are:

* A = *a, *e, *o
* B = *b, *bs, *sb
* F = *f, *ps, *sp
* DZ = *d_z, *ds, *sd, *ɖ
* GZ = *gs, *sg
* I = *i, *ij, *ji
* JU = *ja, *je, *jo, *ju, *uj
* KS = *ks, *sk
* L = *l, *d_z, *ds, *sd, *ɖ
* TS = *t_s, *ts, *st
* U = *a, *e, *o, *u
* V = *a, *e, *i, *o, *u

(I assumed that *ɖ eventually merged with *dz in all positions in Faraghin, and that *l is a possible source for Faraghin /r/ in clusters.)

Also, initial vowels were deleted very early, so any vowel might pop up initially; some final vowels were deleted too, which could help explain scary-looking roots like *s-gJUTS-k "knife" (Faraghin ''ghisk''). In general PI seems quite clustery nonetheless.

Several of the reconstructions depend on when a certain affix was added; in this context, "added later" means "added at or after the Western Isthmus stage".

''NOTE: several of these reconstructions have been revised, in light of our current thinking about the diachronics. Further revision may be needed.''

=== Affixes & Adpositions ===

{|
| *-A || plural suffix
|-
| *-Ajn || causative suffix
|-
| *-en || very common verbal/verbalizing suffix
|-
| *as- || genitive/accusative prefix
|-
| *-Aʈ, *AtJU   || action nominalizing suffix
|-
| *dza- || dative prefix
|-
| *FJUTS- || negative prefix
|-
| *ITS || accusative postposition (becomes a suffix in Pre-Proto-Ferogh)
|-
| *-JUn || adjectivizing suffix
|-
| *-nAk || outside (case suffix)
|-
| *-nI || place suffix
|-
| *-sITS || "possessor, user" suffix
|-
| *-ʈAn || "do repeatedly" suffix
|-
| *-TS || "quality" suffix: originally seems to have been a more general nominalizer
|-
| *-ud || past participle suffix
|-
| *um || genitive postposition (becomes a suffix in Pre-Proto-Ferogh)
|}

=== Roots ===

{|
| *BAdAu || father
|-
| *BADZ || master
|-
| *balon || iron
|-
| *bas || flat, even
|-
| *bej || what (inanimate interrogative/relative pronoun)
|-
| *BIn || nothing
|-
| *BLAn, *(V)bsdAn || face, front
|-
| *BLAus, *(V)bsdAus || fate, a goddess
|-
| ||
|-
| *da || I (1SG personal pronoun)
|-
| *dADZAd-en, *dAjAd-en || dance
|-
| *dAGZ-en || stay, camp
|-
| *dAsJUm || hemp
|-
| *dAu || girl, daughter
|-
| *dIm-en, *dem-en || give - Faraghin ''demen'' rather than **deman or **daman: ?from Feråjin or another dialect that didn't shift *e > /a/
|-
| *dLuDZ-j-en || awaken
|-
| *dLum-en || denounce to the king (?)
|-
| *dumasg || glass
|-
| ||
|-
| *dzant-en || test (by experience), prove, try
|-
| *DZJUF-en || scare
|-
| *DZut-en || own, possess
|-
| *dzusn-en || paint, color - Faraghin ''rušnen'' rather than **rušnan: ?from Feråjin or another dialect that didn't shift *e > /a/
|-
| ||
|-
| *(V)s-pejo(d)sg || Ferogh or Faragh (tribal name)
|-
| *fe || ye (2PL personal pronoun)
|-
| *FuGZ-en || make, craft
|-
| ||
|-
| *gAdJUn || (younger) brother
|-
| *gADZ-TS, *gAdst, ?*gAjV with -TS added later || boat
|-
| *gud-en || descend (from an ancestor)
|-
| *guʈ || we (1PL personal pronoun)
|-
| *(V)s-gAF-en || steal
|-
| *(V)s-gont-aʈ, *(V)s-gont-atJU || dragon
|-
| *(V)s-gIʈ, *(V)s-gItJU || mighty, powerful
|-
| *(V)s-gJUST (*-k added, probably later) || knife (v. cut with *-k-en)
|-
| *(V)s-gun || old(er)
|-
| ||
|-
| *kAt-en || amuse
|-
| *kej || who (animate interrogative/relative pronoun)
|-
| *kILt, or *kIDZ, *kIjV with *-t added later || anger
|-
| *kItLIm || honor
|-
| *kLIL-t-en || seize, capture
|-
| *(V)s-kADZ, *s-kAjV || good
|-
| *(V)s-kAjDZ || goat - borrowed into Ndak Ta as ''kwir'', presumably from Faraghin ''xoir''
|-
| *(V)s-kJUTSIl || bequeath
|-
| *(V)s-kLAn, *(V)ksdAn || guts, boldness
|-
| *(V)s-kLIt, *(V)ksdIt (*-TS added, probably later)   || > longsword
| ||
|-
| *lAuTS || free
|-
| *luDZ || they (3PL personal pronoun)
|-
| *lup-en || lie, deceive
|-
| ||
|-
| *mAGZAʈ, *maGZatJU || loot, take as booty
|-
| *mAs (*-t added later)   || house
|-
| *mIn || son
|-
| *mIs || it (3SG inanimate personal pronoun)
|-
| *muDZ || blood
|-
| *mun-TS || soft, weak
|-
| ||
|-
| *naga-t || lord, chief
|-
| *nAGZu || bear (the animal)
|-
| *nAk (*-TS added, probably later) || outdoors
|-
| *nApAl-en || be bored
|-
| *nIDZ || bad, weak
|-
| *njo || he, she (3SG animate personal pronoun)
|-
| *njadsga, *n-jodsga || war
|-
| ||
|-
| *pAt || one
|-
| *pLAGZ-en || get or be used to
|-
| *pLunj-en || stab, slash
|-
| *puDZAt, *pujAt || clean, pure
|-
| ||
|-
| *sAn || fire
|-
| *sAj || woman (Faraghin ''šoi'', but this may be a loan from Ndak Ta ''sai'' "female")
|-
| *sITS || holy
|-
| *suDZ || year
|-
| ||
|-
| *tAt || law
|-
| *tAʈA || sister
|-
| *tIKS || sword
|-
| *tLJUB-en || marry
|-
| *tujn || thou (2SG personal pronoun)
|-
| *tJUnt || left hand
|-
| *tund-en || watch over, take care of
|-
| ||
|-
| *ʈelk(-a) || king
|-
| *ʈIst-k-en, *ʈITS with *-k-en added later || hide
|-
| *ʈuKS || fist
|-
| ||
|-
| *tsot || gold
|-
| *TSIDZ, *TSIjV || great, mighty
|-
| *TSIKS || name
|-
| *TSImp-en || twist, stunt
|-
| *TSJUF || sea, ocean
|-
| *TSun || two
|}

[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Proto-Isles

2008-06-23T12:59:26Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Proto-Isles
| phonetic = pɹo.toˈʔa͡ɪːlz
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. -2000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = unknown
| speakers = unknown
| script = none
| family = Isles languages  Proto-Isles
| word-or = topic-comment
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Ran
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Proto-Isles''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the Isles language family, found all across the Ttirukan and Tymytan archipelagoes off the east coast of [[Peilaš]]. The family did not originate there, however: Proto-Isles was spoken on another continent to the east, the name of which is yet unknown. Most linguists and archaeologians date Proto-Isles to approximately -2000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]], and the colonization of the islands to c. -1500 YP.

== Features ==
Proto-Isles is reconstructed with 14 consonants (''*p t ʦ k ʔ d ʣ ɡ s ħ m n j w'') and three vowels (''*a i u''). It also had a pitch accent. Nouns and conjunctions, but not adjectives, inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and five cases (nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, benefactive). Verbs inflected for tense (past vs. non-past), aspect (telic, atelic, imperfective, delimitative) and epistemic mood (sensory, non-sensory, subjunctive). Word order was topic-comment, with the verb in sentence-final position - most commonly SOV or OSV. Distinctive features of Proto-Isles were (sometimes multiple) reduplication of initial syllables, serial verb constructions, and a base-4 number system.

== Descendants ==
Known descendants of Proto-Isles include the following languages, all dating to approx. 0-200 YP:
* [[Máotatšàlì]], spoken on [[Tymytỳs]] off the northeastern edge of Peilaš
* [[Mûtsipsa']], spoken on the [[Mûtsinamtsys]] islands off the [[Siixtaguna]] coast
* [[Thokyunèhotà]], spoken on [[Thumapahìthì]] off the [[Lotoka]] coast
* [[Ppãrwak]], spoken on [[Ttiruku]]
* [[Zele]], spoken on the northern tip of [[Zeluzh]]

The two northernmost languages, Máotatšàlì and Mûtsipsa', are sometimes grouped together because of certain similar developments in terms of phonology, grammar and lexicon. However, the evidence is unconclusive. The similarities may as well be due to areal influence, such as extensive contact both with each other and with native languages of the [[Núalís-Takuña languages|Núalís-Takuña]] family.

== See also ==
* [http://thelegion.free.fr/Proto-Isles%20Grammar.htm Proto-Isles grammar]
* [http://thelegion.free.fr/Proto-Isles%20Lexicon.htm Proto-Isles lexicon]

[[Category:Akana languages]]
[[Category:Isles languages|*]]

Ppãrwak

2008-06-23T12:59:26Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Ppãrwak
| phonetic = ˈpʰã.ʀwak
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Ttiruku
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]   Ppãrwak
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[Serf:Avaja|Avaja]]
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Ppãrwak''' is a language of the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]], spoken on the island of [[Ttiruku]] around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Ppãrwak''' (c. 0-200 YP)

== See also ==
* [http://server2rent.game-host.org/wasabii/ppar_fi.html Ppãrwak grammar] ''{broken link → [http://conlang.awardspace.com/zbbbackup/pparwak.html backup]}''

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Pirikõsu

2008-06-23T12:59:26Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Pirikõsu
| phonetic = pi.riˈkʰɔ̃ː.su
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 1600 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Şepamã valley
| speakers = c. 5000
| script = none
| family = [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]  Eastern Hitatc   Coastal Hitatc    Pirikõsu
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = agglutinating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[Serf:Cedh audmanh|Cedh audmanh]]
}}
{{Akana}}

= History and context =

'''Pirikõsu''' is a language spoken by about 5000 people on the banks of the Şepamã river near the east coast of [[Peilaš]], south of [[Kasca]]. It was long believed to be a language isolate, but recent research has discovered a genetic relationship to the [[Hitatc languages]]. In fact, Pirikõsu as the only remaining language of the coastal branch of this family provided several important clues for the reconstruction of [[Proto-Hitatc]]. Its nearest known relative is [[Necine]], spoken in the heart of the Ici forest, separated by a time depth of at least 3000 years. During this period Pirikõsu has picked up influences from various neighbouring languages; most notably southern [[Miwan languages|Miwan]] and northern [[Peninsular languages|Peninsular]] dialects, but also the language of the [[Fáralo]] colony at the mouth of the Şepamã which was established in the early 4th century. This sketch describes the Pirikõsu of the late 16th century, based on information gathered by the [[Kuaguatia|Kuaguatian]] ethnographer ''Manau Vondoar'' between 1578 and 1591 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]].

== Genealogy ==

* Proto-Hitatc (c. -3000 YP)
** Eastern Hitatc
*** Common Eastern Hitatc (c. -1800 YP)
**** Forest Hitatc
***** Necine (c. +1000 YP)
**** Coastal Hitatc
***** '''Pirikõsu''' (c. +1600 YP)
** Western Hitatc
*** Wan-Mlir languages (Steppe Hitatc)
*** Uplands Hitatc

= Phonology =

Pirikõsu had a simple but distinctive phonology with pure CV syllable structure and phonemic nasal vowels, both of which are features not found in any other Hitatc language.

== Phonemes ==

=== Consonants ===

Pirikõsu had the following sixteen consonant phonemes:

{| {{bluetable2}}
!
! labial
! dental
! postalveolar
! palatal
! velar
! glottal
|-
! plosive
| align="center" | '''p''' /p/
| align="center" | '''t''' /t/
|
|
| align="center" | '''k''' /k/
| align="center" | '''‘''' /ʔ/
|-
! fricative
| align="center" | '''f''' /f/
| align="center" | '''s''' /s/
| align="center" | '''ş''' /ʃ/
|
|
| align="center" | '''h''' /h/
|-
! nasal
| align="center" | '''m''' /m/
| align="center" | '''n''' /n/
|
| align="center" | '''ņ''' /ɲ/
| align="center" | '''ŋ''' /ŋ/
|
|-
! approximant
| align="center" | '''w''' /w/
| align="center" | '''l''' /l/
|
| align="center" | '''y''' /j/
|
|
|-
! trill
|
| align="center" | '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Vowels ===

The six basic vowel qualities of Pirikõsu were as follows:

{| {{bluetable2}}
!
! front
! central
! back
|-
!    high
| align="center" | '''i''' /i/
| align="center" | '''ı''' /ɨ/
| align="center" | '''u''' /u/
|-
! mid
| align="center" | '''e''' /e/
|
| align="center" | '''o''' /o/
|-
! low
|
| align="center" | '''a''' /a/
|
|}

* All vowel phonemes also existed in a nasalized version, written with a tilde above the letter: '''ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ỹ'''. ''(Note the use of'' '''ỹ''' ''for'' /ɨ̃/'').''
* Stressed oral vowels are indicated with a circumflex accent on syllables other than the penultimate: '''â ê î ô û ŷ'''.

== Phonological constraints ==

* The syllable structure of Pirikõsu was strictly '''CV'''. That is, all syllables must begin with exactly one consonant, and end with exactly one vowel.
* /ʔ ŋ/ did not occur in word-initial or stressed position.
* Oral /i/ did not occur in word-initial syllables that began with /h/.

== Allophones ==

* Plosives were usually voiced after a nasalized vowel, but not if they themselves belonged to a stressed syllable.
* Plosives following an oral vowel were pronounced aspirated if the next vowel was stressed.
* '''t''' was pronounced [ʦ] before '''i''' and '''ĩ''', except following a nasalized vowel.
* '''ã ẽ õ ỹ''' were pronounced as [ɑ̃ ɛ̃ ɔ̃ ə̃] respectively.
* '''ı''' became [ə] if the next syllable contained '''a ã''' or stressed '''ẽ õ'''.
* After stressed non-high oral vowels ('''â ê ô'''), the sequences '''‘i ‘ı ‘u''' were commonly reduced to a diphthongal offglide. For instance, '''â‘i''' was pronounced [aj], and '''ô‘u''' was pronounced [ow]. The central vowel '''ı''' reduced to [j] in such environments. The reduction did not happen if the next syllable would begin with the same glide, e.g. '''pê‘ıya''' [ˈpeʔəja].

== Prosody ==

* Pirikõsu had a dynamic stress accent, which was usually located on the last nasalized vowel in a word, or else on the penultimate syllable. Exceptions are marked with a circumflex accent.
* All in all Pirikõsu was a syllable-timed language; however, stressed syllables lasted about twice as long as unstressed ones.

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Hitatc languages]]

Peilaš

2008-06-23T12:59:26Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
'''Peilaš''' is a continent in the world of [[Akana]], with its mainland's northern- and southernmost reaches at approx. 60°N and 25°S and its western- and eastern- at approx. 92°W and 28°E. The continent is centered on a large cordillera, which runs from its eastern tip bowing to the south roughly east-northeast to 25°, where it turns north and grows broader and taller until 50°N, from where it runs east narrowing to the eastern end of the continent. It has expanses of lower land as a large peninsula in the far east, to either side of the mountains in the middle of the cordillera, and another, much larger one extending south from the east-northeast-going mountains.

== Names ==

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| (lu) Peilaš
| [lu ˈpelaʃ]
| ''"(the) large-land"''
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Pelasha
| [pelaʃə]
| ← Fáralo ''Peilaš'' (borrowed)
|-
! [[Adāta|Imperial Adāta]]
| Laspē
| [ˈlaspeː]
| ← Fáralo ''Peilaš'' (calque)
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Pyołas
| [ˈpʰjɔʟas]
| ← Fáralo ''Peilaš''
|-
! [[Aθáta]]
| Laspé
| [lasˈpe]
| ← Adāta ''Laspē''
|-
! [[Æðadĕ]]
| Læspe
| [ˈlæspe]
| ← Adāta ''Laspē''
|-
! [[E'át]]
| Lasplá
| [ləsˈpla]
| ← Aθáta ''Laspé''
|-
! [[Yād]]
| Lespē
| [ˈlɛspeː]
| ← Æðadĕ ''Læspe''
|-
! [[Zhaj]]
| Rısype
| [ˈɾɪsʉpe]
| ← Yād ''Lespē''
|-
! [[Yēt]]
| Lĭspī
| [ˈlispʰiːw]
| ← Yād ''Lespē''
|-
|}

----
{{Stub}}

[[Category:Akana]]

Necine

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Necine
| phonetic = ˈnɛ.ʦi.nə
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 1000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Ici Forest
| speakers = c. 25000
| script = none
| family = [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc]]  Eastern Hitatc   Forest Hitatc    Necine
| word-or = SVO
| mor-type = isolating
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[Serf:Cedh audmanh|Cedh audmanh]]
}}
{{Akana}}

= History and context =

'''Necine''' is a language from the eastern branch of the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc family]], spoken by three related tribes in the southwestern Ici Forest, along the southern fringes of [[Pencek|Tactak]] territory, around the turn of the first millennium [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It is noted for its abundance of nasal consonant sounds, including a series of phonemic prenasalized plosives.

With the current state of research, Necine is assumed to have been the last living language of its subfamily. Its closest known relative was [[Pirikõsu]], spoken in the Şepamã valley near the east coast of [[Peilaš]], but the last common ancestor - Common Eastern Hitatc - is estimated to have been spoken approximately three millennia earlier, and so Necine and Pirikõsu are usually classified into different sub-branches of Hitatc. However, it may well be that close sister languages to Necine somewhere in the depth of the Ici forest have survived to this day.

== Genealogy ==

* Proto-Hitatc (c. -3000 YP)
** Eastern Hitatc
*** Common Eastern Hitatc (c. -1800 YP)
**** Forest Hitatc
***** '''Necine''' (c. +1000 YP)
**** Coastal Hitatc
***** Pirikõsu (c. +1600 YP)
** Western Hitatc
*** Wan-Mlir languages (Steppe Hitatc)
*** Uplands Hitatc

= Phonology =

== Phonemes ==

=== Consonants ===

The consonant inventory of Necine is as follows:

{| {{bluetable2}}
!
! align="center" | labial
! align="center" | dental
! align="center" | postalveolar
! align="center" | retroflex
! align="center" | palatal
! align="center" | velar
! align="center" | labiovelar
! align="center" | glottal
|-
! plain plosive
| align="center" | '''p''' /p/
| align="center" | '''t''' /t/
|
| align="center" | '''ṭ''' /ʈ/
| align="center" | '''ty''' /c/
| align="center" | '''k''' /k/
|
|
|-
! prenasalized plosive
| align="center" | '''mb''' /ⁿb/
| align="center" | '''nd''' /ⁿd/
|
| align="center" | '''ṇḍ''' /ⁿɖ/
| align="center" | '''ndy''' /ⁿɟ/
| rowspan="2" align="center" | '''ng''' /ⁿɡ/ (gn) [ŋ]
| align="center" | '''ngb''' /ⁿɡ͡b/
|
|-
! nasal
| align="center" | '''m''' /m/
| align="center" | '''n''' /n/
|
| align="center" | '''ṇ''' /ɳ/
| align="center" | '''ny''' /ɲ/
| align="center" | '''ngm''' /ŋ͡m/
|
|-
! voiceless fricative
| align="center" | '''f''' /f/
| align="center" | '''s''' /s/
| align="center" | '''š''' /ʃ/
| align="center" | '''ṣ''' /ʂ/
|
|
|
| align="center" | '''h''' /h/
|-
! voiced fricative
| align="center" | '''v''' /v/
| align="center" | '''z''' /z/
| align="center" | '''ž''' /ʒ/
| align="center" | '''ẓ''' /ʐ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! voiced affricate
|
| align="center" | '''dz''' /ʣ/
| align="center" | '''dž''' /ʤ/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! lateral
|
| align="center" | '''l''' /l/
|
| align="center" | '''ḷ''' /ɭ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! approximant
|
|
|
| align="center" | '''r''' /ɻ/
| align="center" | '''y''' /j/
|
| align="center" | '''w''' /w/
|
|}

* For the "retroflex" consonants '''ṭ ṇḍ ṇ ṣ ẓ ḷ r''', the tip of the tongue was curled back only slightly, so that ''apical postalveolar'' might be a more accurate description.
* All contrasting coronals were laminal, that is, pronounced with the blade of the tongue. '''t nd n s z dz l''' had a ''lamino-dental'' articulation, while '''ty dy ny''' were ''lamino-palatal'' and '''š ž dž''' ''lamino-postalveolar''.
* Some linguists posit voiceless affricates /ʦ ʧ/ as additional phonemes. This is represented in a common orthographic transcription scheme, where these appear as '''c č''' respectively ''(hence, the name of the language is phonetically'' ['nɛ.ʦi.nə]'')''. However, for the purposes of this document the sounds in question will be treated as clusters.
* [ⁿɡ ŋ] were in complementary distribution, and are therefore analysed as a single phoneme. The cluster /kⁿɡ/ [kŋ, ɡŋ] was written '''kgn''' word-initially and '''ggn''' in medial positions.
* Similarly, medial /pm tn ʈɳ cɲ/ were written with "voiced" graphemes as well: '''bm dn ḍṇ dny'''.

