Iŋomœ́

Iŋomœ́ is a Western language of the Peilaš steppe, spoken c. -2000 YP. The name the speakers gave to their cultural group was Sánhilu:pyl (singular Sánhilu:b), meaning "horse people", though this term could also be applied to any nomadic group, as opposed to the settled peoples of the coast.

Contents

1. Phonology - Consonants - Vowels - Stress - Syllable structure - Sound changes

2. Morphology
2.1. Nominal morphology - Number, case, edibility - Possession - Noun classes - Pronouns - Demonstratives - Modifiers - Numerals
2.2. Verb morphology - Antipassive voice - Evidentiality - Subjunctive - Participant reference - Reflexives & reciprocals - Imperative
2.3. Derivational morphology

3. Syntax
3.1. Clausal syntax - NP structure - Constitutent order - Valence adjusting - Copular clauses - Negation - Questions - Topicalization & clefting
3.2. Interclausal syntax - Coordinate clauses - Complement clauses - Adverbial clauses - Relative clauses

4. Sample text

5. Lexicon

1. Phonology

1.1 Consonants

Iŋomœ́ has 17 consonant phonemes.

Voicing is phonemically contrastive for oral stops and fricatives. The lateral /l/ is a voiced lateral approximant. Note that <j> is a voiced palatal stop -- IPA [ɟ], not IPA [j].

The advent of aspirated voiced nasal stops /nh ŋh/ is notable here. These contrast with the unaspirated nasals (e.g. saŋ "inside", saŋh "soul") but are limited in distribution, never appearing initially. They have been shown to derive from nasal vowels spreading to obstruents in PW.

The gap in the fricatives, lacking an unvoiced labial fricative, may be explained by the origin of the voiced fricatives in lenition of erstwhile voiced oral stops. It is also thought that some instances of /s/ derive from lenition of erstwhile velar stops, via an intermediate [h], [x], or similar back fricative. In any case, /v/ is frequently unvoiced intially and finally, but the distinction is not phonemic.

1.2 Vowels

Iŋomœ́ has eight short vowel phonemes, each with a phonemic long counterpart. The long vowels (marked with following <:>) have greater quantity than the short vowels, but do not change in quality.

Rounding is phonemically contrastive for front vowels and the hiɡh back vowel (cf. sý:po "live" vs. sí:po "pine"; zúsa: "shout" vs. zɯ́sa: "good"; ke "to" vs. kœ "however"), though rounded vowels are more frequent following labial consonants.

Rounding is not contrastive for /a/ and /o/, which show allophonic variation in roundinɡ.

Unstressed short vowels are often reduced to [ə], but as this is not a phonemic distinction, I have not indicated it in the romanization.

1.3 Stress

Iŋomœ́ has a stress accent system, with the stressed syllable carrying higher pitch and volume. Stress most commonly falls on the first syllable of a word, but is not always predictable, and stress alternation plays a role in the morphology (notably in distinguishing cases), so I have marked it with the acute accent. In the lexicon, the grave accent indicates the location of irregular stress alternation (see section 2.1.1).

1.4 Syllable structure

Iŋomœ́'s syllable structure is strongly CV, with very few consonant clusters ever appearing outside compounds and foreign borrowings, though word-final consonants are common. Sequences of vowels in hiatus are tolerated well, as are initial vowels.

1.5 Sound changes from Proto-Western to Iŋomœ́

V = vowel
C = consonant
F = fricative
A = affricate
H = aspirate
L = labial
G = voiced fricative

* In the dialect of Proto-Western from which Iŋomœ́ derived, primary word stress fell on the first syllable. There was no phonemic rounding contrast for vowels, and vowels tended to be realized as unrounded, with the exception of the back open vowel, and the back closed vowel when nasalized.

a → o
ã → õ
u → ɯ
y → j

* Changes to vowel quality and quantity conditioned by preceding consonants.

o, e → a /F_, A_, H_
õ, ẽ → ã /F_, A_, H_
V → [+rnd] /L_
V → [+long] /G_

* Labiovelars merge with velars.

kʷ, kʷʰ, ɣʷ → k, k, ɣ

* Approximant cluster merging.

tj, kj → c
dj → dz
nj → ñ

* Stress moves to the last syllable in the word that ends in [ʔ]. If there is no [ʔ], stress remains on the initial syllable. [ʔ] is then lost in all positions.

V → V́ /_ʔ [latest in word only]
ʔ → 0

* Final unstressed vowels are lost.

V → 0 /_#

* Nasalization spreads to non-clustered obstruents.

