Talk:Proto-Dumic

2015-10-16T14:31:16Z

4pq1injbok: 'all'?

2015-02-05T17:30:47Z

4pq1injbok:

2015-01-29T21:19:03Z

4pq1injbok:

'''DLNAF''' (a codename; endonym currently unknown) is a [[Dumic languages|Dumic language]] spoken in the southern coastal regions of Tatakā, between the [[Potɑnsʉti]] and [[Jouki Stəy]] domains, circa 0YP.

= Phonology =

== Inventory ==

The tables include Romanisation, in italics.

=== Consonants ===

{| {{softtable}}
|- align="center"
!colspan=2| !! labial !! dental !! alveolar !! palatal !! velar
|- align="center"
!colspan=2| stop
| p ''p'' || t ''t'' || ts ''c'' || tʃ ''č'' || k ''k''
|- align="center"
!rowspan=2|fricative !!align="right"| voiceless
| f ''f'' || || s ''s'' || ʃ ''š'' ||
|- align="center"
! voiced
| v ''v'' || || z ''z'' || ʒ ''ž'' ||
|- align="center"
!rowspan=2|sonorant !!align="right"| nasal
| m ''m'' || n ''n'' || || ɲ ''ň'' ||
|- align="center"
! oral
| w ''w'' || || r ''r'' || j ''y'' ||
|-
|}

/k/ is [x] before /t/. Since /kt/ is the only licit surface-level phonemic cluster of stops, this means no stop clusters occur phonetically.

Nasals assimilate in place to following obstruents. Stops after nasals, though not fully voiced, have a later onset of voicelessness than stops in other positions.

In JS-influenced varieties, nasals in posttonic or complex codas can be realised as vowel nasalisation alone, and coda /ɲ/ can be nasalisation plus [j].

[ɾ] varies freely with [r] as a realisation of /r/.

=== Vowels ===

{| {{softtable}}
|- align="center"
! !! front !! back
|- align="center"
! high
| i ''i'' || u ''u''
|- align="center"
! low
| æ ''a'' || ɒ ''o''
|-
|}

The allophonic ranges of the low vowels are generally larger than those of the high ones: cardinal [ɛ ɔ] occur as tokens of /æ ɒ/, but cardinal [e o] aren't found as realisations of anything.

== Phonotactics ==

The maximal syllable is CCGVGNC, where G is a glide /w j/ and N is a nasal. A maximally elaborate onset is seen in ''styim'' 'language' abs pl, and a maximally elaborate coda in ''nownc'' 'nine'. In two successive syllables, the -NC slots of the former and the CC- slots of the latter may not all be filled, which is to say that the longest possible cluster, glides excluded, is -NCC-.

Complex onsets cannot decrease in sonority, nor complex codas increase, where the sonority hierarchy is ''j w'' > ''r'' > ''m n ň'' > ''p t c č k f s š v z ž''. Also, /z ʒ/ are not licit codas.

/w/ does not occur adjacent to /i/ or /u/. /j/, however, occurs freely in these positions.

Hiatic vowels are licit but rare, as in ''paá'' 'shell'. Cases involving a high vowel, like ''kaupun'' 'wolf', are rarer still (in composition /i u/ tend to become /j w/ when next to a vowel).