=== Vowels ===

Necine had vowels of eight basic qualities, five of which existed in both long and short versions:

{| {{bluetable2}}
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" align="center" | front
! rowspan="2" align="center" | central
! rowspan="2" align="center" | back
|-
| style="background:#CCCCFF" align="center" | ''unrounded''
| style="background:#CCCCFF" align="center" | ''rounded''
|-
!    high
| align="center" | '''i ī''' /i iː/
| align="center" | '''ü''' /yː/
|
| align="center" | '''u ū''' /u uː/
|-
! mid
| align="center" | '''e ē''' /ɛ eː/
| align="center" | '''ö''' /øː/
| align="center" | '''ĕ''' /ə/
| align="center" | '''o ō''' /ɔ oː/
|-
! low
|
|
| align="center" | '''a ā''' /a aː/
|
|}

* '''ĕ''' was always short, while '''ö ü''' were always long.
* The quality of '''e o''' varied depending on their length: Short '''e o''' were open-mid [ɛ ɔ], while long '''ē ō''' were close-mid [eː oː].
* /ɛ/ did not contrast with /ə/ at the end of a word. Word-final short '''e''' is therefore pronounced [ə] in all cases.

== Phonological constraints ==

* The basic syllable structure was '''(C)(C)V(V)(C)'''.
* No word-final consonants.
* There were five diphtongs '''ai ei oi ui au''' [aɪ ɛɪ ɔɪ uɪ aʊ]. Other vowel sequences did not occur.
* Cluster rules: ''(P = plain plosive; B = prenasalized plosive; N = nasal; F = voiceless fricative; V = voiced fricative; S = '''s š'''; Z = '''z ž'''; L = '''l ḷ'''; Y = '''y w'''; µ = cluster must be homoorganic)''
** All clusters involving only obstruents must agree in voicing.
** Retroflex consonants clustered only with each other, with the exception of '''fṭ'''.
** '''h r''' did not appear in clusters at all.
** Legal initial clusters were: '''PF, FP, µPN, km, µNP, PY, BL, SL, ZL, S(m,n), ZN, FY, VY, NY'''.
** In medial position, the following clusters were also allowed: '''F(m,n), VN, LP, LF, LV, LN, LY'''.
** The only attested CCC cluster was '''nšt'''.

== Allophones ==

* Medial PN clusters were pronounced voiced (and commonly represented with "voiced" graphemes '''bm dn ḍṇ dny ggn''').
* '''h''' was [ç] before front vowels, and [h] elsewhere.
* Front vowels were slightly lowered before retroflex consonants.

== Prosody ==

* Necine had strong dynamic stress, usually on the first syllable. Exceptions are marked with an acute accent.
* Long vowels and diphthongs lasted about twice as long as short vowels.

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Hitatc languages]]

Ndok Aisô

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
'''Ndok Aisô''' [n̩ˈdok̚ ˈaj.sɞ] is a language descended from [[Ndak Ta]] and spoken by the Ndok people of [[Lasomo]] (native: '''Axôltseubeu'''). While boasting a large number of speakers, its existence as a language was never standardized in the manner of its sisters [[Adāta]] and [[Fáralo]]. This language sketch is based on writings from the second half of the 13th Dynasty of Ngahêxôldod (ca. 250 YP); the major differences between this and the other main prestige variety, that of the city of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]], will be discussed briefly. While the southern variety described here was extinct by 500 YP at the latest, being displaced principally by Adāta, the northern dialects survived in pockets for at least a millennium beyond this.

==Sound Changes from Ndak Ta==
''Ndak Ta to Pre-Ndok ca. -1000.'' 
1. All vowels should henceforth be treated as phonemically nasalized before /m n ŋ ŋʷ/, with occasional exceptions such as '''omo''' "mother" [o.mo] and likewise its derivative '''Latsomo'''. Nasal vowels were laxed in Ndak Ta, and the dialect that gave rise to Ndok Aisô had this feature, but it apparerently lacked the rule that /a e i ai au/ were laxed in closed syllables. 
2. /a/ raises to /æ/, and /e/ raises to /æj/, before non-final /k g/. 
3. /a/ raises to /æ/, and /ai au/ to /æj æw/, before /r/. 
4. Remaining /a/ merges with /o/ into /ɑ/, and /ai au/ merge to /ɑj/. Nasal vowels are unaffected. 
5. Final syllabic nasals as in '''mabm''' "mouth" are dropped. 
6. Non-initial /m n ŋ/ (exceptions follow) merge with /b d g/ and /ŋʷ/ becomes /gʷ/, but preceding vowels remain nasalized. /mb mbʷ nd ŋg/ become geminate voiced stops /bb bbʷ dd gg/. But geminate nasals as in '''ammi''' "fly" simplify to single nasals without undergoing fortition to plosives. /mp nt nʦ ŋk ŋkʷ/ remain unaffected. New clusters assimilate in voicing; for example /sm/ > /sb/ > /sp/; /pŋ/ > /pg/ > /pk/. 
7. Sporadically, there is a tendency for initial CV syllables to switch to VC, as in Latsomo > *'''ɑlʦɑbɑ''', or Tsinakan > *'''itsdækãd'''. This is occasionally attested with medial syllables, as in Ngkeladadn > *'''ŋkeɑldɑd'''. 
8. Around this time, stress shifts to the final syllable if it is closed, otherwise to the penultimate. 
9. Various cluster changes and simplifications: /kt/ > /ks/, /dg/ > /g/, /pk/ > /k/. 
10. Any vowel hiatus is broken up with a glottal stop: *ŋkeɑldɑd > *'''ŋkeʔɑldɑd''' (this is a continuing synchronic phonological rule in the language). 
11. Intervocalic /k g/ become /χ/. 
 
''Pre-Ndok to Ndok Aisô ca. 250.'' 
12. /ɑ/ breaks to /əw/ in open syllables. In stressed closed syllables it becomes /o/, and in unstressed closed syllables it becomes a lax rounded phoneme reflected as /ɞ/ in the modern dialect. 
13. /æ/ raises to /e/, but if there is already an /e/ in the next syllable, it becomes /a/. /æj æw/ always become /aj aw/. 
14. Denasalization of nasal vowels: /ã/ > /a/, /ẽ ĩ/ > /ɛ/, /õ/ > /o/, /ũ/ > /u/, /ãi/ > /aj/, /ãw/ > /aw/. 
15. /bʷ/ backs to /gʷ/. 
16. Intervocalic /w/ fortifies to /gʷ/. 
17. Any sequence of consonant + /w/ becomes C + /ɞʔ/: *mpɑiswəw "fish" > *'''mpɑisɞʔəw'''. This does not affect labiovelars /kʷ gʷ ŋʷ/. 
18. Labiovelars become plain velars: /kʷ gʷ ŋʷ/ > /k g ŋ/. 
19. The geminate voiced stops /bb dd gg/ shift to new fortis phonemes written '''p' t' k'''' and pronounced as aspirates by most speakers, but as ejectives in some rural northern dialects. 
20. Non-initial /mp nt nʦ ŋk/ become /f s s χ/. 
21. Intervocalic /r/ becomes /ʔ/. 
22. /əw/ shifts to /ɛw/ and /ɑj/ to /ɔj/. 
23. Final /i u/ diphthongize to /iə uə/. 
24. /e/ lowers to /ɛ/ when adjacent to /χ/. 
25. Final /t/ and /d/ weaken to /ʔ/. Other final plosives tend to be unreleased. 
26. Intervocalic voiced stops lenite: /b d g/ > [β ð ɣ]. 
 
''Further changes in the dialect of Ngahêxôldod.''
*/χ/ has weakened to /h/.
*/ɛ/ is normally centralized, or sometimes fully central as [ɜ] or [ə].
* < p' t' k' > are aspirates.
*/iə uə/ merge with /ɛw ɔj/.
*Changes to /r/: non-final coda /r/ becomes /l/ and final coda /r/ is dropped.

''Further changes in the dialect of Oigop'oibauxeu.''
*Ngah. /ɛ ɞ/ corresponds to Oig. /ɛ ɔ/.
* < p' t' k' > are aspirates.
*/iə uə/ merge with /ɛ ɔ/.
*Changes to /r/: Coda /r/ is dropped. Clusters of plosive + /r/ have merged with the aspirates.

''Further changes to upland Northern dialects.''
*/ʦ/ palatalizes to /ʧ/.
*/ɛ/ is fully front; some speakers pronounce it [æ].
*Rules 21 and 23-25 above are absent.
*Otherwise, Ngah. /ɞ/ corresponds to Northern /ə/.
* < p' t' k' > are ejectives.
*Various simplifications of diphthongs.
*/r/ merges with /l/; when this occurs after a consonant the cluster is broken up with a /ə/.

==Phonology==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{| cellpadding="4" border="1"
|
| ''Labial''
| ''Dental''
| ''Alveolar''
| ''Velar''
| ''Glottal''
|-
| ''Unvoiced Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
| '''ts''' /ʦ/
| '''k''' /k/
| '''x''' /ʔ/
|-
| ''Voiced Plosive''
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| ''Aspirate Plosive''
| '''p'''' /pʰ/
| '''t'''' /tʰ/
|
| '''k'''' /kʰ/
|
|-
| ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
| ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
| ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /ɾ/
|
|
|-
| ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

'''t''' or '''d''' also represent /ʔ/ morpheme-finally; the spelling choice is etymological.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{| cellpadding="4" border="1"
|
| ''Front''
| ''Central''
| ''Back''
|-
| ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
|
| '''u''' /u/
|-
| ''Mid-Close''
| '''e''' /e/
|
| '''o''' /o/
|-
| ''Mid-Open''
| '''ê''' /ɛ/
| '''ô''' /ɞ/
|
|-
| ''Open''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Diphthongs===
{| cellpadding="4" border="1"
| '''eu''' [ɛw]
| '''oi''' [ɔj]
|-
| '''au''' [aw]
| '''ai''' [aj]
|}

===Allophony===
*/ɛ/ tends to be somewhat centralized: [ɛ¨]. A fully central [ɜ] may be heard also.
*The realization of /ɞ/ is not entirely stable: it is always rounded and usually central, but may be pronounced as high as [ɵ] or can be partially fronted as [œ¨].
*/i u/ lax to [ɪ ʊ] in closed syllables.
*Intervocalic /b d g/ become [β ð ɣ].
*All plosives in word-final position are unreleased (these being /p b k g/, as all /t d/ have become /ʔ/).

===Stress and Phonotactics===
*Syllables are of the structure (C)V(C). Clusters are limited to nasal + stop in initial position. A wider variety may occur in medial position.
*Syllabic nasals occur only before a homorganic stop in initial position.
*The glottal stop has phonemic status, and can occur in intervocalic or final position.
*Stress usually falls on the final syllable if it is closed; on the penult, if it is open.
*Exceptions to the above come from insertion of epenthetic vowels, loss of final consonants, and various borrowings. In these irregular cases the accented syllable is marked with an acute.
*Intonation of words is rather flat. The stressed syllable is pronounced at a slightly lower pitch. If the stressed syllable is open, it is lengthened noticeably.

===Example Words===
*'''t'êl''' [tʰɛ¨l] ''fruit''
*'''maisa''' [ˈma:j.sa] ''cows' milk''
*'''mpóisôxeu''' [mˈpɔ:j.sɞ.ʔɛw] ''fish''
*'''euba''' [ˈɛ:w.βa] ''to be a nuisance''
*'''gêk’oitsoi''' [gɛ¨ˈkʰɔ:j.ʦɔj] ''inheritance''
*'''Ngahêxôldod''' [ŋa.hɛ¨.ʔɞlˈdoʔ] ''a major city''
*'''Oigop'oibauxeu''' [ɔj.ɣo.pʰɔjˈβa:w.ʔɛw] ''a major city''
*'''Êtsdehad''' [ɛ¨ʦ.deˈhaʔ] ''a deity; the Ndak emperor Tsinakan''

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Ndak Ta

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Ndak Ta
| phonetic = n̩ˈdɐk.ta
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Kasca, Aiwa valley, Rathedān, Sau Ibli
| speakers = c. 6 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Macro-Edastean  Talo-Edastean   Ndak Ta
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = mixed
| morphalign = Split-S
| author = [[Serf:Radius|Radius]]
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Ndak Ta''' is the language of the ancient [[Ndak empire]] based in [[Kasca|Kasadgad]] around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. During the reign of emperor [[Tsinakan text|Tsinakan]] (r. -1915 to -1889 YP), the empire came to dominate the whole lower and middle [[Aiwa valley]], the [[Rathedān]] highlands, and the coast up to the Čisse river in the north and the Şepamã river in the south. As a result, the [[Edastean languages|Edastean language family]] descended from Ndak Ta became the most important linguistic group in north-central [[Peilaš]] for many millennia.

== Genealogy ==
Ndak Ta itself belongs to the Talo-Edastean subbranch of the Macro-Edastean family. It is most closely related to [[Andagg]], spoken on the upper Bwimbai, and [[Tlaliolz]], spoken in the forest of Lu Tal. Another, more remote relative of Ndak Ta is [[Proto-Xoronic]], the ancestor of the [[Habeo languages]] and [[Damak]].

* Proto-Macro-Edastean (c. -3500 YP)
** Proto-Talo-Edastean (c. -2500 YP)
*** Andaggic
**** [[Andagg]] (c. -1900 YP)
*** Talo
**** [[Tlaliolz]] (wordlist from 300 YP)
*** Edastean
**** '''Ndak Ta''' (c. -1900 YP)
** [[Proto-Xoronic]] (c. -2500 YP)

=== Descendants ===
Ndak Ta is the ancestor of the [[Edastean languages]], one of [[Akana]]'s largest language families. It had seven immediate descendants, the most important of which were ''Adāta'' and ''Fáralo''.

* '''Dāiadak languages''': [[Adāta]] ([[Rathedān]])
* '''Fáralo languages''': [[Fáralo]] ([[Huyfárah]])
* [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]] ([[Kasca]])
* [[Ndok Aisô]] ([[Lasomo|Axôltseubeu]])
* [[Qedik]] (north coast)
* Ðaleglo (Dagæm islands)
* Komeyech ([[Eiwəl Gourun]])

== See also ==
* [http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Ndak_Ta Ndak Ta grammar]
* [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~bpawlows/temp/lexicon_alph.html Ndak Ta lexicon]
* [http://img413.imageshack.us/img413/7668/04ndakempirebx8.png Map of the Ndak Empire at the death of Tsinakan (-1889 YP)]

[[Category:Edastean languages]]

Namɨdu

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Namɨdu
| phonetic = nɐˈmɨ.du
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 1100 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Southern Huyfárah
| speakers = c. 3 million
| script = adapted Ngauro script
| family = Edastean  Fáralo    Namɨdu
| word-or = AuxSOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[Serf:Dunomapuka|boy #12]]
}}
'''Namɨdu''' [nɐˈmɨ.du] or '''Forło Namɨdu''' [ˈfʌɾ.ʟɔ nɐˈmɨ.du] is the descendant of Fáralo spoken in the city of Mɨdu (Miədu) and surrounding areas. At its greatest extent the city-state has controlled approximately the southern 1/4 of the former territory of Huyfárah and the portion of Kasca north of the delta, and at other times only a small area around the city itself. Regardless, it is likely the most influential language of Fáralo-descendants as of 1100 YP.

The language belongs to a larger dialect group that contains the encompassing the coast from Ussor south, including the cities of '''Myendya''' (Mæmedéi, local ''Mendia'') and '''Azbyebbu''' (Azbǽbu; local ''Abebbu''). Inland areas belong to different dialect groups, as do the Oltu Valley (including Ussor) and areas further north.

{{Akana}}

==Sound Changes from Fáralo==
''Classical Fáralo to Southern Fáralo ca. 400.'' 
1. Coda /r/ shifts to /ə/. 
2. Non-syllabic /o/ merges with /w/. 
3. Vowel breaking creates rising diphthongs: /æ/ ➝ /jɛ/; /e/ ➝ /jə/; /o/ ➝ /wə/. If another vowel follows, then /e/ ➝ /jəj/; /o/➝ /wəw/. 
4. Monophthongization of falling diphthongs: /iə/ ➝ /i:/; /uw uə/ ➝ /u:/; /aw aə/ ➝ /a:/; /ɔw ɔə/ ➝ /ɔ:/; /ɛw ɛə/ ➝ /ɛ:/; /uj/ ➝ /y:/; /əw əə/ ➝ /ə:/. 
5. /i/ before another vowel reduces to /j/, and /u/ reduces to /w/. 
6. /j/, including any new /j/ from the preceding changes, is deleted when following a postalveolar. 
7. Single consonants are geminated after stressed short vowels. The gemination occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. 
8. Intervocalic single /g/ becomes /j/, while the geminate remains /gg/. 
9. Intervocalic single /f/ becomes /v/, while the geminate remains /ff/. 
10. Final /h/, /f/ are lost. 
 
''Southern Fáralo to Namɨdu ca. 1100''. 
11. Depalatalization of /ʃ ʧ ʤ/ to /s ʦ ʣ/. 
12. /ŋ/ is deleted in final position. Otherwise it fronts to /ñ/, but remains allophonically as [ŋ] before a velar consonant. /ñj/ simplifies to /ñ/, but /nj/ remains distinct. 
13. Syncope of unstressed short vowels in medial syllables, or in some cases initial syllables if before the stress. This is blocked if it would create a cluster of three consonants, but a sequence of geminate + vowel + consonant will lose the vowel and simplify the geminate (*'''mebbelo''' "farm" ➝ *'''meblo'''). Occasionally the vowel drops out even though it creates a triple consonant cluster, which then simplifies (*'''byobulsa''' "vagina" ➝ *'''byoblsa''' ➝ '''byopsa'''). 
14. Stressed short /a/ becomes /ɔ/. 
15. /wə/ becomes /wɛ/, and /jə/ becomes /jɔ/, except in final stressed position, where these become /wa/, /ja/. Sequences of /wə:/ or /jə:/ with a long schwa are unaffected. 
16. Stress is moved to the penultimate. 
17. All coda /l/ velarizes to [ɫ], as does /l/ after a consonant and before a back vowel. Geminate /ll/ is pronounced [ɫɫ]. 
18. /ə/ merges with /a/; the new phoneme is pronounced [ɐ] in final position and [a] otherwise. /ə:/ becomes /a:/. 
19. Long vowels simplify: /a:/ ➝ /a/; /ɛ:/ ➝ /ɛ/; /ɔ:/ ➝ /ɔ/; /i: u: y:/ ➝ /ɨ/. 
20. Various cluster modifications: Any sequence of /jw/ or /wj/ becomes a front rounded glide /ɥ/. /rw lw/ simpify to /r l/. /st/ reduces to /s/ (finally) or /ss/ (medially); it remains initially. /sk/ also becomes /s/ finally but remains otherwise; /sts/ is unaffected. /ñl/ becomes /ññ/, and /ñw/ becomes /ñɥ/, but velar [ŋɫ] remains as such. 
21. The /v/ phoneme shifts to /w/, and geminate /vv/ to /bb/. 
22. /rr ll ww jj/ simplify to /r ɫ w j/. 
23. Due to several preceding changes, /l/ and /ɫ/ must now be treated as phonemically distinct: they can both occur intervocallically. 
 
''Incipient sound changes.'' 
-Much of the urban population in the city of Mɨdu itself is losing the /ɨ/ phoneme, which becomes /i/ medially and /ɛ/ finally, unless there's a /u/ or /w/ in the next syllable, in which case it assimilates to /u/. Thus '''hɨm''' "cloud" ➝ '''him'''; '''idɨ''' "sea" ➝ '''ide'''; '''Mɨdu''' ➝ '''Mudu'''. Others shift it to /e/ in all positions (still distinguished from /ɛ/, and still other dialects retain it in all positions. 
-Some speakers are simplifying /mm nn ññ/ to /m n ñ/. 
-/ɫ/ before a consonant may be pronounced [ɣ]. 

== Phonology ==
===Consonant Phonemes===
{|
|
| ''Labial''
| ''Dental''
| ''Alveolar''
| ''Palatal''
| ''Velar''
| ''Glottal''
|-
| ''Plosive''
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
| ''Affricate''
|
|
| '''ts''' /ts/ '''dz''' /dz/
|
|
|
|-
| ''Fricative''
| '''f''' /f/
|
| '''s''' /s/ '''z''' /z/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
| ''Nasal''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ñ''' /ɲ/
|
|
|-
| ''Liquid''
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
| '''ł''' /ʟ/
|
|-
| ''Glide''
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/ '''ÿ''' /ɥ/
| '''w''' /w/
|
|}

The nasals, and all the obstruents except /h/, may occur as geminates.

===Vowel Phonemes===
{|
|
| ''Front''
| ''Central''
| ''Back''
|-
| ''High''
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ɨ''' /ɨ/
| '''u ''' /u/
|-
| ''Mid''
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
| ''Low''
|
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

===Details===
*Initial voiceless stops (and /ts/) may be lightly aspirated.
*/ɲ/ is pronounced [ŋ] before the velar consonants /k g ʟ/. 
*Pronunciation of /ʟ/ varies freely between velar [ʟ] and velarized alveolar [ɫ].
*/r/ is trilled in initial position, and otherwise becomes a tap [ɾ]. Some populations have a uvular [ʀ] for the trill; historically, one of these was the Epɨm religious minority, but this feature is disappearing among them as their population becomes less isolated.
*In unstressed morpheme-final position, including prefixes such as '''na'''-, /a/ is pronounced [ɐ].
*In the standard dialect, /ɔ/ is unrounded to [ʌ] in closed syllables.
*Words are stressed on the penultimate syllable of the root. Grammatical prefixes and suffixes are always unstressed.

Examples: 
* '''uro''' [ˈu.ɾɔ] "hostile"
* '''pwen''' [ˈpwɛn] "island"
* '''napwen''' [nɐˈpwɛn] "of the island"
* '''bodde''' [ˈbʌd.dɛ] "father
* '''kusryem''' [ˈkus.ɾjɛm] "olive"
* '''yedurud''' [jɛ.duˈɾud] "to some men"
* '''yezahyoł''' [jɛ.zɐˈhjʌʟ] "to the foreign countries"

== Morphology ==
===Noun Declension===
Noun morphology is prefixing. Nouns are inflected for three numbers (singular, plural, partitive plural) and several cases. The citation form of a noun is the singular ''accusative''. 