ṼpV, ṼbV, ṼtV, ṼdV → VnV
ṼtʰV, ṼcV, ṼcʰV, ṼdzV, ṼsV, ṼčV, ṼčʰV, ṼdžV, ṼšV, ṼɬV, → VnʰV
ṼkV, ṼkʷV → VŋV
ṼkʰV, ṼkʷʰV, ṼɣV, ṼɣʷV → VŋʰV
Ṽ → V

* Palatal nasals merɡe with velars.

ñ → ŋ

* Alveolar affricates merge with palato-alveolars.

c → č
cʰ → čʰ
dz → dž

* [o] raises to [u] before approximants, affricates, and fricatives.

o → u /_j, _w, _F, _A

* Initial unvoiced stops aspirate.

p, t, k, kʷ → pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ /#_

* Non-nasal, non-clustered obstruents lenite based on the following hierarchy:

aspirated stops/affricates
↓
unaspirated stops
↓
voiced stops
↓
fricatives
↓
zero

Initial (non-clustered) and intervocalic obstruents move down one step, but not to zero. Final obstruents move down two steps.

pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ → p, t, k, k /#_V, V_V
pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ → b, d, g, g /_#
č, čʰ → c /#_V, V_V
č, čʰ → ɟ /_#
dž → ɟ
p, t, k, kʷ → b, d, g, g /#_V, V_V
p, t, k, kʷ → v, z, s, s /_# [via h]
b, d → v, z /#_V, V_V
b, d → 0 /_#
F → s /#_V, V_V
F → 0 /_#

* Loss of approximants.

V → [+long] /_w, _j
o → a /_w, _j
w → p /V_V
j → k /V_V
w → u /_#
j → i /_#
w, j → 0

* Loss of final [s].

V → [+long] /_s#
s → 0 /_#

* Resolution of clusters.

ɬ → l
l → u /_C
C → 0 /_C
F, A → s

* Adjoining same vowels reduce to one long vowel.

VV → V:

2. Morphology

Iŋomœ́'s morphology is primarily agglutinating with some fusion. The verbs feature polypersonal agreement and a very full evidentiality system, while the nominal elements show ergative morphology and seven semantically determined noun classes.

2.1 Nominal morphology

2.1.1 Number, case, edibility

Head nouns are obligatorily inflected for number (singular, plural), case (ergative, absolutive), and edibility (edible, inedible).

The edibility category is productive, but can be idiosyncratic. Prototypically it indicates an edible referent, but sometimes indicates a referent merely associated with food (e.g. le "land", léo "cultivable land").

Non-count nouns ordinarily appear in the singular number; when they are pluralized, it indicates multiple bounded quantities of a substance (cɯ́pœ "potable water", cɯ́pœ: "flasks of water").

Case is only distinguished in the singular, and edibility only in the absolutive singular. The construct case and the dual number have been lost from PW, having fallen together with the ergative and the singular, respectively.

In order to decline a noun, one must know its ergative form, which will end in a stressed vowel. The absolutive edible will unstress it, the absolutive inedible will drop it, and the plural will unstress and lengthen it.

The majority of polysyllabic nouns stress the first syllable in the plural and absolutive edible forms, but where this is not the case, the proper syllable to stress is indicated in the lexicon with the grave accent (e.g., pydocɯ̀pœ́ "teardrop" has the plural form pydocɯ́pœ: "teardrops").

Aside from these rules, further alternation is observed depending on the final consonant of the root.

Nouns with nasal consonants, /l/, or /j/ do not alternate, nor do nouns ending in two vowels.

Unvoiced stops /p t c k/ become voiced /b d j g/.

/b d/ fricativize to /v z/.

Fricatives and /g/ are lost.

When the ergative form is monosyllabic, the singular is invariant.

2.1.2 Possession

The inalienable possession prefixes of PW have been generalized to apply to all possessives in Iŋomœ́.

The prior table shows the absolutive inedible paradigm, exhibiting a stress shift in the second person plural. This shifted stress also appears in the plural and in the absolutive edible, but not in the ergative singular, which for this root would be iɡœjiŋó "your fingernail [ergative]".

The possessor of the head noun will precede it and be in the ergative case. When the possessor is a pronoun, an overt pronoun is not required in addition to the possessive prefix on the head noun.

no-vœ́saj-0 lobo-lɯ́ɡi-go puz-ó e-tɯŋa-ó
1POS-knife-ABS steal-E5-3>3 chief-ERG 3POS-brother-ERG
The chief's brother stole my knife.