The following table shows the statuses of two-element consonant clusters.
* Bold clusters are allowed.
* Cells with an entry in lightweight font indicate how the cluster in question is repaired, if formed in the morphology.
* Empty cells are pairs of consonants which the morphology resists bringing together, whether by vowel epenthesis or preventing vowel deletion. I call these ''irreparable'' clusters.
{| {{bluetable|lightbluebg c}}
|-
! !! _p !! _t !! _c !! _č !! _k !! _f !! _s !! _š !! _v !! _z !! _ž !! _m !! _n !! _ň !! _r !! _w !! _y
|-
! p_
| p || ft || ps || pš || kf || '''pf''' || '''ps''' || '''pš''' || pf || ps || pš || || || || '''pr''' || '''pw''' || '''py'''
|-
! t_
| ft || t || c || č || kt || '''tf''' || c || č || tf || c || č || || || || '''tr''' || '''tw''' || '''ty'''
|-
! c_
| sp || st || || || sk || '''cf''' || c || č || cf || c || č || || || || || '''cw''' || '''cy'''
|-
! č_
| šp || št || || || šk || '''čf''' || c || č || čf || c || č || || || || || '''čw''' || č
|-
! k_
| kf || '''kt''' || ks || kš || k || '''kf''' || '''ks''' || '''kš''' || kf || ks || kš || || || || '''kr''' || '''kw''' || '''ky'''
|-
! f_
| p || '''ft''' || ps || pš || kf || f || ps || pš || v || ps || pš || || || || '''fr''' || '''fw''' || '''fy'''
|-
! s_
| '''sp''' || '''st''' || || || '''sk''' || '''sf''' || s || š || zv || z || ž || || || || || '''sw''' || '''sy'''
|-
! š_
| '''šp''' || '''št''' || || || '''šk''' || '''šf''' || s || š || žv || z || ž || || || || || '''šw''' || š
|-
! v_
| p || ft || ps || pš || kf || f || ps || pš || v || ps || pš || || || || '''vr''' || '''vw''' || '''vy'''
|-
! z_
| sp || st || || || sk || sf || s || š || '''zv''' || z || ž || || || || || '''zw''' || '''zy'''
|-
! ž_
| šp || št || || || šk || šf || s || š || '''žv''' || z || ž ||| || || || || '''žw''' || ž
|-
! m_
|rowspan="3"| '''mp''' ||rowspan="3"| '''nt''' ||rowspan="3"| '''nc''' ||rowspan="3"| '''ňč''' ||rowspan="3"| '''nk'''
|rowspan="3"| mp ||rowspan="3"| nc ||rowspan="3"| ňč
|rowspan="3"| mp ||rowspan="3"| nc ||rowspan="3"| ňč
|rowspan="3"| m ||rowspan="3"| n ||rowspan="3"| ň
| mpr || '''mw''' || '''my'''
|-
! n_
| ntr || '''nw''' || '''ny'''
|-
! ň_
| || '''ňw''' || ň
|-
! r_
| '''rp''' || '''rt''' || '''rc''' || '''rč''' || '''rk''' || '''rf''' || '''rs''' || '''rš''' || '''rv''' || '''rz''' || '''rž''' || '''rm''' || '''rn''' || '''rň''' || r || '''rw''' || '''ry'''
|-
! w_
| '''wp''' || '''wt''' || '''wc''' || '''wč''' || '''wk''' || '''wf''' || '''ws''' || '''wš''' || '''wv''' || '''wz''' || '''wž''' || '''wm''' || '''wn''' || '''wň''' || '''wr''' || w || '''wy'''
|-
! y_
| '''yp''' || '''yt''' || '''yc''' || '''yč''' || '''yk''' || '''yf''' || '''ys''' || '''yš''' || '''yv''' || '''yz''' || '''yž''' || '''ym''' || '''yn''' || '''yň''' || '''yr''' || '''yw''' || y
|-
|}
Clusters of more than two consonants are allowed as long as they are syllabifiable and all successive pairs of consonants are allowed. The only subtlety is that nasals are deleted before a fricative-stop cluster.

== Stress ==

Absent clitics, stress falls on one of the last two syllables of the word. The coda of an unstressed final syllable, if not empty, can only contain a single /n/. Subject to these rules, the position of stress is weakly contrastive. My Romanisation marks it with an acute accent if it falls on a final syllable where it might not have, as in ''paá''.

Clitics do not move the stress: ''kaúpun=i'' 'is a wolf'. I will usually Romanise words with clitics solid (''kaúpuni''), and leave the stress marks on if the stress isn't where expected.

== Loan adaptation ==

Jouki Stəy is the greatest contemporaneous source of loanwords in DLNAF, notably for cultural terms. Below are the rules in brief for how its sounds are adapted, excluding resolution of impermissible clusters.