'''bÿa''' "star"
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
| Partitive
|-
| Accusative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''zbÿa'''
| '''duzbÿa'''
|-
| Nominative
| '''bÿa'''
| '''kabÿa'''
| '''duppÿa'''
|-
| Appositive
| '''abÿa'''
| '''azbÿa'''
| '''aduzbÿa'''
|}

'''kɨta''' "demon"
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
| Partitive
|-
| Accusative
| '''kɨta'''
| '''skɨta'''
| '''duskɨta'''
|-
| Nominative
| '''gɨta'''
| '''kayɨta'''
| '''dukkɨta'''
|-
| Appositive
| '''akɨta'''
| '''askɨta'''
| '''aduskɨta'''
|}

'''aba''' "mason, metalworker"
{|
|
| Singular
| Plural
| Partitive
|-
| Accusative
| '''aba'''
| '''zaba'''
| '''duzaba'''
|-
| Nominative
| '''aba'''
| '''gaba'''
| '''dugaba'''
|-
| Appositive
| '''awaba'''
| '''azaba'''
| '''aduzaba'''
|}

*The singular nominative is distinguished from the singular accusative only in nouns beginning with /p t k h/, and a few with /w/ (viz. wiło "house," wimma "marsh," wosse "this"). These nouns form the nominative (the accusative being the unmarked form) via the ''primary consonant mutation'':
**/p/ ➝ /b/
**/t/ ➝ /d/
**/k/ ➝ /g/
**/h/ ➝ /s/
**/w/ ➝ /s/
(But recall that /w/ does not usually do this: '''wedde''' "vegetable" acc. ➝ '''wedde''' nom.) 

*The plural accusative is marked with '''z'''-, which becomes '''s'''- before a voiceless consonant, and '''za'''- before '''h'''. '''zñ''' becomes '''zn'''. The partitive is formed by prefixing '''du'''- to the plural.

*The plural nominative is marked with '''g'''- before a vowel and '''ka'''- before a consonant. The primary consonant mutation is applied. The partitive is formed by prefixing '''du'''-, but '''duka'''- reduces to '''duk'''-. If a plosive consonant follows, then the /k/ is assimilated, forming a voiceless geminate ('''bomma''' wheat ➝ '''duppomma'''). Furthermore, /kts/ and /kdz/ reduce to /ks/ ('''tsoro''' junk ➝ '''duksoro''').

*Additional tenses all attach a prefix to the accusative form: '''a'''- for the appositive, '''na'''- for the genitive, and '''ye'''- for the dative (only the appositive has been listed in the charts; all three work the same way morphologically). Before a vowel, these prefixes become '''aw'''-, '''naw'''-, '''yem'''-. Before some consonants, they trigger the ''secondary consonant mutation'': /g/ lenites to /j/ and /f/ lenites to /w/, if these are followed by a vowel (thus '''gossu''' "rabbit" ➝ '''nayossu''' "of a rabbit," '''forɫo''' "Fáralo" ➝ '''naworɫo''' "of Fáralo"). 

''Diachronic notes: Fáralo had a number of clitics used as determiners and deictics. '''lu'''- "the" survives only as a derivational prefix. '''edu'''- "a" was dropped in the singular, while the plural form took on a partitive meaning. '''wa'''- "this" and '''si'''- "that" have vanished entirely. Once the clitics were gone, the consonant mutation could be used with bare nouns. Meanwhile, new cases prefixes (appositive, genitive, dative) were derived from prepositions ('''a'''- from'' a ''"he/she," '''na'''- from'' na ''"on," '''ye'''- from'' æm ''"to him/her").'' 
''Fáralo had a class of words that were inherently plural:'' kipa ''"rice alcohol,"'' kpuəma ''"smoke, steam," but these have been reinterpreted as singulars.''

===Verb Conjugation===
Almost all verb phrases involve the use of an ''auxiliary'' plus the ''main verb.'' The main verb is marked only for the number of the subject: the singular is unmarked, and the plural and partitive plural add -'''k''' after vowels; consonant stems are more irregular, but as a guideline, if the final consonant is a nasal or obstruent, double it and add -'''ek'''.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''potsnak''' to count (pl.)
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''yeddek''' to stand (pl.)
*'''loz''' to shut ➝ '''lozzek''' to shut (pl.)
*'''osłok''' to forget ➝ '''osłokkek''' to forget (pl.)
*'''pryen''' to design ➝ '''pryennek''' to design (pl.)

A fair number of verbs involve the elimination of a medial vowel rather than consonant gemination. This is treated as an irregularity, however common.
*'''russan''' to slander ➝ '''rusnek''' to slander (pl.)
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''kozlek''' to see; look at (pl.)

Irregular plurals, which are rather ubiquitous, will be noted in the lexicon.

The preceding half of the verb phrase is the ''auxiliary.'' Each auxiliary carries some aspectual information, and the three verb tenses (present, past perfective, imperfect) and the negatives of each are marked on it. Number is not marked on the auxiliary since it is carried on the main verb. The principal auxiliaries are listed here:

{|
|
| Present
| Perfective
| Imperfect
| Neg. Present
| Neg. Perf.
| Neg. Imp.
|-
| null
| '''sis'''
| '''sen'''
| '''sed'''
| '''mosis'''
| '''mosen'''
| '''mosed'''
|-
| can
| '''bwo'''
| '''bÿen'''
| '''bÿed'''
| '''ebwo'''
| '''ebÿen'''
| '''ebÿed'''
|-
| should
| '''is'''
| '''isen'''
| '''ised'''
| '''mis'''
| '''misen'''
| '''mised'''
|-
| conditional
| '''utsis'''
| '''utsen'''
| '''utsed'''
| '''mutsis'''
| '''mutsen'''
| '''mutsed'''
|-
| plan to
| '''we'''
| '''wen'''
| '''wed'''
| '''me'''
| '''men'''
| '''med'''
|-
| seem
| '''ida'''
| '''idryen'''
| '''idryed'''
| '''mida'''
| '''midryen'''
| '''midryed'''
|-
| need
| '''yeda'''
| '''yedan'''
| '''yedad'''
| '''myeda'''
| '''myedan'''
| '''myedad'''
|-
| want
| '''oł'''
| '''olin'''
| '''oled'''
| '''moł'''
| '''molin'''
| '''moled'''
|-
| start
| '''hyeppe'''
| '''hyeppen'''
| '''hyepped'''
| '''myeppe'''
| '''myeppen'''
| '''myepped'''
|-
| stop
| '''to'''
| '''ton'''
| '''tod'''
| '''meto'''
| '''meton'''
| '''metod'''
|-
| cause
| '''ɨm'''
| '''ɨmen'''
| '''ɨmed'''
| '''mɨm'''
| '''mɨmen'''
| '''mɨmed'''
|-
| just did
| '''pila'''
| '''pilan'''
| '''pilad'''
| '''epila'''
| '''epilan'''
| '''epilad'''
|-
| progressive
| '''yede'''
| '''yeden'''
| '''yeded'''
| '''myede'''
| '''myeden'''
| '''myeded'''
|-
| emphatic
| '''pyotta'''
| '''pyottan'''
| '''pyottad'''
| '''epyotta'''
| '''epyottan'''
| '''epyottad'''
|-
| disjunct imperative
| '''e'''
| --
| --
| '''ema'''
| --
| --
|}

''Diachronic notes: The essential workings of this system are unchanged since Fáralo; in Namɨdu they have completely replaced the bare verb conjugation (except, partially, for the imperative; see below). But some things have changed: the irrealis has been dropped; numbers are no longer marked on the auxiliary; specific negative forms have been innovated for each tense by various analogical processes. There has been a fair amount of reshuffling and discarding of specific auxiliaries. The conditional '''''utsis''''' was taken from the irrealis of "should" and was developed into a separate series.''

The ''copula'' functions similarly to an auxiliary - indeed, it is derived from one denoting the progressive - except that it distinguishes singular from plural, as there is no main verb to mark the number on.
{|
|
| Present
| Perfective
| Imperfect
| Neg. Present
| Neg. Perf.
| Neg. Imp.
|-
| Singular
| '''odu'''
| '''odun'''
| '''odud'''
| '''modu'''
| '''modun'''
| '''modud'''
|-
| Plural
| '''oduk'''
| '''odnek'''
| '''oddek'''
| '''moduk'''
| '''modnek'''
| '''moddek'''
|}

The ''conjunct imperative'' is the only remainder of the basic, non-auxiliary conjugation. It is used in imperative phrases with no subject or object given, that thus nothing would come between the auxiliary and the main verb (the disjunct version is an auxiliary, see above). It takes the form of a verb prefix: affirmative '''e'''-, negative '''ema'''-. The ''primary'' and ''secondary consonant mutations'' both apply. The verb is conjugated for number as usual; no distinction in tense is made.
*'''potsna''' to count ➝ '''ebotsna''' count!
*'''yedde''' to stand ➝ '''eyedde''' stand up!
*'''kozził''' to see; look at ➝ '''eyozlek''' don't look! (said to group)

===Pronouns===
{|
|
| Nom.
| Acc.
| Gen.
| Dat.
|-
| I
| '''i'''
| '''ɨbu'''
| '''yets'''
| '''ɨm'''
|-
| thou
| '''leku'''
| '''leku'''
| '''lekum'''
| '''yeku'''
|-
| he/she
| '''a'''
| '''yebu'''
| '''yem'''
| '''ya'''
|-
| we
| '''luki'''
| '''luzis'''
| '''lɨtam'''
| '''yetsi'''
|-
| you
| '''do'''
| '''dwe'''
| '''dwem'''
| '''yeñu'''
|-
| they
| '''ok'''
| '''obu'''
| '''yem'''
| '''yeya'''
|-
| who
| '''dzeya'''
| '''dzeyu'''
| '''dzeyum'''
| '''yedza'''
|}

The combined pronoun forms of Fáralo have been dropped.

To communicate a reflexive in the 3p, use the special pronoun '''tsi''' "himself/herself" as the object: '''sen a tsi kodda''' "he covered himself."

== Syntax ==

== Sample Text ==
This example is from a stele erected outside Mɨbaz (Muəbaz/Momuva’e) by Sɨntsen (Siənčæn/Tsinakan), the greatest of the ancient Edok (Edák/Ndak) emperors.

'''Sis Sɨntsen, kros atsak yelos Akozyad, wa amekot yelɨdoł wa yeluñɨb, me bi: Isłu hyeppen i mu lepeło yebodde i epe, sed yak kasyoł ɨm uro esnek.'''
* NULL.AUX Tsinakan / brave APP-king DAT-land APP-Kasadgad / and APP-younger.brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon / speak QUOT / before start-PAST I on throne DAT-father I sit / NULL.AUX-IMP all NOM.PL-foreign.country DAT.me hostile act-PL
'''Sen kasyoł mek bi:'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST NOM.PL-foreign.country speak-PL QUOT
'''"Odud ya bodde kros tsak rema sen a os dusahyoł asezzuł.'''
*be-IMP his father brave king that NULL.AUX-past he many PART-foreign.country conquer.
'''Ÿosso odun a ryen nogga mus. Dod odu a dyop, arud rema sis a mu lepeło yebodde a epe,” sip.'''
*now be-PAST he like god grow / but be he punk / APP-man that NULL.AUX he on throne DAT-father he sit / END.QUOT
'''Sorma sen i amekot yelɨdoł wa yeluñɨb mu lepeło yebodde i epe, wa isłu wen i yesahyoł rema sed ok ɨm uro esnek nwen,'''
*when NULL.AUX-past I APP-younger.brother DAT-sun and DAT-moon on throne DAT-father I sit / and before plan-PAST I DAT-NOM.PL-foreign.country that NULL.AUX-IMP they DAT.me hostile act-PL go
'''Sen i yezwizze Nawuboz nwen.'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST I DAT.PL-feast GEN-Ombási go
'''Sen i obu kettsem wa sen i yets twen ñatołed yewemmu uła. Sen i me bi:'''
*NULL.AUX-past I them honor and NULL-AUX.past I my hand GER-shine DAT-mother lift / NULL.AUX-past I speak QUOT
'''“Tsɨza, toł nazbÿa, yede ksussilos, rema yede ok ɨm dyop sekkak, ɨbu dzappak.'''
*my.lady / light GEN.PL-star / PROG NOM.PL-neighboring.land that PROG they DAT.me punk call-PL me insult-PL.
'''Ÿosso hyeppen ok skokło naweddenilos leku pubbɨtek, tsɨza!'''
*now start-PAST they PL-border GEN-holy.land you attack-PL / my.lady
'''E ñassis eps!" sip.'''
*IMPER traitor destroy / END.QUOT
'''Sen Uboz zlegga namobbe i ryettu.'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST Ombási PL-word GEN-mouth I hear
'''Sen a ɨbu uła wa ɨmen a yets idÿe ryen dzɨku mus.'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST she DAT.me raise and cause-PAST she my arm like strong grow
'''Sen i gyeddze rema sen ok ɨbu dzappak rye ro zlyod assezuł wa eps.'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST I those that NULL.AUX-PAST they DAT.me insult-PL within ten PL-year conquer and destroy
'''Sen i duzmottsud wa duzbwes wa duzgyopsa kreta, wa sen i obu gyo los Akozyad piła.'''
*NULL.AUX-PAST I PART-slave and PART-ox and PART-sheep capture / and NULL.AUX-PAST I them to land APP-Kasadgad send

''Thus speaks Tsinakan, the great king, king of the land of Kasadgad, brother to the sun and moon:'' 
''Before I sat on the throne of my father, all the foreign countries were hostile against me. The neighboring foreign countries spoke thus: "his father was a valiant king. He had conquered enemy countries. Then he became a god. But the one who now sits on the throne of his father is a child."'' 
''When I, brother to the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, even before I went to the foreign countries who were hostile against me, I went to the feasts of the mother goddess. I celebrated them and I lifted my hand toward the shining mother. I spoke thus:'' 
''"O my mistress, light of the stars, the neighboring countries who called me 'a child' have belittled me. Then, they have started to attack the borders of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathen down!"'' 
''The mother goddess heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and strengthened my arm. I defeated those who rose against me in ten years. I have destroyed them. I captured prisoners, oxes and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kasadgad.''

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Edastean languages]]
[[Category:2nd millennium Akana]]

Mûtsipsa'

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Mûtsipsa'
| phonetic = mɯ.ʦɪˈpsɐʔ
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Mûtsinamtsys
| speakers = c. 250.000
| script = Takuña script (abugida)
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]  Northern   Mûtsipsa'
| word-or = SOV
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = Rory
}}{{Akana}}

'''Mûtsipsa'''' is a language of the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]]. It was spoken around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] in the nation of [[Mûtsinamtsys]], situated on the islands of [[Ke'idû'ûs'as]] and [[Dûkejdih]] off the [[Siixtaguna]] coast. Most of the basic texts of [[Etúgə]], the national religion of imperial [[Huyfárah]], were originally written in Mûtsipsa'.

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Mûtsipsa'''' (c. 0-200 YP)

Mûtsipsa' and its geographically closest relative [[Máotatšàlì]], which is spoken on [[Tymytỳs]] off the northeastern edge of [[Peilaš]], are sometimes regarded as a genetic Northern subgroup of the Isles family. However, the evidence is unconclusive. There are obvious similarities in phonology, grammar and lexicon; but these may as well be due to areal influence such as extensive contact both with each other and with native languages of the [[Núalís-Takuña languages|Núalís-Takuña]] family.

== See also ==
* [http://www.r0ry.co.uk/mutsipsa%27.html Mûtsipsa' grammar]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Máotatšàlì

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Conlang3
| language = Máotatšàlì
| phonetic = ˈmáw.ta.ʧà.lì
| world = [[Akana]]
| date = c. 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]
| place = Tymytỳs
| speakers = unknown
| script = unknown
| family = [[Proto-Isles|Isles languages]]  Northern   Máotatšàlì
| word-or = VSO
| mor-type = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author = [[Serf:Kolyn|kolyn]]
}}{{Akana}}

'''Máotatšàlì''' is the language spoken by the Tymúlaslì people of the northerly island of [[Tymytỳs]] around 0-200 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. It belongs to the [[Proto-Isles|Isles family]].

== Genealogy ==
* Proto-Isles (c. -2000 YP)
** '''Máotatšàlì''' (c. 0-200 YP)

Máotatšàlì and its geographically closest relative [[Mûtsipsa']], which is spoken on the [[Mûtsinamtsys]] islands [[Ke'idû'ûs'as]] and [[Dûkejdih]] off the [[Siixtaguna]] coast, are sometimes regarded as a genetic Northern subgroup of the Isles family. However, the evidence is unconclusive. There are obvious similarities in phonology, grammar and lexicon; but these may as well be due to areal influence such as extensive contact both with each other and with native languages of the [[Núalís-Takuña languages|Núalís-Takuña]] family.

== See also ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/goatoftomorrow/grammar.htm Máotatšàlì grammar]
* [http://www.geocities.com/goatoftomorrow/lexicon.htm Máotatšàlì lexicon]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Isles languages]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Miwan languages/Lexicon

2008-06-23T12:59:25Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

= Combined Miwan Lexicon =

''Note: This, the list of roots on the [[Proto-Isthmus]] page, and the list of possible cognates on the [[Eigə-Isthmus languages]] page, constitute the total vocabulary for the EI family so far. If anyone wants to design more of PEI or Proto-Miwan or Proto-Isthmus, you now have pretty much all the data there is on them.''

There are four languages represented here:

* Old Eastern Miwan ''(around 0 YP; the source of loans in [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]])''
** Eastern Miwan ''(around 1000 YP; loaned into Puoni)''
** Southern Miwan ''(loaned into [[Pirikõsu]] throughout the period 500-1500 YP)''
* Forest Miwan ''(loaned into [[Pencek]] throughout the first millenium)''

The lexemes are given in SAMPA. These langs have tone and/or phonation too, but that isn't worked out yet; it probably interacts/correlates with vowel length somehow.

(Asterisks mark roots or affixes I've identified from words that appear to be derived. Question marks indicate uncertain glosses.)