2.1.3 Noun classes

There are seven noun classes, based on semantic criteria. The classes are not overtly marked on lexical head nouns, but they are predictable based on the natural qualities of the referent. Class is overtly marked on third person pronouns and demonstratives. Verbs agree with the classes of their S or O arguments, and modifiers agree with the classes of their head nouns. Here they are listed along with their characteristic suffixes. (Suffixes beginning with <:> lengthen the previous vowel.)

C1. -:u
Humans, other beings capable of speech: people, gods, spirits, demons, ancestors, animals in fables, etc.

C2. -j
Solid inedible objects, mushy edible objects: rocks, stones, unripe fruit, babies, non-food animals, pap, mashed foods, pulp of fruit, brains, etc.

C3. -:
Solid edible objects: most foodstuffs, ripe fruit, meat, food animals, etc.

C4. -:i
Liquids, fire or wind which is tangible: milk, water, flames, breath, urine etc.

C5. -0
Intangible things, things which cannot be held, solid sticklike objects: air, celestial bodies, ideas, colors, rivers, trees, sticks, weapons, fingers, penises, legs, arms, etc.

C6. -uk
Granular masses and non-liquid collectives: grains, berries, soil, sand, etc.

C7. -g
Mushy inedible objects: feces, mud, rotting things, quicksand, etc.

2.1.4 Pronouns

Subject and object pronouns are obligatory in most types of clauses. They do not inflect for case, and only the first and second person pronouns inflect for number.

There is a first person inclusive plural pronoun na:, meaning that the addressee is included. Though it derives from the PW dual number, it is not limited to "you and I", but indicates any group to which the speaker and addressee both belong.

Iŋomœ́ has innovated an honorific second person pronoun, derived from PW *la "man" + -du (honorific). It is culturally taboo to refer to females with the honorific pronoun, but not ungrammatical; it may be done jokingly, sarcastically, or in extraordinary circumstances (e.g. a character in a story speaking to a powerful female monster). It does not vary by number.

Third person pronouns are of two types: anaphoric (for things already mentioned) and cataphoric (for things not mentioned yet). They inflect for noun class.

	anaphoric	cataphoric
C1	a:u	ky:u
C2	aj	kyj
C3	a:	ky:
C4	a:i	ky:i
C5	a	ky
C6	auk	kyuk
C7	ag	kyg

a-:u éiusa-:ko-:u
AN-C1 come-E1-3C1
He came. [The same person we've already been discussing.]

ky-:u éiusa-:ko-:u
CAT-C1 come-E1-3C1
So this guy came. [A new person we haven't been discussing.]

2.1.5 Demonstratives

Demonstratives have three degrees of distance: near me, near you, and distant from both. They can serve as modifiers to a head lexical noun, or stand alone in anaphoric reference. They inflect for noun class.

je-0 táta-:ko-ne no
this-C5 use-EV1-1s>3C5 1s
I'll use this one here.

zu-j kálɯ-0-tej to
that-C2 tie-EV8-2s>3C2 2s
Please tie that one near you.

ta-:u lo-0 céudo-0-te:u sœ́:i to
yonder-C1 man-ABS see-EV8-2s>3C1 INT 2s
Do you see that man over there?

2.1.6 Modifiers

Iŋomœ́ lacks a distinct class of adjectives per se, but does have a class of modifier prefixes that can be attached to nouns or verbs, and many of these provide common adjectival meanings. The process is productive, but is rife with idioms and lexicalized forms. (Compare zɯsa:-sá "good eye" with zɯ́sa "beautiful woman", a lexicalization with haplology of the same morphemes.)

lɯno-áp-a
green-beans-ABS(ed)
green beans

mouko-ún-0
sharp-tooth-ABS
sharp tooth

su:ke-sánh-0
heavy-horse-ABS
mare

pydo-cɯ́b-0
little-water-ABS
teardrop

Additionally, any lexical noun can be used as a modifier for another. The modifier precedes the head and takes a class suffix agreeing with it. The stem used for this purpose is the ergative singular. These constructions may be lexicalized as well.

tog-ó-:i ka:g-0
grass-ERG-C4 fire-ABS
grass fire

cɯv-ó-0 kav-0
fruit-ERG-C5 tree-ABS
fruit tree

aŋ-í-j si:g-0
river-ERG-C2 snake-0
eel

Quantifiers work the same way as modifier nouns, and can also stand alone as head nouns.