{| {{softtable}}
|- align="center"
! JS source
| '''p''' || '''t''' || '''ts''' || '''k''' || '''f''' || '''s''' || V'''s'''V || '''v''' || C'''v''' || '''đ''' || '''j''' || C'''j''' || '''m''' || '''n''' || '''n'''# || '''r'''
|- align="center"
! borrowed as
| ''p'' || ''t'' || ''c'' || ''k'' || ''f'' || ''s'' || V''z''V || ''v'' || C''w''1 || ''z'' || ''ž'' || C''y'' || ''m'' || ''n'' || ''n''# || ''r''
|-
|}
1 If this would produce the sequences ''wi wu'', they are repaired to ''uy u''.
{| {{softtable}}
|- align="center"
! JS source
| '''a''' || [ɑ̃] || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''ei''' || '''au''' || '''ou''' || '''əi''' || '''əy''' || '''əu'''
|- align="center"
! borrowed as
| ''a'' || ''o'' || ''i'' || ''u'' || ''ay'' || ''aw''2 || ''ow'' || ''iy''2 || ''uy'' || ''ow''
|-
|}
2 In an important older stratum '''au''' and '''əi''' both become ''a''.

= Morphology =

== Morphophonology ==

The most visible morphophonological alternation in DLNAF is '''jostling'''. Many suffixes, especially of -C(V) shape, induce jostling on their stem. The general rules for jostling are as follows.

* In a stem whose stressed vowel is low, a glide ''w'' or ''y'' preceding this vowel is deleted. Otherwise, nothing happens on or before the stress.
* In a stem whose stressed vowel is high, the stressed vowel is deleted unless this would bring together an irreparable consonant cluster. If deletion forms a cluster which is unsyllabifiable but not irreparable, copies of the deleted vowel are inserted one position to the left or to the right of its former position, or both, as necessary; the total effect is therefore metathesis. (Insertion to the right is rarer, for historical reasons).
* A stem with final stress ending in a consonant other than ''w'' gains an interstitial vowel between stem and suffix. This is ''i'' after palatals or labiodental fricatives ''č š ž ň y f v'', and ''u'' elsewhere.
* A stem with a post-tonic high vowel replaces it: ''i'' becomes ''a'', and ''u'' becomes ''ow''.

[examples]

A number of stems jostle not exactly as described above, but following other subregularities:

* Some stems in ''-y'' do not take an interstitial ''i''.
* Some stems in a low vowel insert a voiced fricative before it, and some in a glide replace the glide with a voiced fricative.
* A few stems with a stressed ''a'' turn this to ''i''.

Unlike the parallel processes in certain other Dumic languages, jostling is applied cyclically to stems to which multiple jostling suffixes are added. Thus ''stuy'' 'language', absolutive singular, forms by successive jostling the absolutive plural ''styim'' and from it the genitive plural ''stiymuň''.

Another commonality of several suffixes is an '''intrusive ''t''''': when added to a stem with penultimate stress, these suffixes insert an extra ''-t-'' between base and suffix. An example, illustrating how I will cite these, is the relativiser and nominaliser ''(-t)-á''. The antipassive ''-zota, -tota'' is subject to a similar alternation except that the ''-t-'' replaces the suffix-initial consonant.

There are other morphophonological processes in DLNAF, but none of the same generality. I will discuss them below when they become relevant.

== The noun ==

The noun contains the following morphological slots.

{| {{softtable|c}}
!style="text-align: center"| -1
! 0
! +1
! +2
|-
| possessive
| '''root'''
| number
| case
|}

=== Possession ===

The possessive prefixes are formally similar but not identical to the free pronouns, for which see below. Several show or induce alternations.

{| {{softtable}}
|-
!
! sing. !! dual !! trial !! plur.
|-
! 1st excl.
| ''c-'' || ''cita-'' || ''ciš-'' || ''cim-''
|-
! 1st incl.
| || ''k-'' || ''kuy-'' || ''kum-''
|-
! 2nd
| ''ma-'' || ''mata-'' || ''may-'' || ''mam-''
|-
! 3rd masc.
| ''ko-'' || ''kota-'' || ''koš-'' || ''kom-''
|-
! 3rd fem.
| ''tun-'' || ''tunta-'' || ''tunči-'' || ''tumu-''
|-
! indef.
|colspan="4"| ''i-''
|-
|}

The third person singular prefixes, including the indefinite, cause '''hardening''' of their base. Hardening replaces a voiced non-nasal initial with a voiceless one, and inserts a consonant before an initial vowel, usually as follows.
{| {{softtable}}
|- align="center"
! basic initial
| ''v'' || ''z'' || ''ž'' || ''r'' || ''w'' || ''y'' || zero
|- align="center"
! hardened initial
| ''f'' || ''t'' || ''c'' || ''s'' || ''p'' || ''š'' || ''č'' before ''i''; elsewhere ''k''
|-
|}
There is only one (significant) class of lexical exceptions, these being vowel-initial words that insert ''p'' rather than ''k'' or ''č''. Relics of hardening are also visible on the second members of some old compounds, and in some obscure prefixed forms.