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! lexeme !! language !! part of speech !! gloss
|-
| a:ltiw || Forest || n. || belly
|-
| a:nda: || Forest || adj. || terrible
|-
| aRa: || Southern || v. || to beat, to punch
|-
| arazja || Forest || n. || birch tree
|-
| aska:r || Forest || adj. || haunted
|-
| askini: || Forest || adj. || painful
|-
| asku || Forest || adj. || polite
|-
| aspi:ga || Forest || n. || corner
|-
| asti:sat || Forest || n. || vagina
|-
| atilka || Forest || adj. || ugly
|-
| azbu:tal || Forest || n. || toothache
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| bizgi: || Forest || v. || to sacrifice
|-
| bju:zga || Old Eastern; Southern || n. || a legendary creature that eats people
|-
| bli:n || Forest || n. || worm
|-
| blita || Forest || v. || to kneel
|-
| *bu:r || Old Eastern || v. || to shine
|-
| bu:rju || Old Eastern || n. || "shine-er", dragonfly
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| dje:zuf || Old Eastern || n. || amber (prob. < Ngauro loan)
|-
| dje:zuvu || Southern || n. || amber
|-
| dimbal || Forest || n. || wife (vulgar)
|-
| di:ndi:n || Forest; Southern || n. || metal
|-
| ditisu || Forest; Southern || int. || "goodbye"
|-
| di:za: || Forest || v. || to wilt
|-
| dre:Xurfi: || Old Eastern || n. || "flow-together speech", chorus; harmony
|-
| dwa:d || Forest || adj. || ready
|-
| dwa:s || Forest || n. || chest
|-
| *dwe:su || Old Eastern || v. || to participate
|-
| dwe:suXati || Old Eastern || n. || "not participating", misfit
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| ezdunda || Old Eastern || n. || splinter
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| farka || Forest || n. || chin
|-
| fa:lwin || Eastern || n. || meeting place; a town of western Kuaguatia
|-
| famva || Eastern || n. || rose
|-
| fa:Rili || Eastern || n. || bad water; swamp
|-
| fi:kravwan || Eastern || n. || ceremony
|-
| fja:ki || Old Eastern || v. || to copulate
|-
| fli:li: || Forest || int. || (expression of sexual desire)
|-
| fli:s || Forest || n. || hip
|-
| flu || Forest || adj. || worthless (vulgar)
|-
| fra:m || Eastern || n. || berry
|-
| fu:ftu: || Forest; Southern || n. || evil, abomination
|-
| fuSawzu: || Southern || n. || bat
|-
| *fur || Eastern; Forest || n. || tree
|-
| furzin || Eastern || n. || "tree-life"; elm tree
|-
| furzi:n || Forest || n. || "tree-life"; elm tree
|-
| fwi:k || Forest || n. || vagina; woman (vulgar; cf. 'cunt')
|-
| fwilja:n || Eastern || n. || cooperation; teamwork
|-
| fwipju || Eastern || v., n., or adj. || to move; motion; alive
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| grunat || Forest || n. || son
|-
| guljad || Forest || v. || to defeat
|-
| gu:s || Forest || v. || to behave, to act
|-
| gwa: || Forest || v. || to use
|-
| gwastu || Forest || n. || dump
|-
| gwa:?iti || Old Eastern || adj. || "not important"
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *-hi || Southern || suffix || unable to be ...-ed
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| ibla || Forest || n. || daisy
|-
| iki: || Forest || n. || pivot, fulcrum
|-
| ili: || Forest || n. || groin
|-
| ilka: || Forest || n. || forearm
|-
| in || Forest || n. || berry
|-
| i:nku:na: || Forest || n. || disaster
|-
| intal || Forest || n. or adj. || violence; violent
|-
| ipra:f || Forest || adj. || disgusting, disturbing
|-
| is || Forest || n. || spouse
|-
| iskefli || Old Eastern || n. || lice
|-
| isti: || Forest || v. || to have sex (vulgar)
|-
| i:tul || Forest || n. || petal
|-
| iz || Forest || n. || head
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| ja:rik || Old Eastern || n. || twine, string
|-
| ja:seXi || Old Eastern; Southern || n. || treaty, compact, accord
|-
| jawma || Southern || adj. || light blue
|-
| *jesk || Old Eastern || v. || to whistle
|-
| jeskju || Old Eastern || n. || "whistle-er", songbird
|-
| jeskju || Southern || n. || messenger
|-
| -ju || Old Eastern || suffix || agent nominalizer
|-
| jun || Forest || n. || thigh
|-
| jus || Forest || n. || music
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| ka:fti:w || Forest || adj. || dark
|-
| kaleste: || Old Eastern || adj. || alive
|-
| ka:lma: || Forest || adj. || confusing
|-
| ki: || Forest || int. || "oh!"
|-
| kim || Forest || n. || recipe, spell, algorithm, prescription
|-
| ki:mat || Forest || n. || comprehension
|-
| ki:mul || Forest || n. || branch
|-
| kimvatri || Eastern || n. || brook, small stream
|-
| ki:Rnom || Eastern || n. || robin
|-
| klu:n || Forest || n. || wind
|-
| kuda:rm || Forest || adj. || very bad (vulgar; cf. 'fucking')
|-
| kwaXjur || Old Eastern || n. || measles
|-
| kwintas || Forest || n. || bird
|-
| kwuli: || Forest || int. || "thank you"
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| la:skurna: || Forest || n. || wasting disease (any)
|-
| *le:p || Old Eastern || adj. || black
|-
| le:psuru || Old Eastern || n. || "black water", ink
|-
| li || Forest || n. || song
|-
| li:fku:ti || Forest || v. || to roast
|-
| lufuk || Forest || n. || pox, skin rash
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *me || Old Eastern || v. || to boil
|-
| *me:g || Old Eastern || v. || to be loud, to be rowdy
|-
| me:gju || Old Eastern || n. || "noise maker"
|-
| mija: || Eastern || n. || cat, feline
|-
| minka || Forest || n. || kink
|-
| mi:ti: || Forest || n. || note, chord (music)
|-
| miw || Old Eastern; Southern || n. || Miw
|-
| mul || Forest || adj. || oblivious
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *ne:s || Old Eastern || v. || ?to walk, to stroll, to amble
|-
| *ne:sju || Old Eastern || n. || "walker(s)", leg(s)
|-
| ne:sjuten || Old Eastern || n. || "many legs", centipede
|-
| nidri: || Forest || v. || to feel warm towards
|-
| nidri:stu || Forest || v. || to regret
|-
| nidRiti || Southern || n. || friendship; support (nidRi-ti)
|-
| ni:glu || Forest || adj. || feeble
|-
| ni:s || Forest || n. || milk
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *Nwe: || Old Eastern || v. || to give birth
|-
| Nwe:Xas || Old Eastern || v. || "not give birth", to miscarry
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| pa:lintu: || Forest || n. || bellybutton
|-
| *pa:n || Eastern || n. || music
|-
| pa:ntun || Eastern || n. || "music-red"; guitar
|-
| pasta || Forest || n. || cloth, fabric
|-
| pif || Forest || int. || "tsk-tsk"
|-
| pjaza:r || Eastern || n. || magnolia
|-
| plaj || Eastern || n. || bead
|-
| pri:f || Forest || n. || calf (of leg)
|-
| pru:n || Eastern || v. || to buy
|-
| pu:ni:m || Eastern || ?n. or v. || burrow, to burrow
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *qwa: || Old Eastern || n. || leaf
|-
| qwa:meti || Old Eastern; Southern || n. || "leaf-boiling"; tea
|-
| qwe:san || Old Eastern || n. || "leaf dream", drug trip (especially atropine)
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| ra:fa || Forest || n. || penis (vulgar)
|-
| ragwi:k || Forest || n. || gravel
|-
| rak || Forest || n. || ankle
|-
| rakuri || Forest || n. || oak tree
|-
| *re: || Old Eastern || v. || to speak
|-
| re:sti || Old Eastern || n. || "everyone speaking"
|-
| ru:mu:t || Forest || adj. || rotten
|-
| ruz || Forest || n. || cold, flu
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| Ramkuri: || Eastern || n. || oak tree
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *(i)san || Old Eastern || ?n. or v. || dream; to dream
|-
| *sa:v || Old Eastern || ? || ?reciprocal particle
|-
| sa:vre:Xati || Old Eastern || n. || "not speaking to each other"
|-
| sla:m || Forest || n. || crippled person (vulgar; cf. 'retard')
|-
| sli:nga || Forest || adj. || uncertain
|-
| *suru || Old Eastern || n. || water
|-
| su:tra: || Forest || v. || to lose, to misplace
|-
| su:Xeflu || Old Eastern || n. || bladder, sack, bag
|-
| swa: || Forest || v. || to burp
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *Su:vo || Southern || v. || to cut
|-
| Su:voju || Southern || n. || knife; "cutter"
|-
| Swada || Southern || n. || oath, vow, promise
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| talgu: || Forest || v. || to remember
|-
| tawgu:ju || Southern || n. || storyteller, bard; "remember-er"
|-
| ta:mal || Eastern || n. || cliff, bluff
|-
| -ten || Old Eastern || suffix || "many, much"
|-
| *te:sen || Old Eastern || ?v. || ?to be like a beehive...
|-
| te:senju || Old Eastern || n. || beehive
|-
| -ti || Old Eastern, Southern || suffix || action nominalizer
|-
| ti: || Eastern; Forest || ?adj. || funny
|-
| timpi:za || Eastern || n. || necklace
|-
| ti:nda || Forest || adj. || pleasant
|-
| tindahi || Southern || adj. || unpleasant; not easily satisfied (tinda-hi)
|-
| ti:vur || Eastern; Forest || n. || "funny-tree"; hickory tree
|-
| ti?ak || Old Eastern || n. || spiderweb
|-
| tjerizme || Old Eastern || n. || pine pitch
|-
| *traf || Old Eastern || n. || fire
|-
| traften || Old Eastern || n. || "much fire", bonfire
|-
| tRaften || Southern || n. || bonfire
|-
| trak || Forest || n. || feast
|-
| *tu || Old Eastern || ?n. or v. || number; to count
|-
| tu:l || Eastern || n. || acorn
|-
| tulka || Forest || n. || cord, cable
|-
| *tun || Eastern || ?adj. || red
|-
| tuntun || Eastern || n. || "red-red"; a cardinal
|-
| tur || Forest || n. || acorn
|-
| tuXas || Old Eastern || n. || "no number", myriad, multitude
|-
| *twa:k || Old Eastern || ?v. || to fall down
|-
| twa:ksuru || Old Eastern || n. || "fall-down-water", waterfall
|-
| twa:na || Forest || v. || to screw over (vulgar)
|-
| twa:nka || Forest || n. || gold
|-
| *twi || Old Eastern || adj. || hot
|-
| twi:m || Forest || n. || chant
|-
| twiXas || Old Eastern || ?adj. || "not hot"
|-
| twuz || Forest || n. || palm of the hand
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| uf || Forest || n. || shit (vulgar)
|-
| upla:f || Forest || v. || to fry
|-
| urti || Forest || n. || wall
|-
| urtim || Forest || n. || yesterday
|-
| uslit || Forest || n. || cheek
|-
| *utaw || Southern || v. || to spot; to see from afar
|-
| utawju || Southern || n. || hawk; "discoverer"
|-
| u:vu || Southern || n. || honor
|-
|| u:zbi: || Forest || adj. || sticky
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| varja || Eastern || v. || to dance
|-
| varja: || Forest || v. || to dance
|-
| vi:ntu: || Forest || n. || shoulder
|-
| vi:zwal || Eastern || n. || pine tree
|-
| vi:zwar || Forest || n. || larch tree
|-
| vuf || Forest || n. || personal honor
|-
| vu:ntuval || Eastern || n. || grove, stand of trees; the largest town of Kuaguatia, in the south
|-
| vurka || Forest || n. || snake
|-
| vuwan || Eastern || v. || to fall, to drop
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| wifki: || Forest || n. || mouse
|-
| wu: || Forest || int. || "hi"
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| -Xas || Old Eastern || suffix || negation
|-
| *Xurfi: || Old Eastern || ?v. || to flow (together)
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *za: || Old Eastern || v. || to die
|-
| zafwita: || Eastern || n. || bird's nest; a mess or tangle
|-
| zafwi:ta || Forest || n. || bird's nest
|-
| za:ju || Old Eastern || n. || "die-er": dead, broken
|-
| za:ska: || Forest || n. || war
|-
| zawozga || Southern || n. || eagle
|-
| zi || Forest || n. || apple
|-
| *zin || Eastern || n. || life
|-
| *zi:n || Forest || n. || life
|-
| zinti: || Forest || n. || taboo
|-
| zugi:r || Forest || v. || to swallow
|-
| *zuka || Eastern || n. || fruit
|-
| zukatun || Eastern || n. || "fruit-red"; tomato
|-
| zuma || Forest || v. || to bite
|-
| zumi: || Forest || v. || to chew
|-
| zwi:ki || Eastern || n. || moon; month
|-
! colspan="4" |
|-
| *-?i || Old Eastern || suffix || ?"-less", "un-...-able"
|-
|}

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Eigə-Isthmus languages]]

Lasomo

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

{| {{blueinfobox|t}} style="width: 20%; max-width: 25%; font-size: smaller;"
|-
| colspan="2" class="header" | '''Lasomo''' ''Axôltseubeu''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center;" | ''Heraldry goes here.''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center;" | ''Map goes here.''
|-
! Capital
| Ngahêxôldod
|-
! Major cities
|
* Ngahêxôldod
* Oigop'oibauxeu
|-
! Demonym
| ''Lasomoran''
|-
! Government
| align="left" |
* Confederation of small kingdoms
|-
! Formation
| c. 200 YP
|-
! Collapse
| align="left" | 277 YP (southern L. conquered by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]])
|-
! Successor states
| align="left" |
* Empire of Athalē
* Oigop'oibauxeu city state
* etc.
|}

{{Akana}}
'''Lasomo''' (Ndok Aisô: ''Axôltseubeu'', Fáralo: ''Lašumu'', Ndak Ta: ''Latsomo'', "motherland") is a region of [[Akana]], located on the fertile banks of the middle Eigə river. In the early 1st millennium YP, a number of small Ndok kingdoms in this region formed a confederation, whose short but dramatic history will be the focus of this article.

= History =
== Timeline ==
* 190: Taizeu-ibauxeu I founds Thirteenth Dynasty of Ngahêxôldod.
* from 200 on: expansion of [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]] into the upper Eigə and Milīr valleys.
* 211: Taizeu-ibauxeu II succeeds as king of Ngahêxôldod.
* 230: ascension of Etou I in [[Huyfárah]]; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of Axôltseubeu.
* 234: Phanal becomes emperor of Athalē; conflict with Ndok kingdoms.
* 237: A treaty is concluded between Athalē and Ngahêxôldod, fixing the borders.
* 254: Taizeu-ibauxeu II dies; his son Roit-neheu succeeds in Ngahêxôldod.
* 255: failed Fáralo invasion of Axôltseubeu: The Athalēran military cut supply lines of [[Huyfárah]] emperor Etou II, at the request of Roit-neheu.
* 256: Roit-neheu is assassinated; Taizeu-mabarô takes power in Ngahêxôldod. Axôltseubeu weakened, Athalē expands its influence.
* 260: Taizeu-mabarô dies, probably assassinated; Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu seizes power.
* 274: Tēmekas II, son of Uremas I, becomes emperor of Athalē; Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu revolts against Athalēran domination.
* 275: Tēmekas II of Athalē invades Axôltseubeu.
* 277: First fall of Ngahêxôldod: Empire of Athalē absorbs southern Axôltseubeu; Tēmekas proclaimed king of Ngahêxôldod.
* 278: Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu dies in captivity in Athalē.
* 279: [[Oigop'oibauxeu]] wards off Athalēran campaigns; northern Lasomo united under the rule of Oigop'oibauxeu.
* c. 400: By this point Oigop'oibauxeu has weakened; it is functioning as an Athalēran client state, and a buffer between Athalē and Huyfárah.
* 414: Imperial [[Adāta]] is declared the official language of the empire by Khepōnon I. [[Ndok Aisô]] is replaced as the spoken language of southern Lasomo.
* 444: Huyfárah supports a local rebellion in Oigop'oibauxeu, declares war on Athalē.
* 453: The war is concluded, and the entirety of Lasomo is reorganized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489: A second rebellion in Lasomo; Huyfárah attempts to quell the situation but goes to war with Athalē again.
* 505: This second war ends as well. The south goes back to Athalē, while the north remains nominally independent (but a puppet for Athalē). The domination of Oigop'oibauxeu is eclipsed.
* 971: second fall of Ngahêxôldod: Athalē loses southern Lasomo.
* c. 1000: The Empire of Athalē becomes defunct, and fragments into several successor states.

== The rise of Ngahêxôldod ==

In the first and second centuries, the middle Eigə valley was a kind of buffer region between the [[Rathedān]] and [[Huyfárah]]; [[Buruya]] and the Ndok kingdoms of Axôltseubeu were neutral ground where the [[Dāiadak]] and Fáralo came to talk and trade. During the latter half of the second century Huyfárah stagnated under the waning Balanin dynasty, allowing Buruya and the Ndok kingdoms to extend their influence to the north and east. Meanwhile the Rathedān was torn by intercity wars which periodically overflowed into nearby regions, prompting several of the kingdoms of the Eigə valley to band together for mutual defense. Under the leadership of Taizeu-ibauxeu I, king of Ngahêxôldod, central Axôltseubeu was unified into a kind of confederacy of kingdoms, somewhat similar to the Dāiadak League of a century earlier in the Rathedān.

== Conflict with Athalē and Huyfárah ==

Meanwhile, the Rathedān had been united under Athalēran rule, and the Dāiadak began to expand again. When they annexed the lower Milīr valley in 231, they found their new frontier impinging on the borders of Ngahêxôldod (now ruled by Taizeu-ibauxeu II). After several years of skirmishes and disputes, the two states fixed their borders with the treaty of 237.

Taizeu-ibauxeu may have been eager to resolve the conflict with [[Empire of Athalē|Athalē]] because he needed to be free to defend his eastern borders. Huyfárah's new emperor, Etou I, was securing his western provinces by pushing the border further west, bringing his armies right to the eastern fringes of Axôltseubeu. By his death, the Ndok kingdoms were virtually sandwiched between the two empires. The last part of Taizeu-ibauxeu's reign was occupied in strengthening his defenses while carefully balancing diplomatic relations with both Athalē and Ussor.

Taizeu-ibauxeu II died in 254 (after a long 43-year reign), and was succeeded by his son Roit-neheu. Almost immediately the crisis began: in 255 Etou II launched a massive invasion of Axôltseubeu. Roit-neheu sent to Athalē for help; the Dāiadak ruler, Mikha, responded, bringing his army across the Eigə to cut the Fáralo emperor's poorly defended supply lines. Etou was forced to withdraw; shortly after, he had to hurry home to put down a violent uprising in Ussor. He was unable to turn his attention to Axôltseubeu again for many years.

The kingdoms of Axôltseubeu had been badly shaken, however. The defenses had been shattered, and the infrastructure of the region severely damaged. Athalē was happy to provide assistance: borders were secured with the help of Dāiadak soldiers, fortifications and other public works were rebuilt with the help of Dāiadak engineers (and Dāiadak gold). But popular opinion in Ngahêxôldod was resentful; it seemed unthinkable that the king of kings, divine ruler of a great and ancient city, should allow the land to be overrun by these upstart heathen llama-herders and tinsmiths from the hills. Roit-neheu, blamed as much for the loss of the kingdom's prestige as for the invasion itself, was assassinated in 256.

Axôltseubeu fell into political turmoil for a few years. The next king of Ngahêxôldod, Taizeu-mabarô, was barely able to control the city itself, let alone the country outside its gates, and died under suspicious circumstances himself in 260 (followed shortly by his two young sons). Finally Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu, son of an influential high priestess, seized power, brought the kingdom firmly under control, and set about rebuilding.

During the chaos, Athalēran influence in Axôltseubeu had expanded enormously. The Dāiadak now controlled most of the Eigə trade, held fortifications along the eastern borders, and dominated the many kingdoms of the valley through aggressive diplomacy. For years Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu bided his time, working carefully to restore Ngahêxôldod's independence and its leadership in the region, quietly seeking new trading partners and making alliances without openly defying Athalē.

== The first fall of Ngahêxôldod ==

In 274, the Athalēran ruler Uremas I died; his heir, Tēmekas II, was an untried boy of sixteen. Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu saw his chance, and rebelled, expelling Dāiadak merchants, diplomats, engineers, and soldiers from all the kingdoms under his control. Tēmekas responded with unexpected vigor, invading Axôltseubeu the following spring. After two years of hard fighting, he captured Ngahêxôldod and was enthroned as king of kings in the ancient temple of Itsdehad. Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu was taken to Athalē in chains, and died there the following year.

It took two more years to subdue the remaining kingdoms of the Eigə valley. Tēmekas' attempts to advance up the Boíəba were blocked by the sturdy defenses of [[Oigop'oibauxeu]]; and so Axôltseubeu was permanently split in two. Most of the Eigə valley was incorporated into the burgeoning Dāiadak empire; the Boíəba valley solidified into a single, newly unified and forcefully defended state under the rule of Oigop'oibeuxeu.

Etou II could not fail to respond to the Dāiadak conquest of southern Axôltseubeu; but despite repeated campaigns he could do no more than prevent Tēmekas from annexing even more territory to the north and east. A new status quo emerged: the border between Huyfárah and Athalē now followed the Eigə between Ngahêxôldod and Buruya. Southern Axôltseubeu became thoroughly Dāiadakized. Three states remained as buffers-- Oigop'oibeuxeu in the Boíəba valley, Buruya on the middle Eigə, and southern [[Kasca]] (mostly under the rule of Påwe by now) on the lower Eigə and along the coast southward.

= Kings of Ngahêxôldod (Thirteenth Dynasty) =

* Taizeu-ibauxeu I r. 190-211
* Taizeu-ibauxeu II r. 211-254
* Roit-neheu r. 254-256 (assassinated)
* Taizeu-mabarô r. 256-260 (probably assassinated)
* Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu r. 260-277 (d. 278)
* Tēmekas r. 277-310

<pre>
Taizeu-ibauxeu I
|
Taizeu-ibauxeu II
___________|____________
| |
Roit-neheu Taizeu-mabarô = d. =? Gexoitsoi-ibauxeu
______|______
| |
Euspok-neheu Taizeu-neheu
</pre>

=Names=
{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Latsomo
| [ˈlaʦõmo]
| ''"mother-land"''
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Lasomo
| [ˈlasomo]
| ← NT ''Latsomo''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Lašumu
| [ˈlaʃumu]
| ← NT ''Latsomo''
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Axôltseubeu
| [aʔɞlˈʦɛwβɛw]
| ← Toponym pref. ''a-'' + NT ''Latsomo''
|-
|}

= See also =

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Akana states]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Languages of Akana

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

= [[Isles languages]] =
* [[Proto-Isles]] (Ran)
** Thokyunèhotà (Thumapahìthì - Legion)
** [[Mûtsipsa']] (Mûtsinamtsys - Rory)
** [[Máotatšàlì]] (Tymytỳs - [[User:Kolyn|kolyn]])
** [[Zele]] (Zeluzh - brandrinn)
** [[Ppãrwak]] (Ttiruku - [[User:Avaja|Avaja]])

= Macro-Edastean languages =
== Talo-Edastean languages ==
* '''[[Edastean languages]]''': [[Ndak Ta]] ([[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])
** '''Dāiadak languages''': [[Adāta]] ([[Rathedān]] - [[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]])
*** [[Æðadĕ]] (ebilein)
**** [[Yād]] (gsandi)
***** [[Zhaj]] (con quesa)
****** [[Aríe]] (TzirTzi)
******* [[Arie]] (Nuntar)
******** [[ʔAghïyï]] (kodé)
***** [[Yēt]] (TzirTzi)
*** [[Aθáta]] (RHaden)
**** [[E'át]] (Rory)
***** [[Yhát]] (Starsinger)
****** [[Öhat]] (Whimemsz)
****** [[Erhadzy]] (Zhen Lin)
******* Orrótx (cedh audmanh)
*** [[Ayāsthi]] [http://www.geocities.com/low_zl/ayasthi/ayasthi.html] (Zhen Lin)
**** [[A'gɑf]] [http://thelegion.free.fr/agaf/introduction.htm] (Legion)
***** [[Yïåf]] [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?p=543890#543890] (jmcd)
****** [[Ghaf]] [http://home.cinci.rr.com/grod/ghaf4.9.html] (Corumayas)
******* [[Xa']] (Ink Pudding)
*** [[Mavakhalan]] [http://www.geocities.com/low_zl/mavakhalan] (Zhen Lin)
**** [[Ājat he-Heloun]] [http://members.shaw.ca/a00/conlang/AhH/05-11.html] (4pq1injbok)
*** [[Kozado]] [http://thelegion.free.fr/kozado.htm] (Legion)
**** Kōt (kodé)
*** Koyek (Legion)
*** [[Pencek]] [http://wiki.frath.net/Pencek] (Radius Solis)
** '''Fáralo languages''': [[Fáralo]] [http://www.zompist.com/faralo2.htm] ([[Huyfárah]] - zompist)
*** [[Puoni]] ([[Kuaguatia]] - Radius Solis)
*** [[Namɨdu]] (Mɨdu - boy #12)
** [[Delta Naidda|Naidda]] ([[Kasca]] - [[User:Radius|Radius Solis]])
** [[Ndok Aisô]] [http://conlang.awardspace.com/zbbbackup/ndok_aiso.html] ([[Lasomo|Axôltseubeu]] - ghur)
** [[Qedik]] [http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Qedik] ([[User:Space_Dracula|Space Dracula]])
** Ðaleglo (Dagæm islands - Legion)
** Komeyech ([[Eiwəl Gourun]] - Legion)
* '''Talo languages'''
** [[Tlaliolz]] (Lu-Tal)
* '''Andaggic languages''' (Salmoneus)
** Andagg
*** Mohudza
**** Móyay

== Xoronic languages ==
* [[Proto-Xoronic]] ([[Eiwəl Gourun]] - pocketful of songs)
** [[Habeo languages]]:
*** Hill Habeo
*** Plains Habeo
*** River Habeo
** [[Damak]]

= Eigə-Isthmus languages =
* [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Proto-Eigə-Isthmus]] ([[User:Corumayas|Corumayas]])
** '''Eigə Valley languages'''
*** [[Ngauro]] (Pre-Edak [[Kasca]])
*** [[Miwan languages]]
**** Eastern Miwan
**** Forest Miwan
**** Meshi
** '''Isthmus languages''': [[Proto-Isthmus]]
*** Western Isthmus languages
**** Ferogh
***** [[Faraghin]] [http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Faraghin] (Pre-Edak [[Huyfárah]])
***** [[Feråjin]]
**** Boesin
*** Eastern Isthmus languages
**** Doroh
**** Kietek
**** Ka'alikora

= Western languages =
* [[Proto-Western]] [http://deinioljones.net/conlangs/western/proto.htm] ([[User:Dewrad|Dewrad]])
** [[Gezoro]] (Pre-Edak [[Rathedān]])
** Tjakori (Tjakori valley - kodé)

= [[Hitatc languages]] =
* [[Proto-Hitatc]] ([[User:Cedh_audmanh|cedh audmanh]])
** Wan-Mlir
*** Hitatc Mlir
*** Hitatc Wan
**** Ktacwa
** Uplands Hitatc
*** Eteucu
** Eastern Hitatc
*** [[Necine]]
*** [[Pirikõsu]]

= Peninsular languages =
* [[Proto-Peninsular]] [http://www.geocities.com/low_zl/proto-peninsular/proto-peninsular.html] ([[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]])
** Lotoka

= Núalís-Takuña languages =
* Proto-Núalís-Takuña
** Núalís (Tymytỳs)
** Takuña ([[Siixtaguna]])

= Anatolionesian languages =
* Proto-Anatolionesian
** Ōmishima (Ōmishima)

= Isolates =
* Xšali (Xšalad)

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Akana languages|*]]

Kasca

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

Kasca is a region in the conworld of [[Akana]]. It has a longer civilized history than most other regions in the world, stretching at least as far back as the [[Ngauro]] civilization of approximately -4000 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]]. At times in its history Kasca could be called a nation; at other times, it has been divided between others. It has also been the center of at least one empire.