tɯb-ý-: sánhigiŋ-0
a_few-ERG-C3 filly-ABS
a few fillies

tɯv-0
a_few-ABS
a few of them

Modifier prefixes may be applied to pronouns, but the semantics of this usage are a bit different from similar constructions with lexical nouns. Modifier nouns cannot modify pronouns.

lɯno-kábuj-0
green-forest-ABS
green forest

lɯno-nó
green-1s
my greenness

nip-ó-uk kábuj-0
fog-ERG-C6 forest-ABS
foggy forest

* nip-ó-:u no
fog-ERG-C1 1s
(ungrammatical)

2.1.7 Numerals

The numeral system of Iŋomœ́ is base-eight. The cardinal numbers are marked with a class suffix agreeing with their head noun; the ordinal numbers are invariant. Both precede the head nouns they modify.

It is evident that the numeral 6 has been replaced with a compound of 5+1 (perhaps because PW *mẽči- "six" would have yielded *mœ́nhi-, which sounds quite similar to mœ́nha- "four"). The numbers from 9 - 15 are generated by a similar compounding process.

ŋúso-mœnhidóɡo-: cɯ́v-o:
eight-seven-C5 fruit-PL
fifteen (8+7) fruits

Multiples of eight are formed with ŋúso- "eight" preceded by an ordinal indicatinɡ how many times it is to be multiplied.

siz ŋúso-: cɯ́v-o:
second eight-C3 fruit-PL
sixteen (2x8) fruits

ŋuso-mœ́nhaz ŋúso-:i pydocɯ́p-œ:
eight-fourth eight-C4 teardrop-PL
ninety-six ([8+4] x 8) tears

2.2 Verb morphology

The verb is inflected for voice, evidentiality, and participant reference. Tense and aspect are not encoded in the morphological system; such meanings may be made explicit by adverbs and adverbial clauses, or may be merely implied. I have translated the examples with appropriate English tense and aspect forms as needed.

2.2.1 Antipassive voice

The antipassive voice is indicated by an affix -ɡy- following the verb root, before the evidential affix. Its absence indicates neutral voice. The use of the antipassive will be explained in the syntax section, particularly 3.1.3 and 3.2.1.

It may be of interest to note that the antipassive morpheme historically derives from the incorporation of absolutive arguments into the verb in PW, and is cognate with the cataphoric stem ky-. Noun incorporation is no longer a productive process in Iŋomœ́, though it does leave behind a few lexicalized forms aside from the antipassive.

2.2.2 Evidentiality

There is a system of eight levels of evidentiality, obligatorily appearing on main clause verbs. Evidentiality is marked with an affix between the verb root and the participant reference suffix.

The evidential affixes indicate the highest level of evidence on which the speaker is basing the assertion; they are listed here in order of evidence hierarchy. A speaker will not use an evidential that is lower on this hierarchy when a higher level of evidence is available. For example, if a speaker can both see and hear his mother, he will never use the hearing evidential to say "Here comes Mother", but always the visual.

1. -:ko- internal/visual

This is the highest level of evidence, used for knowledge gathered visually, as well as for one's own thoughts and emotions.

ku-0 éiusa-:ko-j
wolf-ABS come-EV1-3sC2
I see a wolf coming.

kú-sɯ: kómo-:ko-nenh no
wolf-PL fear-EV1-1s>3pC2 1s
I am afraid of wolves.

2. -bu- oral/nasal

Knowledge gathered by taste or smell.

to lámo-bu-j
2s fart-E2-2s
I smell that you farted.

3. -ji- touch/hear

Knowledge gathered by touch or hearing (i.e. actually hearing an event occur, not being told about it).

to zúsa:ja-ji-guj ce-tɯn-ó
2s call_to-E3-3>2 2POS-father-ERG
I hear your father calling you.

4. -usi- hearsay

Knowledge gathered by being told by someone else.

lo-0 újeja-usi-:u a-:u
man-ABS kill-E4-3C1 AN-C1
They say he killed a man.

5. -lɯ́ɡi- physical evidence

Knowledge gathered by physical evidence (footprints, etc).

je-0 kav-0 loŋo-lɯ́ɡi-go mol-í
this-C5 tree-ABS scratch-E5-3>3C5 bear-ERG
A bear scratched this tree here (I see the claw marks).

6. (V́)-ɯ- ɡeneral knowledɡe

The assertion is something the speaker believes is obvious and known by everyone. It can also be used in a concessive sense ("that may be so, but..."). Note that stress shifts to the syllable before this affix.

am-0 musé-ɯ-0
sun-ABS shine-E6-3C5
Obviously the sun shines.

no savu:ká:-ɯ-gon a-:u kœ no áje-:zo-n e
1s fight-E6-3>1 AN-C1 but 1s die-E1-1s not
They may well fight me, but I will not die.