The prefixes which end in a consonant, other than ''tun-'', sometimes insert a vowel before the stem, ''i'' for ''c-'' and the trials, and ''u'' for ''k-'' and the plurals. E.g. ''-mpaš'' 'foot' forms ''cimpaš'' 'my foot'. This is usually for phonotactic reasons, to ensure irreparable or unsyllabifiable clusters are not formed: for these purposes the ''m'' of the plural is treated as unable to occupy the N slot in the syllable structure, only the final C slot. Moreover ''k-'' becomes ''ku-'' before a stem in ''k-'', as it would be invisible otherwise. Of less clear motivation, ''c-'', ''k-'', and the plurals perform this insertion before a base-initial unstressed vowel. In the same contexts as the plurals insert a vowel, ''i-'' becomes ''vi-''.

Any vowel clusters that result from possessive prefixation are resolved by collapsing two identical vowels to one or ''oa'', ''ao'' to ''o'', or else changing ''i'' to ''y'', or else changing ''u'' to ''w''. As an exception, ''c-'' added to a stem in unstressed ''i'' gives ''ca''. For example, ''-icita'' 'pair of eyes' forms ''cacita'' 'my eyes', ''mataystam'' 'the eyes of you two', ''tunčistam'' 'the eyes of them three (fem.)'

Some nouns are obligatorily possessed, body parts and kin terms mostly. These must always appear with a possessive prefix. The indefinite possessor, which renders 'somebody's', is a particularly useful choice with these: for instance, the force of ''vipicita'' lit. 'somebody's (two) eyes' is not too different from 'a pair of eyes'.

Possessors indexed by these prefixes are normally animate. When there is an overt possessor noun phrase which is animate, DLNAF shows double marking, genitive case on the possessor plus one of the above prefixes. Inanimate possessors forgo the prefix. Thus ''anasowžaň kopayňiy'' chief-gen 3.masc.sg-age 'the chief's age', but ''kfoň wayňiy'' tree-gen age 'the tree's age'.

An exception is found with metaphorical uses of obligatorily possessed nouns, which take one of the third person markers, masculine or feminine as determined by the metaphoric use in question. The prevailing pattern is that if the prototypical metaphorical possessor is large, one gets the masculine; if small, the feminine. So ''kfoň kompašim'' tree-gen 3.masc.sg-foot-pl 'the tree's roots (lit. feet)'.

=== Number ===

The only inflectional number contrast in the noun is that between singular and plural; this is a smaller set of contrasts than found in the pronouns. The singular is unmarked, while the plural is marked by the jostling suffix ''-m''. Exceptionally, it converts a posttonic ''u'' to ''o'' rather than ''ow'': so 'wolf' has sg ''kaupun'', pl ''kapom''.

The inflectional plural still appears on nouns modified by a numeral.

=== Case ===

DLNAF exhibits three cases: absolutive, ergative, and genitive. The absolutive is unmarked, while the suffix of the ergative is jostling ''-ko'' and that of the genitive is jostling ''-ň''.

Inanimate nouns do not form an ergative.

The genitive is the case governed by all postpositions.

== The verb ==

[template]

=== Aspect ===

DLNAF verbs show a robust contrast between perfective and imperfective aspect. Each has a characteristic suffix. The perfective suffix is jostling and has allomorphs ''-ó'', ''-pa''; the imperfective suffix is ''-kay'', which becomes ''-kaži-'' when jostled. The usage of these suffixes is as follows.

* The ordinary behaviour, that of most underived verbs, is for the imperfective to be formally unmarked and the perfective to show its suffix.
* In some verbs both the imperfective and perfective are suffixed. A few underived verbs come here, like impf ''yinkay'' ~ pf ''iynwó'' 'flee, escape'. Better represented are inchoatives from adjectival roots, not otherwise characterised except by the aspect suffixes: thus ''ažan-č'' 'old' forms impf ''ažankay'' ~ pf ''ažampa'' 'grow old'.
* In some verbs the unsuffixed stem is perfective while the imperfective is suffixed. These include inceptives in ''-siv'' (impf ''-sikfay'') and cessatives in ''-momp'' (impf ''-monkfay'').
* Some verbs appear in only one aspect, which is always unmarked: e.g. verbalised adjectives have no perfective.