== Names ==

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Kasadgad
| [kasɐdgɐd]
| ''unknown''
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Kāxad
| [ˈkaːxad]
| ← NT ''Kasadgad''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Kazəgad
| [ˈkazəgad]
| ← NT ''Kasadgad''
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Kasca
| [kast̠ʃə]
| ← NT ''Kasadgad''
|-
! [[Ndok Aisô]]
| Axôkseuhod
| [aʔɞksɛwˈhoʔ]
| ← Toponym pref. ''a''- + NT ''Kasadgad''
|-
! Mavakhalan
| koxað
| [ˈkɔxað]
| ← Adāta ''Kāxad''
|-
! Ayāsthi
| cáġat
| [ˈkɑːɦɑt]
| ← Adāta ''Kāxad''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Kozyad
| [ˈkʰʌz.jad]
| ← Fáralo ''Kazəgad''
|-
! Erhadzy
| kálesə
| [ˈkɑlɛsə]
| ← Yhát ''Qáles''
|-
|}

== Geography ==

Kasca lies on a broad, flat plain, dominated by a wide, slow river, the [[Aiwa valley|Aiwa]] (also called the ''Eigə'' in Fáralo and the ''Ya'' in Naidda). The primeval land cover was forest, except for grasses in the rich alluvial plain, and wetlands along the extensive littoral. The closest Earthly analogue would be the Gangetic plain of northern India. The heartland of Kasca lies around the river delta, but associated settlement has also extended along the river and the littoral since time immemorial.

The Kascan heartland can be divided into three zones: the fringes of the Aiwa delta; the swampy core of the delta; and nearby associated lands.

=== The Fringeland ===

The center of civilization in Ngauro and Ndak times was located primarily of the areas immediately adjacent to the core river delta: the land between and around the branches of the Aiwa in the area where it splits up, plus some of the larger islands connected to the delta. The ground in these areas is relatively stable and provides rich farmland. However, portions of the fringeland are still occasionally prone to floods and periodic reshaping, depending on how well behaved the river is. There are always parts drying out and becoming farmable while other parts are getting eaten away at by the river or becoming soaked until useless for farming, just at a slower rate than happens in the deep delta. Cities have generally been able to hold their own in the fringeland.

=== The Deep Delta ===

The central delta zone, meanwhile, has always required a little courage of its residents - but it's certainly not uninhabitable, just problematic. Through most of known history, no single river channel connecting to the sea has been large enough to be navigable, save for when canals have been built or formed. Instead the river branches and branches until at the coast there is mostly just continuous swamp, rather than channels and islands.

Inland from the coast, the delta is characterized by a patchwork of dry-ish islands separated from each other by river corridors. These corridors range from sizeable branches of the river down to broad muddy troughs with little flowing water; but all of them are choked with silt and thick vegetation. Hundreds of the islands are substantial enough and dry enough to be at least partially farmable, and there have always been some islands that are able to host large permanent towns, but frequent shifts of the river channels leave all of the above at risk of floods and crop ruin.

The usefully dry islands form perhaps a third of the core delta's land area, with the rest being swamp and mire. Nevertheless, a substantial population has done its best to live in such conditions for millennia, due in part to the year-round availability of food for comparatively little effort. In the millennia before advanced technology made levees and reliable bridges possible, travel between delta islands was mostly by water and there were few permanent roads.

=== Nearby areas ===

The following places have always been closely associated with the Aiwa delta. Traditionally, they and the delta are included together under the name "Kasca":

* The banks along a short stretch of the lower Aiwa before it begins branching, and the alluvial plains around them;
* The peninsula across the bay south of the delta;
* Some of the land north of the delta, extending perhaps up to the city of [[Miədu]] (the exact Kascan border has always been fuzzy here);
* The numerous nearby coastal islands

The agricultural value of these lands is marginally lower than that of the fringeland, although still generally very fertile. But these areas are considered part of Kasca more on a cultural and political basis than on a natural basis, as they tend not to be swampy and don't have to worry much about the behavior of the river.

== History ==

=== Ndak Empire ===

''Main article: [[Ndak empire]]''

Kasadgad had no natural defenses (except the sea), and had thus been invaded and conquered many times. The Ndak were not the earliest recorded inhabitants; those were the Ngauro, who established civilization, including writing, but were divided into squabbling city-states. Archeological excavations of a few small tels and middens around the lower-middle Aiwa, particularly in the area of [[Buruya]], indicate that even the Ngauro were almost certainly preceded by one or more pre-civilized cultures living in small walled towns. Little is known about these people.

The Ndak originally lived along the middle Aiwa. They were briefly ruled by the Ngauro, but soon established a kingdom of their own. They fought several wars with the Ngauro and finally conquered them. Over time the Ngauro language was replaced with [[Ndak Ta]], and indeed the perceived center of the Ndak world shifted to the more populous delta. The Ndak in their turn were conquered (once by hill tribes from the north, twice by nomads from the west), but their edge in population had become secure; they eventually either revolted, or absorbed their conquerors.

After the Ndak expelled the last of the conquerors, they entered a new period of vigor, which culminated in the conquest of the entire Aiwa plain, the littoral, and much of the rugged mountains to the west, from their bases in Kasca and along the Aiwa. The [[Ndak Empire]] was the first true empire on Akana, at least in this part of the world. Much of this was the work of one dynasty of emperors; [[Tsinakan]] was the third in this line and perhaps the greatest of them all. Tsinakan is the subject of the infamous [[Tsinakan text]], the standard comparison text used among [[Edastean languages|Edastean]] philologists. His father [[Terakan]] also found a lasting place in local legend, though historians pay less attention to him.

* [http://img413.imageshack.us/img413/7668/04ndakempirebx8.png Map of the Ndak Empire (-1889 YP)]

=== Post-Ndak period ===

The Ndak decline took time. Kasadgad hung on as a political entity for several centuries after having lost control over everything else. It was late in this period, in -1258 YP, that Kasadgad experienced a last gasp of vitality, managing to reconquer both the Huyfárah littoral and most of the Aiwa below Lasomo. Two of these latter-day kings, Sadgukiyat and his son (or maybe nephew) Meyut, were recorded in legend and song. Historians have difficulty piecing together the fragmentary accounts of other kings of this era, and nobody is entirely certain who they all were, nor about the accession dates of these two or any reliable description of their accomplishments. If it weren't for the Faraghin scribes of this era, we may not even have been sure that these two were more than mythical figures.

The final full loss of Ndak vitality is partly due to a natural disaster, although they were clearly already in serious decline. In -1202, Kasadgad was devastated by one of the rare major hurricanes to come ashore along its coast. Complete loss of many of the coastal towns, coupled with massive inland flooding, nailed shut the coffin on Ndak power. They lost control of all of the coast above Miədu and all the Aiwa river above Buruya, and with the resulting social chaos found themselves unable to maintain any overall societal structure. And to top it all off, due to poor maintenance their canal through the Aiwa delta had silted up, blocking navigation of the delta and thus choking off Kasadgad's economic lifeline. The next three to four centuries were spent in a presumed but unrecorded dark age in which many benefits of civilization were simply lost and a sizeable fraction of the people feralized.

=== Classical period ===

== Culture ==

''Main article: [[Culture of Kasca]]''

The culture of Classical-period Kascans is somewhat dysfunctional. Their traditions of close families and colorful celebrations, and their reputations for quick wit and resilient survival are balanced by their outlook of cynicism, apathetic inertia, and slowness to accept change, with the result that most Kascans live in poverty.

== See also ==

* [http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Kasadgad Kasadgad article] on Almeopedia

[[Category:Akana]]

Huyfárah

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

{| {{blueinfobox|t}} style="width: 20%; max-width: 25%; font-size: smaller;"
|-
| colspan="2" class="header" | '''Huyfárah''' ''lu-serin æm Huyfárah''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center;" | ''Heraldry goes here.''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center;" | ''Map goes here.''
|-
! Capital
| Ussor
|-
! Major cities
|
* Miədu
* Mæmedéi
* Sertek
|-
! Demonym
| ''Fáralo''
|-
! Government
|
* monarchy
|-
! Formation
| c. -400 YP
|-
! Collapse
| c. 900 YP
|-
! Successor states
|
* Wï'makwå
* Mɨdu
* etc.
|}

{{Akana}}
'''Huyfárah''' ([http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Faraghin Faraghin]: ''Soifaragh'', "Faraghin coast") is a nation of [[Akana]], located north of the Eigə delta. It was one of the most powerful states in the 1st millennium YP, setting up a maritime empire and founding colonies all along the coast between [[Xšalad]] and [[Siixtaguna]].

= History =
== Timeline ==
* c. -1400: Faraghin conquer Oltu valley.
* -1310: Faraghin break into multiple baronies.
* -1258: Temporary Ndak reconquest of lower Aiwa and Oltu valleys.
* -1170: Faraghin regain control of the Oltu.
* c. -800: Truce of Deunagho between Faraghin barons enables burgeoning trade and settlement.
* -762: Sertek founded by Fáralo merchants, establishes itself against Feråjin on the Poráš.
* c. -650: Wars with Sertek end the Truce of Deunagho; many Fáralo settle away from the fighting as far as Kasca and Oltumosou.
* -520: Barons of Ussor conquer Miədu.
* -480: Ussor invades Kasca, and quickly conquers the delta till Påwe and Momuva'e push it back; decades of war follow, ending with Ussor controlling half the delta with nominal control over the rest. Miədu drifts in and out of Fáralo control.
* c. -400: Fáralo naval expedition discovers Siixtaguna, bringing back several Etúgəist monks.
* -198: Mentek, baron of Ussor, unites Huyfárah, beginning the Balanin dynasty.
* -185: Huyfárah occupies the Dagæm islands, beginning its imperial period.
* -167: Huyfárah in control of Oltumosou; begins pacifying the inland Feråjin.
* -142: Čisse founded in order to protect Huyfárah's eastern border against the Doroh.
* -133: Miədu, seeing which way the wind is blowing, voluntarily joins to Huyfárah.
* -112: Påwe conquers Momuva'e, leading to war with Huyfárah.
* -109: Huyfárah conquers Momuva'e (though it does not hold it for long) and occupies most of the Kascan delta.
* late 220s: Balanin civil war in Huyfárah; Fáralo Golden Age ends.
* 230: Ascension of Etou I; under his rule Huyfárah expands west to the borders of Lašumu.
* 248: Etou I dies; ascension of Etou II.
* 255: Failed Fáralo invasion of Lašumu: Supply lines of Etou II are cut by [[Empire of Athalē|Athalēran]] military.
* 294: Etou II dies; civil war in Huyfárah.
* 295: Gadein I emerges victorious and becomes emperor.
* 312: Gadein I dies; ascension of Etou III.
* 318-319: Military campaign of Etou III against the Talo and Puoni.
* 319: Exodus of the Puoni.
* 326: Etou III dies; ascension of Gadein II.
* 328: Various Kascan towns become vassal states of Huyfárah by treaty
* 343: Gadein II dies; Baodan I starts the Malei dynasty.
* c. 343-405: Fáralo Silver Age.
* 351: Acquisition of Buruya.
* 363: Huyfárah absorbs more of Kasca, including (de jure anyway) Momuva'e.
* 370: Huyfárah claims rule over Fmanahŋ Talam.
* 375: Baodan I dies; ascension of his elder son Ŋajóri.
* 376: Ŋajóri dies; ascension of his brother Ŋamíga.
* 395: Ŋamíga dies; ascension of his daughter Bewš as Baodan II.
* 405–443: Declining stability in Huyfárah: Several natural disasters hit; barbarian raids; power shifts toward Sertek as emperors relocate there (but the official capital, and the Senate, remains in Ussor).
* 444–453: War between Huyfárah and Athalē, resulting in Fáralo control over Lašumu.
* 453–489: Fáralo recovery; Lašumu is organized as a client state of Huyfárah.
* 489–546: The peak of Athalēran power, and the beginning of Huyfárah's long decline. Lašumu is lost again and the southern half ceded back to Athalē; the treaty states that northern half will remain independent as long as it is not dominated by Huyfárah in any way. Athalē expands along the Eigə at the expense of Huyfárah. The emperor is removed by the Senate for having lost the war, but returns two years later after his replacement is assassinated. A sense of unease and moral decay. More assassinations. Buruya is lost. The natives of the Fmanahŋ Talam push back the Fáralo to the north end of the islands.
* 547–584: Gigantic, confused, multi-phase civil war in Huyfárah, with the end result that the Malei Dynasty is deposed, the empire shrinks further, and loses the coast from Mæmedéi south, which reorganizes as a federation of city-states, run by religious and political reformists (calling themselves the Kəgeiru, or "Cynics/Atheists," though their beliefs seem to be deistic).
* 579–584: The Southern cities cease fighting Huyfárah, and a federated "New Fáralo Republic" is proclaimed, but it is mired in revolutionary chaos.
* 584–625: Peace resumes in southern Huyfárah. The member city-states of the new nation are Mæmedéi, Azbǽbu, Miədu, Puwa, and Laspera; Luyosha and Momuva'e are incorporated a few years later. There is a sense of enthusiasm about the new state and a minor intellectual flourishing develops, but the cities are smaller than five hundred years earlier, and the country still feels war-torn. Mæmedéi quits and is peacefully reincorporated into Huyfárah (605).
* 584–636: Partial recovery in northern Huyfárah, despite brief struggle for throne in spring of 600.
* 625–670: The southern Fáralo federation remains essentially stable, but the initial flourishing is over once the Kascan cities quit (except Puwa, which is essentially a Fáralo city by this point). Most of Kasca slides into anarchy yet again, though the kingdom of Påwe is strong during this period.
* 636–683: The Kečemin Dynasty of northern Huyfárah starts strong but descends into ineptitude. The deposed House of Haran (in power twenty years prior) muscles their way onto the throne. The Senate is dissolved.
* 670–738: The southern Fáralo federation declines.
* 683–691: Civil War in northern Huyfárah between Haran and Heigo.
* 691–755: The Heigo install themselves as the last "real" dynasty of Huyfárah and the Haran family flee to their home territory near Oltumosou, but then the Oltu Valley is taken over by a non-Isthmus barbarian group from the northwest. The Heigo continue ruling, but under the barbarians' thumb.
* 738–c. 800: The southern Fáralo federation splits into its remaining constituent republics (really pseudo-republican dictatorships) of Miədu, Azbǽbu, and Puwa. Outbreaks of religious violence between various religions in the cities; various uprisings and assassinations; general chaos, though urban life hums on.
* 755–786: The aforementioned barbarians are chased out of the Oltu and become entrenched in the Tal. The Fáralo empire has essentially ceased to function, but the bitter end comes with the sack of Ussor by an Isthmus people (specifically, one related to or descended from the Feråjin) in 786.
* 786–c. 822: "Barbarian period": Half-heartedly the Isthmus chieftain proclaims a "Ghenno" Dynasty and "Huyfárah" continues in name but rules over nothing beyond the Oltu Valley. About 800 it peters out of existence.
* c. 800: Splinter states arise from ashes of Huyfárah.

== Settlement of the North Coast ==

In ancient times, the Oltu river valley and the nearby seacoast were divided between two related peoples, the barbaric [[Faraghin]] and [[Feråjin]]. The civilized world was to the south, along the great [[Aiwa valley|Eigə river]]. The first civilized people were the [[Ngauro|Ŋouru]], who arose in the river delta - [[Kasca|Kazəgad]] - about 4000 years before classical times. The peoples and wars of the valley were many, but for our purposes the chief fact was the conquest of Kazəgad by the [[Ndak empire|Edák]], a people who had lived upriver, in [[Lasomo|Lašumu]].

The Edák were themselves conquered more than once, but their edge in population allowed them, each time, to expel or absorb their conquerors. They emerged from the last of these episodes with a new imperial vigor, and set themselves the task of conquering the known world. They reached their greatest extent around -1900 [[Year of the Prophet|YP]] under the emperor [[Tsinakan text|Siənčæn]]: the entire Eigə valley, the southwestern mountains once held by their rivals the [[Gezoro]], a wide stretch of the eastern seacoast, and the lands of the Feraghin and Feråjin.

This latter region they called ''Hagíbəl'' ([[Ndak Ta]]: ''Sau Ibli''), the North Coast; they colonized the seacoast and river valleys, leaving the Faraghin (and to a lesser extent the Feråjin) to the mountains, forests, and pasturelands. For some centuries the Edák remained as overlords; then they lost the hinterlands; then the empire collapsed, leaving the local Edák ruling the colonized areas. The local balance of power reversed: the Faraghin hill tribes, accustomed to horses and frequent internecine war, raided the Edák and pillaged or even razed their main settlements.

== The Faraghin conquest ==

Around -1400 YP, the Faraghin put aside their usual disunity and conquered the Oltu valley and its capital, [[Ussor]], and then the Edák littoral, which they renamed ''Huyfárah'', the Faraghin Coast. This time, the horsemen were here to stay. Edák society - highly stratified and urbanized - was transformed. As nomads, the Faraghin believed not in real estate and civil protection but in moveable property and honor. For the settled Edák, the archetypical villainy was murder; for the Faraghin it was theft. (Murder could be paid for.)

If this seems barbaric, we should recognize as well that the Faraghin were much more individualistic and enterprising than the Edák, whose devotion to stability led less to peace than to stagnation. It was possible to move up in Faraghin society, and trade and markets developed here, while the Eigə valley was still dominated by archaic command economies.

The great vice of the Faraghin warrior class was a disinclination, on the death of a respected king, to support their unproven young heirs. The unity of the Oltu lasted only a century; the region then became a squabbling patchwork of baronies; if some ambitious ruler unified them his kingdom would collapse in a few generations. Once the littoral was even temporarily reconquered by a resurgent Kazəgad.

Nonetheless, trade continued to flourish, and the people of Huyfárah developed a great skill in navigation, and explored the littoral a great distance to the east and south.

== The Golden Age of Huyfárah ==

The turning point was the discovery of the nation of ''Histuənə'' (Siixtaguna), to the east, and its religion [[Etúgə]]. Its great sage ''[[Sútapaj|Hutaba]]'' preached ''nubázi'' "the realization" - the realization being that all knowledge is false; only action (''etúgə'') and belief (''mušitugə'') are real. Nubázi frees the spirit to live in ''ifisænə'', the spiritual world.

The explorers brought back Etúgeist monks. These were at first mocked, even persecuted and tortured; but their calm conviction and eloquence won respect. Finally the entire country was won over, and the new doctrine not only consolidated Fáralo identity, but brought a new respect for unity and loyalty. The [[Balanin dynasty]], able generals and devout Etúgeists, unified the country, and soon turned to empire-building. First the [[Dagæm islands]] were occupied - a useful acquisition for a maritime empire; then the lands of the Feråjin just to the east, then Kazəgad - which was by now, however, only a poor shadow of its former glory.