7. -ɡœ- past experience

Knowledge based on past experience.

na: sí:za-gœ-gon e úseŋ-i:
1incl hear-E7-3>1 not woman-PL
Women don't listen to us (in my experience).

8. -0- speculative/fictional

The speaker is merely speculating and does not claim the proposition is true. Also used in fictional narratives, questions, and as a polite imperative.

a-:u áje-0-:u
AN-C1 die-E8-3C1
Perhaps he died.

a-:u áte-0-:u sœ́:i AN-C1 die-E8-3C1 INT
Did he die?

to cégo-0-j
2s sit-E8-2
Please have a seat.

2.2.3 Subjunctive

Subordinate clauses cannot take an evidential affix, but instead take the affix -vo-, which derives historically from an affix indicating dubious hearsay. It no longer has any real evidential meaning, and cannot appear in main clauses, so I have glossed it as subjunctive.

The use of the subjunctive will be discussed in the syntax section.

2.2.4 Participant reference

Non-imperative verbs obligatorily take a suffix agreeing with the person, number, and noun class of the absolutive and ergative (if any) core arguments. Not every possible combination has a unique morpheme.

to sývuja-:ko-nej no
2s give_birth-E1-1s>2 1s
I gave birth to you.

2.2.5 Reflexives & reciprocals

With reflexives and reciprocals, the ergative free pronoun is not used.

no vœ́sa-ji-nen
1s cut-E3-1>1
I've cut myself.

to: ɯ́:kaja-:ko-tenh
2p hurt-E1-2p>2
You've hurt each other.

This formally differentiates third person reflexives/reciprocals from 3>3 propositions where the subject and object are not coreferential.

a-:u ɯ́:kaja-:ko-gu: a-:u
AN-3C1 hurt-E1-3>3C1 AN-3C1
He hurt him.

a-:u ɯ́:kaja-:ko-gu:
AN-3C1 hurt-E1-3>3
He hurt himself.

2.2.6 Imperative

The bare verb root without a participant reference marker is used as an imperative. When transitive verbs are used in this way, no overt S or A argument may be expressed (the notional subject is always "you"). If an O argument appears, it is not cross-referenced on the verb. This form of imperative is more abrupt than the polite imperative with the speculative evidential, mentioned previously.

éujɯ
leave
Go away!

ce-tá:z-o sývœ
2POS-milk-ABS(ed) drink
Drink your milk!

2.3 Derivational morphology

Productive derivational suffixes include the following. Where a noun is derived, the example gives the ergative form, which is declined regularly.

2.3.1 Noun to verb

-u:ka
Derives a stative verb from a noun (see section 3.1.4). The base is the absolutive singular.

ámug "human" → ámugu:ka "to be human"

-upo
Derives a non-stative verb from a noun, often one which describes the act of using the base noun. The base is the absolutive singular.

ta:j "knee" → tá:jupo "to strike something with one's knee"

2.3.2 Verb to noun

-zu:ká
Derives an animate agentive (S or A) from a verb.

kɯ́upo "to hunt" → kɯupozu:ká "hunter"

-jú
Derives an inanimate tool used to perform the verb action.

láce "to mix" → lacejú "mixing spoon"

-(a)sý:
Derives an abstract noun describing the verb process. Epenthetic (a) appears if a consonant cluster would otherwise result. Also used for postpositional phrases (see section 3.2.3).

láce "to mix" → lacesý: "mixing"

2.3.3 Noun/verb to adverb

-cɯ
Derives an adverb from a noun or verb. With nouns, the base is the ergative singular.

céudo "to see" → céudocɯ "visually"

zɯjé "sky" → zɯjécɯ "in the sky"

2.3.4 Noun to noun

-dɯ́
Derives an abstract noun describing the state of being like the base noun. The form used for the base is the ergative singular.

ta:ká "milk" → ta:kadɯ́ "milkiness"

-ló
Derives a noun that is a collection of bases. The form used for the base is the ergative singular.

tɯcá "tent" → tɯcaló "camp"

-:koá
Diminutive. The form used for the base is the ergative singular.

su:ŋó "pig" → su:ŋo:koá "piglet"

2.3.5 Verb to verb

-ja
Causative -- derives a transitive verb from an intransitive verb, where the original S becomes A, an agent which causes added O to undergo what is described by the original verb.

sígo "to stand" → sígoja "to cause to stand"

-iusa
For verbs of motion, derives a verb where the direction of motion is towards something.

sé:je "to run" → sé:jeiusa "to run towards"

-ujɯ
For verbs of motion, derives a verb where the direction of motion is away from something.

sé:je "to run" → sé:jeujɯ "to run away"

3. Syntax

The syntax of Iŋomœ́ can generally be characterized as being of the "OV" type, with modifiers preceding heads, and postpositions.