[perf allomorphy]

=== Relativisers ===

Corresponding to the three cases are three relativisers, which formally result in nouns; see the syntax section for their usage. The ergative relativiser is ''(-t)-žira'', the genitive jostling ''-pa''. The absolutive relativiser is jostling ''(-t)-á'', which when the intrusive ''t'' is absent inserts a glide in the same circumstances as does the perfective. ''(-t)-á'' and ''-pa'' also have derivational uses (see below).

[discuss the abs rel ''of'' a perf]

=== Participles ===

There are two participles formed directly to the verb root, differing in aspect but both indeterminate in voice. The imperfective participle is formed in jostling ''-č'', the perfective in ''-ka''.

== The adjective ==

The bare stem of the adjective is its basic predicative form: ''ažan'' 'is old'. The attributive is formed with the suffix ''-č'', as ''ažanč'' 'old'. This suffix is not jostling, and in fact all adjective stems are of such a shape that appending ''-č'' is phonotactically valid, though the stress may need moved.

The predicative bare stem carries the default value of all verbal categories, being for example indicative. To cast predicative adjectives in other categories they are verbalised with the formant ''-č-''. For instance ''ma'' 'well-behaved, prudent, &c' forms the imperative ''mačičin'' 'behave!' (whose first ''i'' is a product of jostling). These verbalised adjectives are defective even so, in that they appear in the imperfective only. Also, verbalising ''-č-'' cannot appear without at least one further suffix, so ''mač'' can only be the attributive form of ''ma'', not any verbalised form.

== Minor categories ==

=== Pronouns ===

Pronouns show a greater range of number contrasts than nouns: in addition to the singular and plural they decline also in a dual and trial.

Personal pronouns are used only for animate referents. Among them the first person contrasts clusivity; number in the inclusive is interpreted in the obvious way, the series lacking a singular and starting with the dual ''kuta'' 'I and thou'. The third person contrasts masculine and feminine; the masculine dominates in mixed-sex groups.

Case on pronouns exhibits the same contrasts, and generally the same functions, as on nouns: but for instance their genitive is less used bare, since possessive prefixes suffice. The next table gives the absolutive forms.

{| {{softtable}}
|-
!
! sing. !! dual !! trial !! plur.
|-
! 1st excl.
| ''ci'' || ''cita'' || ''ciš'' || ''cim''
|-
! 1st incl.
| || ''kuta'' || ''kuy'' || ''kum''
|-
! 2nd
| ''ma'' || ''mata'' || ''may'' || ''mam''
|-
! 3rd masc.
| ''ko'' || ''kota'' || ''koš'' || ''kom''
|-
! 3rd fem.
| ''town'' || ''townta'' || ''townč'' || ''tom''
|-
|}

The case morphology shows some peculiarities. The first person singular ''ci'' is unchanged by jostling when case morphs are added, e.g. its ergative is ''ciko'', while the feminine dual and trial ''townta'', ''townč'' have jostled stems in main vowel ''u'', e.g. ergatives ''tuntako'', ''tunčiko''. The remainder jostle regularly, though forms such as ''čiko'', ''čiň'', these belonging to the first exclusive trial, might not be straightaway recognised.

=== Numbers ===

Numbers are uninflecting; they serve as cardinals and ordinals without change in form (though with change in syntax).

The basic numbers are ''ka'' '1' — ''vič'' '2' — ''fira'' '3' — ''zata'' '4' — ''fa'' '5' — ''šima'' '6' — ''tat'' '7' — ''kupu'' '8' — ''nownc'' '9' — ''ko'' '10' — ''cič'' 'hundred(s)' — ''kyako'' 'thousand(s)'. One-digit multiples of powers of ten are formed by catenation, lower factor first: ''vič ko'' '20', ''fira cič'' '300'. Even the expressions for '100' ''ka cič'' and '1000' ''ka kyako'' carry a multiplier of one; however, ''ko'' stands alone for '10' and *''ka ko'' is not found. Sums of these numbers are again expressed by concatenation, largest term first, with the single variation that 'ten' appears as ''kow'' if it precedes a units digit. Thus ''fira cič vič kow zata'' '324'.