The people of classical Huyfárah called themselves the ''Fáralo'' - essentially a form of "Faraghin" - and thought of themselves as descendents of this warrior nation. Nonetheless their language descended from that of the Edák (that is, [[Ndak Ta]]), though with heavy Faraghin influence.

== The Etou dynasty ==

In 226 YP, the last Balanin emperor of Huyfárah died without issue at an early age. He had had no close relatives beyond his wife, so a search was conducted to determine his most closely related cousin who could then assume the throne of Huyfárah. The search produced multiple candidates who were all equally closely related; two of these proclaimed themselves emperor, and the resulting conflict boiled over into civil war: bloody, but mercifully short. When it was over, no living Balanins remained.

The former emperor's wife, while not a legal candidate for the throne, was power-hungry and politically skilled. She succeeded in manipulating the nobility and Senate into accepting her lover - a powerful noble in his own right - as the new emperor of Huyfárah, and he was crowned with little more drama than the muffled muttering of the discontent.

Unlike the Balanins, the new emperor [[Etou I]] was not a devout Etúgəist. He made lip service to the religion, but did not personally uphold its tenets. Overall he was not a bad ruler, however, and under his reign the Empire healed from the civil war and began to expand its borders once again - this time succeeding in bringing the entire western forest region and its inhabitants, the [[Tlaliolz]], fully into the Empire.

However, his son [[Etou II]] was nowhere near the competent leader his father and the Balanins were: instead of inspiring his people, he manipulated the institutions and machinery of [[Etúgə]] for personal gain. Using Etúgə as a banner to inflame his armies with fervor to conquer the infidels, Etou II blundered into [[Lasomo|Lašumu]], tried to assimilate the entire region at once, and watched the invasion blow up in his face when his insufficiently defended supply lines were cut. Hiding this disaster from the citizens at home, he took his armies north to harass the Tlaliolz - a people he already nominally controlled - because they remained non-Etúgəist and thus out of his full control.

This was the action that finally went too far. When word reached [[Ussor]], those citizens who had already had enough of the corruption of Etúgə took matters into their own hands, rioting and burning the Imperial Palace and its associated temple of Etúgə. The temple, after all, was only stone and mortar; the truth of Etúgə was eternal with or without a building. The uprising was not to last, however. Etou II and his armies returned home angry as a wasp and put the nascent rebellion down like a rabid dog. His regime remained entrenched for another four decades while discontent simmered and the machinery of Etúgə was exploited to keep his citizens in check.

During this time, nominal membership in Etúgə rose while devout belief became rare. Many people were bitter: the older generation for the perversion of what to them had been the one, true, and serious religion, and the younger generation in resentment for being ruled by fear. It was in these fertile grounds that the seeds of further revolt were planted. A number of young thinkers rose to covert influence by preaching against Etúgə's use as an instrument of control. Many of these were discovered and arrested, while the smarter ones kept meetings quiet. But their actions over the last decade of Etou II's rule brought about a segment of the population in the central cities that had renounced Etúgə and wanted a change. The most faithful of these prepared and waited for the day action could finally be taken.

== Civil War ==

In his nineties, still iron-fisted and authoritarian as ever, Etou II finally died by tripping one morning over his own robes and cracking his head by sheer accident. It did not take long for word of the emperor's demise to spread; one of his own grandsons was secretly among those who preached against Etúgə. Within 24 hours Ussor was in riot. Within the week, so were all the other cities of the central Empire.

Both of Etou II's sons had already passed on by the time he did; he left only grandchildren. Two of these became important: [[Gadein]], the heir apparent, ascended to the throne early the next morning while his city was aflame, and [[Daodas]], the aforementioned anti-Etúgəist, rose to ascendancy among the rebel forces over the next several days.

Gadein proved quickly to be a true heir, being just as corrupt as his grandfather. But it took him a little too long to gather and reorganize the army to his side, time in which the growing rebellion continued to organize out of the early chaos and gather steam. In the end, however, Gadein did prevail. It took months, but he succeeded in driving the rebel forces out, first from Ussor, and finally from the other nearby cities. What was left, a rather ragtag army of perhaps a hundred thousand, saw how the wind was blowing, and Daodas convinced them to flee west to the hinterland province of Tal.

Calling themselves the ''Epuonim'' (modern term [[Puoni]]), "infidels", Daodas' people took up residence with the Tlaliolz (modern term ''Talo'') - who still had yet to embrace Etúgə. There can be no doubt that this was not a coincidence.

== The exodus of the Puoni ==

A generation passed. The two groups - Talo and Puoni - intermarried and became as one people. Gadein died, leaving the throne to his son [[Etou III]]. This fourth emperor of the Etou Dynasty was finally a ruler competent enough to lead Huyfárah well. He made peace with many of his father's enemies, and concentrated a much larger portion of the imperial funds on improving agriculture and rebuilding the navy. He also restored the long-burned temple of Etúgə and encouraged the remaining true believers of the faith - the now rare breed descended in spirit from the original sincere Etúgəist population - to come forth and proselytize. In time, the religion healed and gained converts once again by merit instead of by threat. But nobody is perfect. Etou III also inherited his father's few passionate hatreds largely intact, first and foremost his hatred of the Puoni and Talo for their continued stubborn disinclination to be good citizens. After a decade of careful nurture of the Empire, Etou III once again roused the Imperial regiments to go west and do something about the infidels in their lands once and for all.

Very much a Balanin in spirit if not in name, Etou III proved to be as capable a general as he was a ruler. To make a long story short, he made quick work of many of the inhabitants of the west, routed many of the survivors out of the forests, and made quick work of them too. Nearly half a million were marched back to Ussor in chains, and later distributed throughout the Empire as intentured servants or sold in foreign lands as slaves.

Only a remnant of the westerners were left - perhaps two hundred thousand. Since the forests along the border had finally proved insufficient to secure them from too much Imperial control, and with the other 2/3 of their population deported, the remainder fled south. The army pursued them and exacted heavy casualties from them, but the majority made it to safety across the [[Aiwa valley|Eigə river]]. Wanting to put more distance between them and Ussor, they continued south into the forests of [[Kuaguatia]], at the inland southern fringes of [[Kasca]]. Now calling themselves only Puoni, they settled in those lands and have been there ever since. Daodas is said to have lived just long enough to see his people firmly settled in their new lands in his dotage, finally dying that same year, after having guided them well for three decades.

== The Silver Age ==

Etou III's heir [[Gadein II]] did not share his father's hatred of the Epuonim. Those who had been sold as indentured servants retained their religious beliefs and within a generation -- by the middle of the 4th century -- many were able to buy their emancipation from their masters, and once free, formed close-knit communities in the major Fáralo cities such as Miədu and Ussor.

During this time, Huyfárah grew more powerful by absorbing much of Kasca as client states in 328. Gadein II died peacefully in 343. He had no male children, and there was a brief dispute for the crown before a cousin, Baodan of the House of Malei, was named – the long-reigning Malei Dynasty had begun.

[[Baodan I]] was by all means one of the greatest emperors of Huyfárah. He had a keen understanding of economic policy, and devoted his reign to the purification and promotion of Etúgə, working closely with the Senate, keeping the people well-fed, and conquering lands afar. He did build up something of a cult of personality, with statues of him adorning many public places, though he was probably right in thinking this was a good spirit-building activity.

His policies, coinciding with the acquisition of [[Buruya]] as another client state in 351, were contributing to a strong economic boom during this period. This, with ensuing cultural developments, lead to what is known as the Fáralo Silver Age, roughly encompassing the second half of the fourth century Y.P.

== Continued Success and Weird Family Drama ==

Baodan I died in 375 and his son Ŋajóri (or Ŋa-jori) took the throne; at age 29 he was dying of a respiratory ailment and feared that during his reign that he would be incapacitated and the country would be taken over by the Senate or other interlopers. So he decided he would step down and pass the throne to his brother – but in Fáralo tradition one could not just abdicate, and it was decided he would honorably and ceremoniously commit suicide (by defenestration).

His 21-year-old brother Ŋamíga (or Ŋa-miga) held a grand funeral and took the throne in the summer of 376. He lead the country ably enough, though was less cooperative with the Senate than his father was; by the end of his reign it was becoming clear that his genius was gearing itself more towards private pursuits than firm rule. He spoke six languages, spent long stretches at his country retreat on the Porásh, curated a collection of ancient art, and composed a volume of religious poetry in Mûtsipsa’. He fathered many illegitimate children, but to his queen bore only three daughters. The conventional resolution to this problem would be to pick a nephew or cousin to be heir; a more unconventional one would be to raise one of his sons as though he were a legitimate child. The first option left his paternal instincts cold, and feared word would get out if he attempted the second. Ŋamíga was an entirely unconventional person, and decided that he would bully the Senate, and indeed the entire nation, into accepting one of his daughters as Empress.

He died prematurely in 395, probably as a result of bingeing on opium and rice wine. The Senate ruled, in accordance with his wishes, that his daughter Bewš would rule – under the proviso that in public discourse she would be referred to as male. She would dress as a man, talk like a man, act like a man, and be given a man’s name.

Thus began the strange reign of Baodan II. Sporting a man’s robes and crew-cut, he (following native historiography, we will refer to his public persona as “he”) addressed the citizens of Ussor, and vowed to further the empire’s glory: The system of roadworks and the navy were expanded, and modern methods of financing were pursued.

Baodan II was neither very traditional very religious, though certainly patriotic, and committed himself, in a distinctly Fáralo way, to ensuring both commercial strength and military might. Still, he attracted some grumblings from conservative northern nobles (the “north” being defined as “past the Oltu”), but they did not dare complain too harshly, because the emperor had the support of the urban bourgeoisie who were funding the Navy and commercial expeditions. It was likely that many were pissed off that he was in fact a woman, which was universally known, but not to be publicly mentioned, on pain of death.

A planned city was built (foundations laid: 401) on the east coast of Fmanahŋ Talam facing Huyfárah. It was named ædelu na-Malei (“Malei City,” demonstrating that by this point na- was already in use as a genitive). It was settled mostly by people from Ussor and the Oltu valley.

During this period the cities continued to flourish. One port town, about halfway in between Miədu and Mæmedéi had grown to large size: Azbǽbu (< as bæbu, “many anchors”).

The Empire of Athalē held firmly onto the area of Lašumu around Enčélade (Ngahêxôldod), while Huyfárah was cementing its grip on the Eigə Valley west of Buruya. Baodan did not wish to bring the two empires into conflict, and was contented with only the eastern fringes of Ndok territory, sending no military expedition west of that portion of the Eigə. None of these areas were very easy to hold on to, though - the natives were tough and obstinate, with a penchant for guerilla warfare, if they got pissed off at their local lords.

The barbarians to the north made occasional incursions but were rebuffed. The northern border of the Empire expanded incrementally into the mountains, and some bordering Isthmus peoples were assimilated.

== Dynasties of Huyfárah ==

* -198–Late 220's: Balanin Dynasty
* Late 220's: Interregnum (Civil War)
* 230–343: Etou Dynasty
* 343–505: Malei Dynasty
* 505–507: Interregnum (Senate kicks out Emperor, replaced with a general or something)
* 507–562: Malei Dynasty (previous Emperor comes back)
* 562–572: Interregnum (last Malei dies during course of Civil War; pretender is executed)
* 572–600: Jærə Dynasty
* 600–636: Haran Dynasty
* 636–655: Kečemin Dynasty
* 655–683: Haran Dynasty (again)
* 683–691: Interregnum (civil war between Haran and Heigo)
* 691–744: Heigo Dynasty
* 744–755: Heigo under barbarian control
* 755–769: Heigo Dynasty (barbarians expelled from Ussor)
* 769–771: Interregnum (general anarchy)
* 771–786: Kioma Dynasty
* 786–c. 800: Unofficial "Ghenno" Dynasty as Isthmus peoples take over Oltu Valley.
* c. 800: Isthmus kingdom on Oltu peters out of existence. No more dynasties.

= Names =

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! Language
! Name
! Pronunciation
! Source
|-
! [[Ndak Ta]]
| Sau Ibli
| [sau ˈibli]
| "North Coast"
|-
! [[Adāta]]
| Hazīli
| [ˈhaziːli]
| ← NT ''Sau Ibli''
|-
! [[Fáralo]]
| Huyfárah
| [hujˈfarah]
| ← Faraghin ''Soifaragh'' "Faraghin Coast" (borrowed)
|-
! [[Delta_Naidda|Naidda]]
| Puivara
| [pujvarə]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah'' (borrowed)
|-
! Mavakhalan
| haźiľ
| [ˈhaʒiʎ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! Ayāsthi
| ġàʒīly
| [ˈɦɑʒiːlɨ]
| ← Adāta ''Hazīli''
|-
! [[Namɨdu]]
| Hɨwora
| [hɨˈwɔɾɐ]
| ← Fáralo ''Huyfárah''
|-
|}

= See also =

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Akana states]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

House of Mir

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}
As the first imperial dynasty of the [[Empire of Athalē]], the noble house of Mir was hugely influential in the formation of the empire, and the golden age that followed them was built largely on foundations they laid. Following is a chronicle of the internal workings and family tree of their dynasty.

== Tēmekas I ==

'''Tēmekas I'''

Born: 204 
Enthroned: 244 
Died: 253

Children with Liduni (205 - 235):
* Khīles, boy. 223 - 250 
* Mikha.

Children with Bathisēpa (214 - 293):
* Naiōla, girl. 236 - 278

Tēmekas the First was the heir of the disenfranchised royal family of Thāras, the house of Mir, who had not tasted power in three generations. Despite being held as "guests" in Athalē at the time, the family never ceased in their machinations to regain power, and Tēmekas was no less ambitious than his forebears. He joined the army at an early age, and by 229 worked his way up to the rank of general.

Tēmekas was married in 222, to his distant cousin Liduni. Their early passion faded fast, but she bore him two sons, Khīles and Mikha. Tēmekas' high regard for his firstborn, Khīles, was in stark contrast to his disdain of Mikha (to whom he did not even give a noble suffix). Khīles - athletic, tall, gregarious, and confident - was his father's darling, and was groomed as his heir. Mikha was thin, unhealthy, and disinclined to both physical and social activity, and grew up in his older brother's shadow, largely ignored by his father.
215
In 233, Liduni took ill with a coughing and wasting disease. Publicly worried for his wife, in private General Tēmekas' eyes were all on the Mezarasian beauty Bathisēpa, who he had spied bathing herself in front of a window. She later confessed to having spent weeks at that window trying to catch the general's eye; unlike quiet Liduni, Bathisēpa was ambitious. Even as his wife was dying, Bathisēpa installed herself first into his bed and then into his council. She quickly gained a reputation among the nobility as a wily manipulator, but in Tēmekas's mind she could do no wrong. Liduni died in the spring of 235. Under Thārasian custom, marrying a commoner would have constituted abdication as the heir of Mir, and so his hunger for power prevented him from marrying Bathisēpa. The traditional Thārasian solution was for her to be an unmarried consort, which role she modeled herself on thereafter - it meant her children would be considered legitimate heirs of Tēmekas provided she remained in good standing. The two of them plotted and waited for their chance. She also bore him a daughter, Naiōla, in late 236.

When his father Idores died in 240, Tēmekas became the head of the House. He and Bathisēpa watched as the rulers of Athalē pretended they weren't behaving like the very kings the city wasn't supposed to have, and he grew jealous of Phanal even while serving as his general. He and his consort plotted to install him as king, and the opportunity came in 244 when Phanal died unexpectedly with no clear successor (he had one very young son). Some suspected foul play, but nobody dared to bring charges against Tēmekas; it was whispered that Bathisēpa had engineered the ruler's death. The army idealized Tēmekas and Phanal together as the team which led them to repeated victories, and with the latter out of the way, Tēmekas used the army's loyalty to ensure no one dared oppose him. At the advanced age of 40, he proclaimed himself king of Athalē and Thāras. The king proved quite authoritarian, but at the same time, he was a capable ruler, and the incipient Empire of Athalē expanded strongly under his reign.

The birth of Naiōla was very difficult, and Bathisēpa was unable to bring any subsequent children to term. She remained powerful throughout the king's reign, though, and came to be so respected in Thāras that a personality cult arose around her there. After Tēmekas died in 253, she retired to Thāras and lived there for another forty years.

== Mikha and Uremas I ==

'''Mikha'''

Born: 225 
Enthroned: 253 
Died: 257

No issue.

'''Uremas I'''

Born: 240 
Enthroned: 257 
Died: 274

Children with Naiōla (236 - 278):
* Tēmekas II.

Prince Khīles died in 250 in a hunting accident. Tēmekas I was dismayed; his well-groomed heir was dead, leaving the introverted and ill-prepared Mikha in line for his throne. He resolved to prepare his remaining son, but it was too late; Mikha was already 25 years old and well set in his ways. Uninterested in ruling, he nevertheless began to study at his father's urging. But the going was slow, and when Tēmekas died three years later Mikha ascended the throne still quite unfit to do anything with it. He relied on his counsellors and generals to such an extent that he was effectively a puppet. Bathisēpa tried to advise him, but they had never gotten along well, and the new king remained weak.

Mikha's downfall was not long in coming. Only four years later in 257, Uremas, son of the same Phanal that Bathisēpa may have had killed, returned the favor. Having won many of the top nobles of Athalē to his side, Uremas - not a man to have others do what he could perfectly well do himself - simply walked one morning into the palace kitchen and stabbed Mikha from behind as he was speaking with the cook. The guards and even the cook were all with Uremas on this, and raised no outcry. The rivalry of Athalē with Thāras had not yet grown stale, and the Holy City was happy to have a native Athalēran of the house of Aiathi back in control.

Thāras, however, was severely displeased. Spurred on and orchestrated in large part by the wily old Bathisēpa, the Thārasian body politic delivered to Athalē what was then called the Final Threat: restore the House of Mir to power or fight. Thāras, despite not being the capital of the young empire, had more than twice the population of Athalē at this time, and the latter knew it would lose. So while nobles on both sides spoke out against the other, and amid much public posturing and jingoism, a quiet but steady stream of diplomatic missions between the councils of Uremas I and Bathisēpa worked out a solution: Uremas was to marry into the house of Mir by taking Naiōla, its sole remaining heir, as his queen.

The bride and groom wanted nothing to do with each other, but bit their tongues for the sake of averting war and married less than a year after Mikha's assasination. Thus were the houses of Aiathi and Mir united into a single family with undisputed claim to the throne. Once again out of duty, Uremas I and Naiōla produced an heir - which they named Tēmekas the Second, at her insistance. Uremas remained firmly in charge with Naiōla exerting only marginal political power, but when it came to her child, she dug in her heels and forced him to go along with what she wanted. Their uneasy marriage lasted through the rest of his reign until he died in 274 by choking on his dinner, and no other children were born.

== Tēmekas II ==

'''Tēmekas II'''

Born: 258 
Enthroned: 274 
Died: 310

Children with Māphini (257 - 300):
* unnamed stillborn girl. 276
* Tēmekas III.
* Sumini and Thīoze, fraternal twin girls. 280 - 321 and 280 - 338
* Uremas II.
* Semōnes, boy. 284 - 351
* Rebas, boy. 285 - 290
* Hekhes, boy (paternity uncertain). 287 - 324

Children with Ngaxeuda (283 - 305):
* Marāla, girl. 302 - 340
* Texozonon I. 302 - 364
* Lekhīrā, boy. 303 - 328
* unnamed boy, died with his mother in childbirth. 305

Tēmekas II was the first to declare himself ''seathiauk'' - emperor - and the first to study the imperial model of [[Huyfárah]]. He was also a prolific sire of offspring. Between his two wives, he was the father of twelve legitimate children (two of which did not survive birth), although the paternity of one of these has always been questioned. Additionally he is believed to have fathered at least twenty-two illegitimate children, and possibly more.

Tēmekas II acquired a reputation as a ladies' man from an early age, and four of his known illegitimate children were born before his sixteenth birthday - all in the same year, and to four different young ladies. His mother Naiōla was scandalized at first, and later, refused to acknowledge her son's promiscuity. When he inherited the throne, he married Māphini, daughter of a Khalanese noble house - a political marriage he was forced into soon after accession. Their union proved loveless, but not fruitless. She gave birth seven times to eight children. The worst-kept secret of the court during this period was the sheer number of mistresses the Emperor wooed privately, often several at a time, which was an ongoing source of embarassment for Māphini. She grew bitter and lashed out against Tēmekas publicly on more than one occasion, but he was generally a tolerant man and took this in stride.

His tolerance was strained in early 287, however, when Hekhes was born. Unlike his fair-haired and fair-skinned parents, Hekhes had dark hair and an olive complexion, and Tēmekas was rumored to be furious. Nevertheless, distasteful of courtly drama, he publicly acknowledged the boy his son and did his best to quench the rumors. The happy family illusion they maintained finally cracked open later that year, when Māphini upbraided Tēmekas at length at an official dinner over his drunken behavior the night before, severely embarassing the Emperor in front of the new envoys from Xsali and the fully assembled court. After a week of fuming, he announced a divorce. The queen was exiled from court to a small town near Radias and set up with a small household of her own; Tēmekas agreed to let her raise the three youngest boys while keeping the older children in court, and by all accounts she eventually accepted her fate and found a happier life there.

The Emperor found himself freer than ever to engage in his proclivities. The servants giggled and whispered about it, and nobles of the court simply smiled and changed the subject. This carried on for another 14 years, until 301, when a beautiful new chambermaid from [[Akelodo]] was hired. Tēmekas was smitten with Ngaxeuda from day one. Against the advice of his counsellors and ignoring the scandalous age difference (she was younger than his son Uremas), he married her late that year. Uremas too was smitten, and fought with his father repeatedly - and left the court when the royal couple married. Only two months later Ngaxeuda gave birth, and to nobody's surprise, only four months after that it was announced she was pregnant again. A third child followed soon after. By all accounts, Tēmekas and Ngaxeuda were a love match, and for his wife the Emperor wrote a number of highly emotional poems that remain on record.