3.1 Clausal syntax

3.1.1 NP structure

The NP minimally consists of a head noun, which may be a pronoun or a lexical noun. Lexical nouns may be preceded by modifier nouns and demonstratives; pronouns may not. (See also section 3.1.6.) Lexical nouns and pronouns may be preceded by a postpositional phrase or a relative clause, and they may be followed by a postposition. If there are multiple elements preceding the head noun, the demonstrative (if any) will be closest to the head noun, any modifier nouns will be next closest, and any relative clauses will be furthest away.

(relative clauses) (modifier nouns) (demonstrative) head noun (postposition)

ky-0 múse-vo-0 ka:k-á-0 ta-0 sése:b-0 lo:
CAT-C5 shine-SUBJ-3C5 fire-ERG-C5 that-C5 star-ABS under
under that fiery shining star

Postpositions can only follow lexical nouns (in the ergative case), pronouns, and nominalized verbs in -(a)sý:. They cannot follow non-nominalized verbs.

When two NPs are joined with a conjunction, the conjunction follows the second NP.

cíub-0 ej-0 ca
arm-ABS arrow-0 and
the arm and the arrow

3.1.2 Constituent order

The neutral constituent order of Iŋomœ́ is OVA/SV. This shift from Proto-Western's AOV/SV neutral order was likely motivated by the reduction in distinctiveness between ergative and absolutive morphology.

In Iŋomœ́, the absolutive case is used for the sole core argument of an intransitive clause. It is also used for the direct object of a transitive or ditransitive clause, for the recipient of a ditransitive clause, and as a vocative (people or things called by name).

The ergative case is used for the subject of a transitive or ditransitive clause, and for all non-core arguments (modifiers, possessives, and heads of prepositional phrases).

otab-ó saŋ úseŋ-0 zúsa:ja-ti:-gu: kœl-ó
garden-ERG in woman-ABS call_to-E3-3>3C1 child-ERG
The child called to the woman in the garden.

The recipient of a ditransitive clause comes between the verb and the agent, and as mentioned previously, appears in the absolutive case.

laŋ-0 éno-:zo-ɡuj e-óseŋ-0 kɯupozu:k-á
skin-ABS give-E1-3>3C2 3POS-woman-ABS hunter-ERG
The hunter gave the skin to his wife.

Other non-core arguments (postpositional phrases, etc.) typically come first in the clause.

kabod-ɯ́ saŋ no lávo-:ko-n
forest-ERG in 1s walk-E1-1
I walked in the forest.

3.1.3 Valence adjusting

To de-emphasize the agent of a transitive verb, the agent can be omitted, reducing the verb's valence by one. No explicit morphology is associated with this construction, but note that the verb agrees only with the remaining S argument.

tév-u écɯ-:ko-ne: no
deer-ABS(ed) eat-E1-1s>3C3 1s
I ate the deer.

tév-u écɯ-:ko-:
deer-ABS(ed) eat-E1-3C3
The deer was eaten.

The antipassive voice, on the other hand, is morphologically indicated with the affix -ɡy-. The antipassive promotes the A argument to absolutive S, while the original O argument is either absent, or optionally mentioned after the verb with the postposition mœ "by means of". (As usual with postpositional phrases, the original O argument is shifted to ergative case, but unlike other postpositional phrases, it follows the verb.)

no écɯ-ɡy-:ko-n
1s eat-ANTIP-E1-1s
I ate.

no écɯ-ɡy-:ko-n tev-ú mœ
1s eat-ANTIP-E1-1 deer-ERG by
I ate the deer.

Note that it is not grammatical to de-emphasize the absolutive argument by omitting it. The antipassive is required.

* écɯ-:ko-ne: no
eat-E1-1s>3C3 1s
(ungrammatical)

3.1.4 Copular clauses

There are two ways to form a copular clause. To indicate definite identity, a zero-copula is used; both nouns are in the absolutive case, and the identity follows the noun to be identified.

no ce-tɯ́n-0
1s 2POS-father-ABS
I am your father.

je-:u lo-0 lóbozu:g-0
this-C1 man-ABS thief-ABS
This man is the thief.