== Derivation ==

The derivational affixes listed here are not all productive, but they are at least synchronically visible. They produce irregular formations to greater and lesser degrees, which I have not attempted to catalogue here (see instead the lexicon).

=== Forming nouns ===

'''''-ta''''', jostling, forms duals of noun stems. It is improductive, and fails to combine with some stems where it would seem to semantically belong. So alongside ''-pwa'' 'hand' forming ''-pata'' 'pair of hands', there is ''-mpaš'' 'foot' forming no dual, and 'my (two) feet' can only be ''cimpašim (vič)''.

As an independent stem, the dual takes inflectional number normally. Thus contrasted are the plurals ''-vacum'' 'single eyes' and ''-istam'' 'pairs of eyes'.

'''''(-t)-á''''', jostling, makes a deverbal or deadjectival noun referring to the absolutive argument. The same morpheme is a relativiser. The intrusive ''-t-'' tends only to appear on verb stems; when it is absent, a glide will appear in the same circumstances as in the perfective. Some old formations are in ''-ta'' without final stress.

'''''-pa''''', jostling, forms nouns of place to stems of any class. Its productive use is confined to a few subcategories, such as naming of buildings or similarly-functioning spaces, e.g. ''sowčipa'' 'shack where fish are dried' from ''sowč'' 'fish'.

'''''-ňiy''''' has degree nominalisation of adjectives as its only productive function: ''ku-č'' 'healthy' forms ''kuňiy'' '(degree of) health'. Of course, these readily transfer to less abstract senses.

'''''-zači''''' mostly forms characteristic nicknames on adjectives and nouns: ''Mažizači'' 'White' (after hair colour, say, or a favourite garment), ''Towzači'' 'Nose' (after a big one).

=== Forming verbs ===

'''''(-t)-siv''''' is an inceptive and '''''-momp''''' (jostling) a cessative. Both are deverbal and fully productive, being the normal ways to express 'begin to V' and 'stop Ving'. ''-t-siv'' contracts as usual to ''-civ''.

'''Zero-marking''' forms inchoatives from adjectives. These however are characterised by taking both aspect markers explicitly.

=== Forming adjectives ===

'''''-ki''''' has been extracted from adjective borrowings from JS and put to use forming adjectives especially of human qualities. This function is reasonably clear for instance in ''saynaki-č'' 'quarrelsome, fractious' which is deadjectival, its base being ''sayna-č'' 'other, different' (via constructions where it serves for 'of different opinion').

'''''(-t)-uži''''', jostling, forms denominal adjectives 'having N'.

= Syntax =

== Relative clauses ==

Relative clauses are internally headed. That is, the relative clause, with the head noun inside unextracted, appears whole in its place in the matrix clause. The relativising suffixes on the verb identify the role of the head noun within the relative clause: there are three, corresponding precisely to the cases. With respect to the matrix clause, the relative clause is a complex nominal, and takes case in the usual fashion. So in

{|
| [''ciko'' || ''kaupun'' || ''šiň'']''wako'' || ''va'' || ''zafi''
|-
| [1sg-erg || wolf || see-perf]-abs.rel-erg || water || drink
|-
|colspan="5"| "the wolf I saw was drinking water"
|}

the theta role of "wolf" is ergative in the matrix clause but absolutive in the relative. As such the clause is nominalised with absolutive relativiser ''-á'' and then gets ergative case marker ''-ko''.

Relative clauses can be contrasted with participles. Participles never take arguments, nor mood nor evidentiality. Beyond that the choice is essentially stylistic, with participles usually yielding more frozen, conventionalised senses.

User:4pq1injbok/DLNAF

2015-01-28T23:12:23Z

4pq1injbok: /* Relative clauses */

User:4pq1injbok/DLNAF

2015-01-28T23:03:52Z

4pq1injbok: wat, I got rid of that

User:4pq1injbok/DLNAF

2015-01-28T23:03:24Z

4pq1injbok:

User talk:Cedh

2015-01-28T23:02:56Z

4pq1injbok: /* request for a variation in gloss styling */ new section