The new queen became pregnant a fourth time in 305, but the happiness of the court came to an abrupt halt when she and the child died in labor. Tēmekas was devastated, and fell into a deep depression. He secluded himself from courtly life and allowed governance of the Empire to fall to his eldest son Tēmekas (III). He grew ill, and by 309 it was clear the end was near. Tēmekas II died the next spring.

== Tēmekas III and Uremas II ==

'''Tēmekas III'''

Born: 277 
Enthroned: 310 
Died: 310

Children with Bīa (274 -300 ):
* Dīrā, girl. 295 - 356

Children with Umadoze (278 - 322):
* Ukhirā, girl. 301 - 351
* Bunōrā, girl. 303 - 339

'''Uremas II'''

Born: 281 
Enthroned: 311 
Retired: 325 
Died: 332

Children with Lona (289 - 331):
* Masōthi, girl. 311 - 348
* Haiēla, girl. 314 - 379
* Alakathi, girl. 315 - 344
* Oboni, girl. 317 - 336

Tēmekas the Third was enthroned shortly after his father's death. His reign started off well; he sent trade envoys to Huyfárah and Xsali which were well received, and on the domestic scene he set in motion an ambitious plan - devised while acting for his ailing father, who had suggested it - to construct a network of imperial highways. Late that autumn, however, a plague struck much of the central and southern Rathedan. In the Holy City of Athalē, as many as one in ten succumbed, and Tēmekas III was among them. He had three young daughters, but no sons. The throne thus fell to his brother Uremas.

Unfortunately, Uremas - who had been largely out of the picture since leaving the court in 301 - had to be tracked down. Couriers were dispatched throughout the Empire, and the next brother in line - Semōnes - held everything together while they waited. Semōnes was a priest with little ambition for himself, and refused the suggestions of others that he take the throne himself instead of waiting for the alienated Uremas. It was not until three months later that word came; Uremas had been in Xsalad, carrying on an affair with the niece of the Xsali emperor. Uremas caused a minor scandal when he arrived in Athalē in the winter of early 311 with his black mistress at his side. Negroid traders from Xsalad had been known and welcomed in the Rathedan for centuries, but marrying someone so different was another matter - especially for royalty. Nevertheless, Uremas II married his outlandish and very pregnant queen ||oena (rendered into Adāta as Lōna) as part of his coronation ceremony.

It took time for Lōna to be accepted by the court. Those who knew her spoke well of her, but she mostly kept to herself and never developed any close friends beyond her husband. Uremas, too, was a very private man. He continued the highway project begun by his brother, strengthened trade with Xsalad (with the help of his wife), proved to be very world-wise and gained wide respect for his capability, but he kept his distance from the social life of the court. Historians have speculated on how matters might have gone differently had Uremas cultivated the respect of his nobles.

Lōna bore him four daughters, all of them nearly as dark as their mother, but no sons. Many nobles were quietly horrified. Some feared for the future of the dynasty, while others saw opportunity to gain advantage for themselves. But the public remained firmly behind the emperor, and when in 321 the fourth plot to unseat Uremas was uncovered, an angry mob killed the instigating Lord Iadan before he could be brought to trial. After this incident, the loyal Semōnes - the next brother in line - came forward with a list of twelve nobles who had offered to help him gain the throne. Counsellors urged the emperor to execute everyone on the list, but fearing rebellion by their houses, he exiled them instead. Uremas' relationship with his nobles continued to worsen. He had befriended the elderly Bathisēpa in his youth and absorbed a great amount of political wisdom from her, and applied it successfully earlier in his reign, but as time wore on no amount of political savvy could stop the tide of sentiment.

In the summer of 325, a major scandal erupted when it was learned that his eldest daughter Masōthi had secretly married his young half-brother Texozonon. This walked the line of acceptable distance of kinship - it would have been outright unacceptable if Texozonon and Uremas shared a mother instead of a father - and the fact she had married without her father's permission at the young age of 15 was just as bad. Uremas himself was stunned, but it didn't take the nobility long to move. They quickly realized that this development finally offered the acceptable succession path that had been missing: by virtue of descent from Tēmekas II and marriage to the eldest daughter of Uremas, Texozonon was heir-apparent. It undoubtedly helped that Texozonon was popular, decisive, and devout. The nobility pressured the emperor to step down, and by the end of the year there was nothing left he could do. Uremas II announced his retirement and the reign of Texozonon I began.

Uremas and Lona retired to the quiet city of Hiphago with their youngest three daughters, and the former emperor died there in 332.

== Texozonon I and II ==

''to be written''

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:1st millennium Akana]]

Hitatc languages/Diachronics

2008-06-23T12:59:24Z

Admin: 1 revision

This page gives a detailed account of the sound changes leading from [[Proto-Hitatc]] to the various later languages of the [[Hitatc languages|Hitatc family]], set in the conworld [[Akana]].

= Proto-Hitatc phoneme inventory =

* Consonants:
** Plosive stops: /p t k q ʔ b d ɡ ɢ/
** Nasal stops: /m̥ n̥ ŋ̊ ɴ̥ m n ŋ ɴ/
** Fricatives: /s z/
** Liquids: /l̥ l/
* Vowels:
** /a e i o u/ ''(with a length distinction in stressed syllables)''
* Syllable structure:
** pure CV

''See also: [[Proto-Hitatc|Proto-Hitatc grammar sketch]]''

= Diachronics =

== Eastern branch ==

=== Proto-Hitatc to Common Eastern Hitatc (c. -1800 YP) ===

* ʔ → h when stressed or initial
* palatalisation:
** [t,d,n,s,z,l] → [ʦ,ʣ,ɲ,ʃ,ʒ,ʎ] / _[i,e]
** [k,ɡ,ŋ,h] → [c,ɟ,ɲ,ç] / _[i,e]
** Ø → ç / [n̥,ŋ̊]_[i,e]
* [i,e] → [e,a] adjacent to an uvular consonant
* [+uvular] → [+velar]
* l̥ → θ
* z → ɹ
* post-stress [e,o,a] → ə (except *o in the second post-stress syllable before labial consonants)
* [b,d,ʣ,ʒ,ɟ,ɡ] → [p,t,ʦ,ʃ,c,k] when stressed or initial

=== Common Eastern Hitatc to Coastal Hitatc (c. +200 YP) ===

* [b,d,ʣ,ʒ,ɟ,ɡ] → [w,ɹ,r,ʝ,j,ɰ]
* V → Ø / V[m,n,ŋ]_C when unstressed
* Ø → h / "CV[m̥,n̥,ŋ̊]_
* [m̥,n̥,ŋ̊] → [m,n,ŋ]
* w → Ø / _u
* j → Ø / _i
* vowel shift:
** [u,o,a,e] → [y,u,ɑ,æ]
* [ʦ,c] → ʧ
* s → ʃ / _[i,y,æ]
* θ → s
* [ʎ,ʝ] → j
* ŋ → n / #_
* i → y / _w
* [ʔ,ɰ] → Ø
* high vowels reanalysed as semivowels when intervocalic
* simplification of vowels in hiatus:
{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
!
! *i
! *y
! *u
! *æ
! *ɑ
! *ə
|-
! *i
| iː
| iː
| ju
| je
| ja
| eː
|-
! *y
| iː
| yː
| yː
| eː
| jo
| yː
|-
! *u
| uː
| uː
| uː
| oː
| oː
| oː
|-
! *æ
| eː
| eː
| oː
| eː
| aː
| aː
|-
! *ɑ
| eː
| oː
| oː
| aː
| aː
| aː
|-
! *ə
| eː
| yː
| oː
| aː
| aː
| aː
|-
|}

* epenthetic consonants between remaining vowels in hiatus:
** Ø → h / [æ,ɑ,ə]_V
** Ø → j / i_V, y_[u,y]
** Ø → w / [u,y]_V
* jæ → je
* [æ,ɑ] → a
* restructuring of central vowels:
** [ə,y] → [e,i] / j_, _j, _[n,ɲ,ŋ]C
** [ə,y] → [o,u] / w_, _w, _mC
** ə → Ø (of schwas in consecutive syllables, the second, fourth etc. survives)
** [ə,y] → ɨ
* restructuring of rhotics:
** VɹC → VːC
** CɹV → ClV
** ɹ → r
* [nj,ŋj,sj,kj] → [ɲ,ɲ,ʃ,ʧ]
* metathesis:
** [P/F][N/L/A] → #2#1 / V_V
** LN → #2#1 / V_V
* VN → V~ / _C, _#
* remaining clusters are broken up by epenthetic vowels:
** Ø → i / C_[ʧ,ʃ,ç,j]
** Ø → u / C_[p,m,w]
** Ø → ɨ / any other C_C

=== Coastal Hitatc to Pirikõsu (c. +1600 YP) ===

* p → f / _u
* epenthesis:
** Ø → i / [s,ʃ,ʧ,ç,ɲ,j]_#
** Ø → u / [p,m,w]_#
** Ø → a after other word-final consonants
* ç → ʃ
* [p,t,ʧ,k] → [f,s,ʃ,x] / Vː_
* lowering of short high vowels:
** [ji,wu] → [iː,uː] / #_
** short [i,u] → [e,o]
** short ɨ → u / _w, _$C[u,o]
** short ɨ → i / _j
** i → e / h_
* ŋ → n when initial or stressed
* k → ʔ when unstressed
* x → k
* t → k / [a,o,u,ə]_[a,o,u]
* ʧ → ʃ / _[i,e], V~_
* ʧ → t
* stress shifts to the last nasalised or long vowel in a word
* loss of vowel length distinction

==== Pirikõsu phoneme inventory ====

* Consonants:
** Obstruents: /p t k ʔ f s ʃ h/ ''p t k ‘ f s ş h''
** Sonorants: /m n ɲ ŋ r l j w/ ''m n ņ ŋ r l y w''
* Vowels:
** oral: /a e i o u ɨ/ ''a e i o u ı'' (stressed: ''â ê î ô û ŷ'' - not marked on the penultimate syllable)
** nasal: /ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ɨ̃/ ''ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ỹ''
* Syllable structure:
** pure CV

''See also: [[Pirikõsu|Pirikõsu grammar sketch]]''

=== Common Eastern Hitatc to Necine (c. +1000 YP) ===

* loss of vowel length distinction
* [b,d,ɟ,g] → [v,ð,ʝ,ɣ] / V_V
* [ʔ,h] → Ø
* ʎ → j
* [ji,jə] → [i,e]
* short prevocalic [i,e] → Ø after palatals
* [c,ʃ,ʒ,ʝ,ɲ] → [ʈ,ʂ,ʐ,ɻ,ɳ] / _[a,ə,o,u]
* ɹ → ɻ
* l → ł next to back vowels
* simplification of vowels in hiatus:
{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
!
! *i
! *e
! *a
! *o
! *u
! *ə
|-
! *i
| iː
| je
| ja
| jo
| ju
| eː
|-
! *e
| aj
| eː
| ja
| jo
| jo
| eː
|-
! *a
| aj
| aj
| aː
| aw
| aw
| aː
|-
! *o
| oj
| oj
| wa
| oː
| uː
| oː
|-
! *u
| uj
| we
| wa
| uː
| uː
| wa
|-
! *ə
| aj
| oj
| aː
| oː
| aw
| əː
|-
|}
* V[-long] → Ø / _"CV
* [θ,ð] → [t,d] / _[t,ʦ,ʣ]
* [θ,ð] → [s,z] / C_
* ɻ → ʐ / _V[-long-stress]
* syncope of short unstressed vowels after voiced fricatives:
** [a,ə,e,i]vV[-long-stress]C → [o,o,ø,y]ːC
** [a,ə,e,o,u][z,ʝ]V[-long-stress]C → [e,e,i,ø,y]ːC
** [e,i,u][ʐ]V[-long-stress]C → [a,e,o]ːC
** all other V1F[+voice]V[-long-stress]C → V1ːC
* [u,o] → [y,ø] before [j,ʝ]
* [ʝ,ɣ] → j
* palatalisation & umlaut:
** unstressed [i,e,y] → Ø / _j
** [a,ə,o,u](ː) → [e,e,ø,y](ː) / Cj_
** [ʦj,kj,ʣj,ɡj] → [ʧ,c,ʤ,ɟ]
** [θj,sj,xj,zj] → [ç,ʃ,ç,ʒ]
** [nj,ɳj,ŋj] → ɲ
** [ʈ,ɖ,ʈʂ,ɖʐ,ʂ,ʐ] → [t,d,ʧ,ʤ,ʃ,ʒ] / _j, i(ː)_
** j → Ø / C[-labial]_
* [ʦ,ʣ] → [t,d] / _F
* [ʦ,ʣ] → [s,z] elsewhere
* ə → Ø / "VC_CV
* clusters assimilate in voicing
* loss of voicing distinction for nasals
* further cluster changes:
** word-initial plosive-plosive clusters change into PF or FP; usually the more anterior consonant fricates
** complex POA assimilation in clusters involving nasal consonants, creating phonemic labiovelar nasals.
** complex POA assimilation for postalveolar/palatal/retroflex consonants
** F1F2 → F1
** geminates simplify to single consonants
** [b,d,ɖ,ɟ,g]N → ⁿ[b,d,ɖ,ɟ,g] word-initially (gm becomes km instead)
** epenthesis: #CCC → #CCəC
* changes involving clustered liquids
** Nl → ⁿdl / #_
** ʈɻ → ʈʂ
** [e,i,y,u] → [a,e,ø,o] / _ɻC, Cɻ_
** ɻ → Ø / C_
** VɻC → VːC
* [θ,ð] → [f,v] in the presence of labial consonants or rounded vowels
* [θ,ð] → [s,z] elsewhere
* ç → j / _C, C_
* ç → h / _[a,o,u,ə]
* [z,ʐ,l,ɭ,ɻ] → Ø / _j
* j → Ø / C[-labial]_
* ł → l
* epenthetic glides between vowels:
** Ø → j / i_V, [y,ø,e]_[a,o,u,ə]
** Ø → w / [u,o]_V, [y,ø]_[i,e]
* y → u adjacent to j
* y → i adjacent to w
* short [e,o] → [ɛ,ɔ]
* length distinction is lost for [ø,y]

==== Necine phoneme inventory ====

''Note:''
''The "retroflex" consonants /ʈ ɖ ʂ ʐ ɳ ɭ ɻ/ are more specifically apical postalveolar. The contrasting /t d s z n l/ have a lamino-dental articulation.

* Consonants:
** Plain plosives: /p t ʈ c k/ ''p t ṭ ty k''
** Prenasalised plosives: /ⁿb ⁿd ⁿɖ ⁿɟ ⁿɡ ⁿɡ͡b/ ''mb nd ṇḍ ndy ng ngb''
** Nasals: /m n ɳ ɲ ŋ͡m/ ''m n ṇ ny ngm''
** Fricatives: /f s ʃ ʂ h v z ʒ ʐ/ ''f s š ṣ h v z ž ẓ''
** Affricates: /ʣ ʤ/ ''dz dž''
** Approximants: /l ɭ ɻ j w/ ''l ḷ r y w''
* Vowels:
** Short: /a ɛ i ɔ u ə/ ''a e i o u ĕ''
** Long: /aː eː iː oː uː øː yː/ ''ā ē ī ō ū ö ü''
** Diphthongs: /aɪ ɛɪ ɔɪ uɪ aʊ/ ''ai ei oi ui au''
* Syllable structure:
** (C)CV(C) with no word-final consonants

''See also: [[Necine|Necine grammar sketch]]''

== Western branch ==

=== Proto-Hitatc to Common Western Hitatc (c. -2700 YP) ===

* [m̥,n̥,ŋ̊,ɴ̥] → [ɸ,θ,x,ħ]
* V → Vː / _[b,d,ɡ]
* ɢ → ʁ
* q → χ / _[i,e]
* syncope of unstressed vowels with compensatory feature spreading, determined by the location of the stress accent
** environment:
*** CaCaCaCá → CCaC(a)Cá
*** CaCaCáCa → CaCCáC(a)
*** CaCáCaCa → C(a)CáCCa
*** CáCaCaCa → CáCCaC(a)
*** CaCaCá → CaCCá
*** CaCáCa → CCáCa
*** CáCaCa → CáCaC(a)
*** CaCá → C(a)Cá
** lenition ''(reduced vowels in {} brackets)''
*** [p,t,k,q] → [f,s,x,χ] / _{i,u}
*** [b,d,ɡ,ɢ] → [v,z,ɣ,ʁ] / _{i,u}
*** [p,t,k,q] → [f,s,x,χ] / ![F]{i,u}_
** labialisation
*** {u,o}C → Cʷ
** palatalisation
*** {i,e}C → Cʲ
** syncope of short vowels, and shortening of long ones
*** {i,a,u}[-long]C → ØC[ʲ,ˁ,ʷ]
*** {V}ː → V
* [i,e,u] → [e,a,o] / _[ħ,ʁ]
* [Cj,jC] → Cʲ
* [Cw,wC] → Cʷ

=== Common Western Hitatc to Proto-Wan-Mlir (c. -2400 YP) ===

* coda obstruents become unvoiced except V_(ʲ,ˁ,ʷ)#
* [ɸ,z,ħ] → [u,i,a] word-initially before a fricative of a different POA
* ɸ → f
* fortification of nasal clusters
** [n,ɲ,ŋ,ɴ] → [d,ʤ,ɡ,ʁ] / N_
** [d,ɡ,ʁ] → ʤ / ɲ_ʲ
** [d,ɡ,ʁ] → b / m_ʷ
** [v,ð,z,ʒ,ɣ] → [b,d,ʣ,ʤ,ɡ] / N_
** [f,θ,s,ʃ,x] → [p,t,ʦ,ʧ,k] / N_
** [n,ŋ] → [d,ɡ] / #_L
* voicing assimilation of liquids
* l̥ → ɬ
* [p,t,k,f,θ,s,x] → [b,d,ɡ,v,ð,z,Ø] / _ʁ
* evolution of laryngeals:
** ħ → χ / [p,t,k,q]_V
** ħ → ː / V_C
** [ħ,ʁ] → ː / V_#
** [ħ,ʁ] → χ / #_V
** [ħ,ʁ] → Ø / _V
** χ → a / #_F[+voice]
** q → χ / #_[p,t,k,q]

=== Proto-Wan-Mlir to Hitatc Wan (c. -1900 YP) ===
* [qʲ,qʷ] → [χi,χu] / _#
* [ʔʲ,ʔʷ] → [c,p]
* [ŋʷ,ɴʷ] → m
* vowel colouring:
** [a,e,o,u] → [ɛ,i,ø,y] / Cʲ_
** [a,e,i] → [ɔ,ø,y] / Cʷ_
** [e,i,o,u] → [ɛ,e,ɔ,o] / Cˁ_
* gemination:
** VCˁ → VCC / _V, _#
* degemination:
** C[-voice] → C[+voice] / V_V
** V → Vː / _[+voice+geminate]
** [P/F][+voice+geminate] → [P/F][-voice]
** [P/F][+voice] → [P/F][-voice] / _#
** P[+geminate] → PF / _#
* ɬN → F[-voice]
* xʷ → f / _#
* ʷ → w
* w → u / C_#, C_C
* palatalisation:
** Ø → l / V[p,b,m,f,v]_ʲV
** [t,d,s,z,n,l]ʲ → [c,ɟ,ʃ,ʒ,ɲ,ʎ]
** [k,ɡ,x,ɣ,ŋ]ʲ → [c,ɟ,ç,j,ɲ]
** qχʲ → kx
** ʲ → j
** j → ʃ / VP_#
** j → ʎi / [p,b,m,f,v]_#
** j → i / C_#, C_C
* Ø → ʔ / Vː_V, V_Vː
* F[+voice]ˁ → ʔF[+voice]
* F[-voice] → F[+voice] / ʔ_
* Lˁ → ʔL
* ʔ → t / _ɬ
* nasals other than [m] assimilate to following plosives
* [t,d] → [p,b] / m_[s,ʃ,z,ʒ]
* epenthesis:
** Ø → ɔ / #_m[P/F]
** Ø → i / #_ɲ[P/F]
** Ø → ɛ / #_N[P/F]
** Ø → u / [P/F]m_#
** Ø → i / [P/F]N_#
* cluster simplification:
** all pure obstruent clusters become voiceless
** F → F[+voice] / N_
** Ø → P[+voice] / N_F[+voice]
** Ø → t / L_F[-voice]
** ʎ,ɬ → l / _C
** l,ʎ → ɬ / P[-voice]_
** l → t / #_[P/F][-voice]
** l → d / #_[F][+voice]
** l → Ø / #_C
** complex simplification of three-obstruent clusters, often involving frication of a plosive
**complex simplification of adjacent sibilants
* [v,ʝ] → [w,j]
* [wu,ji,wu] → [uː,iː] / C_
* [w,j] → [f,ʃ] / FP_, P_#
* [w,j] → [u,i] / C_#
* [ɛ,ɔ][+length] → [e,o] / unstressed
* [ɛ,ɔ] → [e,o] / in unstressed open syllables
* [e,o] → [ɛ,ɔ] / in unstressed closed syllables
* stress shift away from short vowels:
** to a long vowel two syllables away
** to a closed syllable two syllables away
** to an adjacent long vowel if the word is trisyllabic
* loss of vowel length distinction
* z → r / except _[w,l,ʎ] and [l,d]_
* ð → z
* [c,ɟ] → [t,d] / i_i
* ʎ → l / C_i
* [ʁ,ħ] → [x,χ] / _P[-voice]
* ħ → ʁ / _C
* ɣ → ʁ / _C, C_
* ʁ → ʀ

==== Hitatc Wan phoneme inventory ====

* Consonants:
** Plosives: /p t c k q ʔ b d ɟ ɡ/ ''p t c k q ‘ b d j g''
** Fricatives: /f θ s ʃ ç x χ ħ z ʒ ɣ/ ''f th s š ch kh qh h z ž ğ''
** Liquids: /ɬ l ʎ r ʀ/ ''ɬ l ly r ř''
** Nasals: /m n ɳ ŋ ɴ/ ''m n ny ng nq''
** Approximants: /w j/ ''w y''
* Vowels:
** /a ɛ e i ɔ o u œ ø y/ ''a e é i o ó u ö ő ü''
* Syllable structure:
** (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) ''(details to come)''

''See also: [[Hitatc Wan|Hitatc Wan grammar sketch]]''



= See also =

* ''[[Hitatc languages|Main article "Hitatc languages"]]''

Hitatc languages

2008-06-23T12:59:23Z

Admin: 1 revision

{{Akana}}

The [[Hitatc languages]] are a conlang family spoken in the collaborative conworld [[Akana]]. Their common ancestor, [[Proto-Hitatc]], is currently being developed by [[User:Cedh audmanh|Cedh Audmanh]].