The above examples indicate equality of the first noun with a single, definite identity. The second implies that the addressee knows a particular theft occurred, and is anticipating the thief being caught. Similarly, you cannot (in this cultural context) have more than one father; I am being identified as a particular individual.

However, to indicate membership in a group, the second noun can be derived into a stative verb with the suffix -u:ka. The stem used for this is the absolutive singular. The resulting verb is inflected normally, including an evidential and a participant reference suffix.

no tɯ́n-u:ka-:ko-n
1s father-COP-E1-1
I am a father.

It is often more idiomatic to use an active verb when possible.

? je-:u lo-0 lóbozu:g-u:ka-:ko-:u [awkward]
this-C1 man-ABS thief-COP-E1-3C1
This man is a thief.

je-:u lo-0 lóbo-gy-:ko-:u
this-C1 man-ABS steal-ANTIP-E1-3C1
This man steals.

3.1.5 Negation

The negative particle is e. It neutrally follows the verb, but when a particular NP is to be negated, the negative particle follows it.

kabuc-ɯ́ saŋ mol-0 késaupo-gœ-j e
forest-ERG in bear-ABS defecate-E7-3C2 not
The bear doesn't defecate in the forest.

kabuc-ɯ́ saŋ e mol-0 késaupo-gœ-j
forest-ERG in not bear-ABS defecate-E7-3C2
The bear doesn't defecate in the forest (but somewhere else).

kabuc-ɯ́ saŋ mol-0 e késaupo-gœ-j
forest-ERG in bear-ABS not defecate-E7-3C2
The bear doesn't defecate in the forest (but something else does).

3.1.6 Questions

In all question, the speculative evidential (zero morpheme) must be used. The interrogative particle is sœ:i.

Yes/no questions are formed by placing the particle after the constituent to be questioned. Neutrally it is placed after the verb.

lo-0 cí:ke-0-te:u sœ́:i to
man-0 want-E8-2s>3C1 INT 2s
Do you like the man?

lo-0 cí:ke-0-te:u to sœ́:i man-0 want-E8-2s>3C1 2s INT
Do you like the man?

Content questions are formed by placing another element before the interrogative particle.

To ask where, the formula is mo sœ́:i "place?".

no-tɯ́ŋa-0 mo sœ́:i
1POS-brother-ABS place INT
Where is my brother?

no cégo-0-n mo sœ́:i
1s sit-E8-1 place INT
Where should I sit?

To ask why, the formula is el sœ́:i "because?".

no únu:po-0-ten el sœ́:i to
1s bite-E8-2>1 because INT 2s
Why did you bite me?

To ask how, the formula is mœ sœ́:i "by means of?"

to lɯ́pe-0-nej mœ sœ́:i no
2s find-E8-1>2 by_means_of INT 1s
How will I find you?

To ask when, various terms may be used, depending on how precise the questioner wishes to be; si: sœ́:i "day?" is typical, as is œn sœ́:i "year?".

a-:u sávu:ka-0-ne:u si: sœ́:i na:
AN-C1 fight-E8-1>C1 day INT 1incl
On what day will we fight them?

a-:u sávu:ka-0-ne:u œn sœ́:i na:
AN-C1 fight-E8-1>C1 day INT 1incl
In what year will we fight them?

To ask who, what, and which, the cataphoric pronoun ky- is used with appropriate noun class marking.

to ɯ́:kaja-0-guj ky-:u sœ́:i
2s cause_pain-E8-3>2 CAT-C1 INT
Who hurt you?

ky-: sœ́:i écɯ-0-nen na:
CAT-C3 INT eat-E8-1p>3C3 1incl
What shall we eat?

mœ́ŋh-ɯ: ómo ky-: sœ́:i écɯ-0-nen na:
sheep-PL with CAT-C3 INT eat-E8-nen 1incl
Which of the sheep shall we eat?

3.1.7 Topicalization & clefting

A NP in A function can be topicalized by left-dislocation.

áp-0 cí:ke-:ko-neuk no
beans-ABS like-E1-1>3C6 1s
I like beans.

no áp-0 cí:ke-:ko-neuk
1s beans-ABS like-E1-1>3C6
As for me, I like beans.

Additionally, any core NP can be clefted using a relative clause (see section 3.2.4) headed by an anaphoric pronoun agreeing in noun class with the clefted constituent. This is formally similar to a definite copular clause (see section 3.1.4); the second constituent is simply modified by a relative clause. The following examples could equally well be translated as copular clauses ("Beans are the thing which I like" and "I am the one who likes beans", respectively).