= Historical background =

The Hitatc languages were widely spoken in the regions south of the [[Aiwa valley|Eigə river]] in preclassical times; most notably by the Wan and Mlir tribes, nomadic inhabitants of the Milīr steppe regions who turned out to be the only "primitive" peoples capable of resisting an invasion by the legendary [[Ndak Empire|Ndak]] emperor [[Tsinakan text|Tsinakan]]. This affair was ashamedly left out of most official Ndak chronicles, but apocryphic records provide glimpses to the earliest attested bits of Hitatc culture and language.

At the time of Tsinakan (around -1900 YP), Hitatc peoples populated almost all the land between the [[Rathedān]] highlands ([http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Ndak_Ta Ndak Ta]: ''Daing Emwel'') to the west and the Ici forest (''Ntâug Pai Tam'') to the east. They had a nomadic lifestyle, and were divided into many small tribes with separate but similar identities and traditions. Descendants of the closely related (and possibly intercomprehensible) Wan and Mlir languages continued to be the main tongues in the region until the third century after the death of the prophet [[Zārakātias]], and the Hitatc nomads firmly held on to their lands. It was only in the [[Itatizan War]] in 229-231 YP that the emergent [[Empire of Athalē]] conquered the lower and middle Milīr valley. In the meantime, the Wan-Mlir dialects had diversified into about half a dozen languages, the most important one being [[Ktacwa]] ([http://deinioljones.net/conlangs/adata/adata.htm Adāta]: ''Itatizan''). At least three of these received the attention of [[Dāiadak]] scholars. As most of the Wan-Mlir languages were never written, almost all that is known about them derives from these studies. After the conquest by Athalē, the Wan-Mlir languages became extinct within a few centuries, leaving traces only as a substrate in the southern varieties of Adāta and descendants thereof (e.g. [http://wiki.frath.net/A%CE%B8%C3%A1ta Aθáta] and [http://wiki.frath.net/Pencek Pencek]).

Only two minor Hitatc languages were known to have survived into the second millennium YP. Both of them were spoken in remote mountain areas on the upper Milīr, and both had many features in common with the languages from downriver areas. However, it is general consensus among linguists that the Uplands Hitatc languages diverged from their more prominent Wan and Mlir relatives a few centuries before Tsinakan.

To the surprise of many scholars, early attempts at reconstructing the common ancestor of the family resulted in a lexical stock that pointed to an origin in a lush, forested area rather than to the semi-dry Milīr region. While some linguists fiercely rejected this conclusion, others began to look for possible relatives, variously proposing connections to [[Eigə-Isthmus languages|Miwan]], [[Peninsular languages|Peninsular]] or even [[Xšali]]. None of these suggestions withstood a closer examination, but two small isolate languages could convincingly be linked to the Hitatc family: [[Necine]], spoken in the southern Ici forest around +1000 YP, and [[Pirikõsu]], spoken in the Şepamã valley near the east coast of the continent six centuries later.

== Family tree ==

Known members of the Hitatc language family include:

* [[Proto-Hitatc]] (c. -3000 YP)
** Eastern Hitatc
*** Common Eastern Hitatc (c. -1800 YP)
**** Forest Hitatc
***** [[Necine]] (c. +1000 YP)
***** (...)
**** Coastal Hitatc (c. +200 YP)
***** [[Pirikõsu]] (c. +1600 YP)
***** (...)
** Western Hitatc
*** Common Western Hitatc (c. -2700 YP)
**** [[Proto-Wan-Mlir]] (c. -2400 YP)
***** Hitatc Wan (c. -1900 YP)
****** [[Ktacwa]] (c. +200 YP)
****** (...)
***** Hitatc Mlir (c. -1900 YP)
****** (...)
**** Uplands Hitatc
***** [[Eteucu]]
***** (...)

= Proto-Hitatc =

: ''Main article: [[Proto-Hitatc]]''

== Phoneme inventory ==

Proto-Hitatc is reconstructed as having 21 consonants, mostly grouped in voiceless/voiced pairs, and 5 vowels.

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! CONSONANTS
! labial
! coronal
! velar
! uvular
! glottal
|-
! plosives
| p ‧ b
| t ‧ d
| k ‧ ɡ
| q ‧ ɢ
| ʔ
|-
! nasals
| m̥ ‧ m
| n̥ ‧ n
| ŋ̊ ‧ ŋ
| ɴ̥ ‧ ɴ
|
|-
! fricatives
|
| s ‧ z
|
|
|
|-
! liquids
|
| l̥ ‧ l
|
|
|
|-
|}

* An alternative analysis treats the voiceless nasals as a sequence of /m n ŋ/ plus [h] as an allophone of /ʔ/. However, positing separate unitary phonemes allows a reconstruction with strict CV phonotactics, which is the approach followed here.

{| {{bluetable2}}
|-
! VOWELS
! front
! central
! back
|-
! high
| i
|
| u
|-
! mid
| e
|
| o
|-
! low
|
| a
|
|-
|}

* Vowel length appears to have been distinctive in stressed syllables only.

== Morpheme structure ==

All syllables in Proto-Hitatc were of the form CV. Most basic roots consisted of two syllables, although trisyllabic roots are also reconstructed. Only in the pronoun system did a few monosyllabic free morphemes exist. Affixes usually consisted of one syllable, but not entirely so: Some had a leading vowel which could override unstressed vowels immediately before it.

The general morpheme structure appears as follows:

* roots: CVCV(CV)
* derivational affixes: CV- or -(V)CV
* inflectional affixes: -(V)CV

== Stress ==

Proto-Hitatc seems to have had a fairly strong dynamic stress accent, leading to significant vowel reduction especially in the western daughter languages. Any syllable of a root could be stressed. Compound words apparently had two fully accented syllables.

A number of affixes could cause word stress to move, most prominently in the western dialects. With the current state of research, [[Necine]] (of the eastern branch) seems to be the only post-Zārakātian Hitatc language that preserved the original accent location for all basic and inflected morphemes.

= Diachronics =

The following section contains a rough sketch of the diachronic developments in the Hitatc family. The most important differences between the eastern and western subfamilies are as follows:

* The eastern languages merged the voiceless nasals with the voiced ones. The western languages turned them into fricatives instead.
* In the western languages, stress could move when affixes were added, creating significant stem allomorphy when vowel syncope set in. The eastern languages preserved the original stress pattern for much longer (Necine never shifted the stress at all).
* The eastern languages reduced many post-tonic unstressed vowels to schwa, losing some important phonetic distinctions. However, most of these reduced vowels were retained as syllable nuclei. Because of this, Pirikõsu (and to a lesser extent Necine as well) tended to remain fairly close to the original CV syllable structure. In contrast, the western languages completely syncopated many unstressed vowels (including pre-tonic ones). Surprisingly many distinctions were preserved though as the deleted vowels affected nearby consonants before vanishing. A side effect was that the western Hitatc languages became distinctively rich in consonant clusters. This feature was famously commented on by the great Dāiadak historian [[Saphamīx]], who remarked about the Ktacwa language in 208 YP:
**XA KOIA AX ĀITATIZAN RO ATHE BAXA ON HONULAK, ON IAL RO ĀPAZATHI MABA IAKHO. NIN RO ZŌMA ĪRAKĒMEIEN.
**''That speech of the Itatizan is rough and unclear, and it makes a hard mouth. Therefore it is difficult to learn.''

== Eastern branch ==

The main sound changes that are reconstructed for the eastern Hitatc languages can be summarized as follows:

=== Proto-Hitatc to Common Eastern Hitatc (c. -1800 YP) ===

* ''*ʔ'' → [h] when stressed or initial.
* Palatalisation of velar and alveolar consonants before ''*i, *e''.
* Lowering of front vowels adjacent to uvulars.
* Uvulars merged into velars.
* ''*l̥, z'' → [θ, ɹ].
* Post-tonic ''*e, o, a'' reduced to [ə] (exception: ''*o'' in the second post-stress syllable before labial consonants).
* Devoicing of stressed and initial plosives and affricates.

''See also: [[Hitatc_languages/Diachronics#Proto-Hitatc_to_Common_Eastern_Hitatc_.28c._-1800_YP.29|Detailed account of these changes]]''

=== Common Eastern Hitatc to Coastal Hitatc (c. +200 YP) ===

* Voiced plosives became approximants.
* Unstressed vowels were dropped after voiced nasals.
* Voiceless nasals were reanalyzed as a cluster of nasal+[h].
* Vowel shift: ''*u, o, a, e'' → [y, u, ɑ, æ].
* ''*s'' became [ʃ] before ''*i, y, æ''.
* ''*θ'' became [s].
* ''*ʎ, ʝ'' merged into [j].
* Loss of some approximants in intervocalic environments.
* Simplification of vowels in hiatus, mostly becoming long monophthongs. In some cases glides were inserted instead.
* ''*jæ'' became [je], remaining ''*æ, ɑ'' merged as [a].
* Central vowels ''*ə, ɨ'' were fronted or backed depending on the POA of adjacent sonorants. Remaining schwas were mostly dropped, but every second in a row of schwas merged into [ɨ] instead.
* ''*ɹ'' was lost before consonants with compensatory lengthening, turned into [l] in postconsonantal positions, and became [r] intervocalically.
* Metathesis in clusters, to the end that sonorants always came first.
* Nasal coda consonants were lost, with compensatory nasalisation of the preceding vowel.
* Remaining clusters were broken up by epenthetic vowels: [i] before palatals, [u] before labials, and [ɨ] elsewhere. [i] was also inserted in word-final position after palatals, [u] after labials, and [a] after other word-final consonants.

=== Coastal Hitatc to Pirikõsu (c. +1600 YP) ===

* Plosives lenited to fricatives after long vowels, and ''*p'' also fricated before all instances of ''*u''.
* Short ''*i, u'' lowered to [e, o], and long ''*iː'' became [eː] after ''*h''.
* ''*ŋ'' became [n] when initial or stressed.
* Unstressed ''*k'' became [ʔ].
* ''*x'' became [k] in all positions, and ''*t'' between back vowels also became [k].
* ''*ʧ'' became [t], except after nasalised vowels or before ''*i, e'', where it turned into [ʃ] instead.
* Stress shifted to the last nasalised or long vowel in a word.
* Vowel length distinction was lost.

''See also: [[Hitatc_languages/Diachronics#Common_Eastern_Hitatc_to_Coastal_Hitatc_.28c._.2B200_YP.29|Detailed account of these changes]]''

==== Pirikõsu phoneme inventory ====

* Consonants:
** Obstruents: /p t k ʔ f s ʃ h/ ''p t k ‘ f s ş h''
** Sonorants: /m n ɲ ŋ r l j w/ ''m n ņ ŋ r l y w''
* Vowels:
** oral: /a e i o u ɨ/ ''a e i o u ı'' (stressed: ''â ê î ô û ŷ'' - not marked on the penultimate syllable)
** nasal: /ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ɨ̃/ ''ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ỹ''
* Syllable structure:
** pure CV

''See also: [[Pirikõsu|Pirikõsu grammar sketch]]''

=== Common Eastern Hitatc to Necine (c. +1000 YP) ===

* Vowel length distinction was lost.
* Voiced plosives lenited to fricatives in intervocalic position.
* ''*ʔ, h'' were lost unconditionally.
* ''*ʎ'' merged into [j], which was then lost after palatal consonants
* Palatals became retroflexes before back vowels.
* Short vowels immediately before the stress accent were syncopated. Short unstressed vowels after voiced fricatives or ''*ɻ'' were also dropped; the fricative apparently then coloured a preceding vowel (rounding for ''*v'', raising for ''*z, ʝ'', and lowering for ''*ɻ'') and dropped out with compensatory lenɡtheninɡ.
* Remaining ''*ʝ, ɣ'' merged into [j], swallowing up preceding short front vowels. Adjacent non-labial consonants were then palatalised, and immediately following back vowels were fronted.
* ''*ə'' was dropped immediately after a stressed syllable if the word had at least one further syllable
* The voicing distinction for nasals was lost, but with the voiceless nasals devoicing any neighbouring obstruents.
* Complex cluster simplification. The most general priciples were:
** POA assimilation, most prominently in clusters involving nasals. Obstruent clusters were more likely to assimilate if at least one of the participants had a palatal or retroflex component, and less likely if they consisted entirely of labial, dental, and/or velar consonants.
** Geminates simplified to single consonants.
** Fricatives were lost after another fricative.
** In word-initial plosive+plosive clusters one of the consonants was fricated, usually the more anterior one.
** Voiced word-initial plosive+nasal clusters turned into homorganic prenasalised stops.
** Epenthetic schwa was inserted in word-initial clusters of three or more terms.
* ''θ, ð'' became [t, d] before a fricative, [f, v] in the presence of labial consonants or rounded vowels, and [s,z] elsewhere.
* ''*ɻ'' was dropped adjacent to a consonant, lowering adjacent vowels in the process.
* Epenthetic glides were inserted between adjacent vowels; usually [j] after a front vowel and [w] after a back vowel.

''See also: [[Hitatc_languages/Diachronics#Common_Eastern_Hitatc_to_Necine_.28c._.2B1000_YP.29|Detailed account of these changes]]''

==== Necine phoneme inventory ====

''Note:''
''The "retroflex" consonants /ʈ ɖ ʂ ʐ ɳ ɭ ɻ/ are more specifically apical postalveolar. The contrasting /t d s z n l/ have a lamino-dental articulation.

* Consonants:
** Plain plosives: /p t ʈ c k/ ''p t ṭ ty k''
** Prenasalised plosives: /ⁿb ⁿd ⁿɖ ⁿɟ ⁿɡ ⁿɡ͡b/ ''mb nd ṇḍ ndy ng ngb''
** Nasals: /m n ɳ ɲ ŋ͡m/ ''m n ṇ ny ngm''
** Fricatives: /f s ʃ ʂ h v z ʒ ʐ/ ''f s š ṣ h v z ž ẓ''
** Affricates: /ʣ ʤ/ ''dz dž''
** Approximants: /l ɭ ɻ j w/ ''l ḷ r y w''
* Vowels:
** Short: /a ɛ i ɔ u ə/ ''a e i o u ĕ''
** Long: /aː eː iː oː uː øː yː/ ''ā ē ī ō ū ö ü''
** Diphthongs: /aɪ ɛɪ ɔɪ uɪ aʊ/ ''ai ei oi ui au''
* Syllable structure:
** (C)CV(C) with no word-final consonants

''See also: [[Necine|Necine grammar sketch]]''

== Western branch ==

=== Proto-Hitatc to Common Western Hitatc (c. -2700 YP) ===

* Voiceless nasals became fricatives.
* Vowels were lengthened before voiced plosives.
* Uvular stops were fricated.
* Short unstressed vowels were syncopated, and long ones shortened, determined by the location of the stress accent. This was combined with compensatory feature spreading: Plosives were fricated before ''*i, u'' in positions susceptible to syncope (even if the vowel was not dropped). Consonants following the elided vowel became palatalised if the vowel had been ''*i, e'', labialised if it had been ''*u, o'', and pharyngealised if it had been ''*a''.

''See also: [[Hitatc_languages/Diachronics#Proto-Hitatc_to_Common_Western_Hitatc_.28c._-2700_YP.29|Detailed account of these changes]]''

=== Common Western Hitatc to Proto-Wan-Mlir (c. -2400 YP) ===

* Coda obstruents became unvoiced except word-finally.
* Nasals and fricatives were fortified to plosives when preceded by a nasal consonant.
* Liquids assimilated in voicing to neighbouring consonants.
* Obstruents became voiced before ''*ʁ''.
* Uvular fricatives and approximants mostly dropped out, with compensatory lengthening if preceded by a vowel.

=== Proto-Wan-Mlir to Hitatc Wan (c. -1900 YP) ===
* Vowels were raised after palatalised consonants, rounded after labialised consonants, and lowered after pharyngealised consonants.
* Single intervocalic consonants became voiced unless they were pharyngealised.
* Clusters of ''*ɬ''+nasal became voiceless fricatives at the nasal's POA.
* ''*ʔʲ, ʔʷ'' became [c, p].
* ''*ŋʷ, ɴʷ'' merged into [m].
* ''*xʷ'' became [f] word-finally.
* Palatalised alveolars and velars became palatals; palatalised labials gained a lateral element if postvocalic.
* Epenthetic [ʔ] was inserted between vowels in hiatus.
* ''*ʔl, ʔɬˈˈ became [tɬ].
* Nasals other than ''*m'' assimilated in POA to subsequent plosives.
* ''*t, d'' became [p, b] after ''*m'' if followed by one of ''*s, z, ʃ, ʒ''.
* Epenthetic vowels were inserted before word-initial nasal+obstruent clusters, the quality of the vowel being determined by the nasal's POA.
* Cluster simplification:
** All pure obstruent clusters became voiceless.
** Fricatives became voiced after nasals and gained an intervening plosive at the POA of the nasal.
** Epenthetic [t] was inserted between liquids and voiceless fricatives.
** Complex simplification of three-obstruent clusters, often involving frication of a plosive.
** Complex simplification of adjacent sibilants
* ''*v, ʝ'' merged into [w, j]. These then devoiced to [f, ʃ] after voiceless fricative+plosive clusters or word-finally after a plosive. After other word-final consonants they vocalised to [u, i].
* Stress shifted away from short vowels if possible: to a heavy syllable (with a long vowel and/or coda consonant) two syllables earlier or later, or to a directly adjacent long vowel if the word was trisyllabic.
* Unstressed mid vowels became [e, o] in open syllables and [ɛ,ɔ] closed ones. In stressed positions the distinction was maintained.
* Vowel length distinction was lost.
* ''*z'' became [r] except adjacent to one of ''*w, l, ʎ, d''. ''*ð'' then became [z].
* Dental and palatal stops merged between two high front vowels.
* ''*ɣ, ʁ'' merged next to consonants.

''See also: [[Hitatc_languages/Diachronics#Common_Western_Hitatc_to_Proto-Wan-Mlir_.28c._-2400_YP.29|Detailed account of these changes]]''

==== Hitatc Wan phoneme inventory ====

* Consonants:
** Plosives: /p t c k q ʔ b d ɟ ɡ/ ''p t c k q ‘ b d j g''
** Fricatives: /f θ s ʃ ç x χ ħ z ʒ ɣ/ ''f th s š ch kh qh h z ž ğ''
** Liquids: /ɬ l ʎ r ʀ/ ''ɬ l ly r ř''
** Nasals: /m n ɳ ŋ ɴ/ ''m n ny ng nq''
** Approximants: /w j/ ''w y''
* Vowels:
** /a ɛ e i ɔ o u œ ø y/ ''a e é i o ó u ö ő ü''
* Syllable structure:
** (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) ''(details to come)''

''See also: [[Hitatc Wan|Hitatc Wan grammar sketch]]''



== Cognate sets ==

The following cognate sets will exemplify the historical sound changes in the Hitatc language family:

{| {{bluetable2}} width="85%"
|-
!
! Proto-Hitatc
! colspan="5" |
|-
! rowspan="3" valign="center" | western
| rowspan="5" | ''*zonhê'' "to sit"
| rowspan="3" | [zoˈθeː]
| [roˈze]
|  
! Hitatc Wan
|-
| colspan="2" |  
! Hitatc Mlir
|-
| [zo'te]
|  
! Uplands Hitatc
|-
! rowspan="2" valign="center" | eastern
| rowspan="2" | [ɹon̥ˈçeː]
| [rũˈçaː]
| [ˈrõʃa]
! Pirikõsu
|-
| [ɻoˈnʝe]
| [ɻɔˈɲɛ]
! Necine
|-
! colspan="6" |
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" valign="center" | western
| rowspan="5" | ''*lhemébi'' "to dance"
| rowspan="3" | [ɬ̩mʲeːbʲ]
| [fʎipʃ]
|  
! Hitatc Wan
|-
| [mlɛjb]
|  
! Hitatc Mlir
|-
| [ljɛmp]
|  
! Uplands Hitatc
|-
! rowspan="2" valign="center" | eastern
| rowspan="2" | [θeˈmebi]
| [saˈmawi]
| [saˈmawe]
! Pirikõsu
|-
| [ˈzmebi]
| [ˈznɛvi]
! Necine
|-
! colspan="6" |
|-
! rowspan="3" valign="center" | western
| rowspan="5" | ''*pidéŋha'' "arrow"
| rowspan="3" | [fiˈdʲexa]
| [fiˈdiɣɐ]
|  
! Hitatc Wan
|-
| colspan="2" |  
! Hitatc Mlir
|-
| [fiˈʣeʀa]
|  
! Uplands Hitatc
|-
! rowspan="2" valign="center" | eastern
| rowspan="2" | [piˈʦeŋ̊ə]
| [piˈʧãhɨ]
| [peˈtãhɨ]
! Pirikõsu
|-
| [ˈpseŋə]
| [ˈpsɛŋɡə]
! Necine
|-
! colspan="6" |
|}

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Akana languages]]
[[Category:Hitatc languages|*]]