áp-0 ky-uk cí:ke-vo-neuk no a-uk
beans-ABS CAT-C6 like-SUBJ-1>3C6 1s AN-C6
It's beans that I like.

no áp-0 cí:ke-vo-gu:k ky-:u a-:u
1s beans-ABS like-SUBJ-3>3C6 CAT-C1 AN-C1
It's me who likes beans.

3.2 Interclausal syntax

3.2.1 Coordinate clauses

When two clauses are coordinated, the conjunction appears between them.

There is no restriction on what clauses may be coordinated, but there is a restriction on whether an NP in the second clause may be omitted. This operates on an S/O pivot, meaning that an NP in the second clause may be omitted only if it is in S or O function (i.e., absolutive case) and is coreferential with the S or O NP in the first clause.

no-myn-0 céudo-usi-gu:u no-tɯn-ó ca 0 laléiusa-usi-:u
1POS-mother-ABS see-E4-3>3C1 1POS-father-ERG and 0 return-E4-3C1
My father saw my mother and [she] returned.

It is not possible to interpret the previous example as meaning "My father saw my mother and he returned". But to express that meaning, it is certainly permissible to coordinate two clauses without omitting any NPs.

no-myn-0 céudo-usi-gu: no-tɯn-ó ca no-tɯ́n-0 laléiusa-usi-:u
1POS-mother-ABS see-E4-3>3C1 1POS-father-ERG and 1POS-father-ABS return-E4-3C1
My father saw my mother and my father returned.

Alternatively, one or both clauses can be antipassivized so that both coreferential NPs are in S or O function.

no-tɯ́n-0 céudo-gy-usi-:u no-myn-ó mœ ca 0 laléiusa-usi-:u
1POS-father-ABS see-ANTIP-E4-3C1 1POS-mother-ERG by and 0 return-E4-3C1
My father saw my mother and [he] returned.

3.2.2 Complement clauses

A complement clause is one that stands as a core argument of another, matrix clause. The matrix clause is prototypically a verb of cognition or volition (want, believe, think, etc.).

In Iŋomœ́, a complement clause must be in the subjunctive mood (-vo- instead of an evidential affix). The matrix clause will precede it, and either the O or A slot will be filled with a cataphoric pronoun marked for noun class 5 (which includes abstract referents).

ky-0 cí:ke-:ko-ne no no sí:ka-vo-ten to
CAT-C5 want-E1-1s>3C5 1s 1s hear-SUBJ-2s>1 2s
I want you to listen to me.

Notice that the matrix and complement clauses are both complete and could stand alone as independent sentences: "I want this" and "You listen to me".

Object and subject complements are equally valid.

no cɯ́pu-:ko-gon ky-0 to ta-gy-vo-j
1s irritate-E1-3>1 CAT-C5 2s do-ANTIP-SUBJ-2
It irritates me that you do that.

3.2.3 Adverbial clauses

An adverbial clause is one that stands as a non-core argument of another clause. As previously mentioned, adverbial clauses typically consist of a verb in the subjunctive mood, nominalized with the derivational suffix -(a)sý:, followed by a postposition. When a verb is nominalized so that it can appear in an adverbial clause, it must retain its participant reference affix.

a-:u eiusa-vo-:u-sý: kuj sa póno-:ko-n
AN-C1 come-SUBJ-C1-NOM after 1p find_way-E1-1
We found our way after he came.

* a-:u éiusa-vo-:u kuj sa póno-:ko-n
AN-C1 come-SUBJ-C1 after 1p find_way-E1-1
(ungrammatical)

3.2.4 Relative clauses

A relative clause is one that modifies a NP. Formally similar to a complement clause, in a relative clause the relativized NP is represented by the cataphoric pronoun, which agrees in noun class with the relativized NP. The verb in the relative clause is in the subjunctive mood. Any core NP may be relativized, whether it is in S, A, or O function.

ky-: íca-vo-go: sa sɯ́:c-i: kœ́ɡu-bu-go: ky-:u a-:u
CAT-C3 fish-SUBJ-3>3C3 1p fish-PL cook-E2-3>C3 CAT-C1 AN-C1
She is cooking the fish that we caught.

no-mýn-0 ási-usi-gu: e no sý:puja-vo-gon ky-:u lo-0
1POS-mother-ABS own-E4-3>3C1 not 1s give_birth-SUBJ-3>1 CAT-C1 man-ERG
The man who fathered me was not married to my mother.

4. Sample text - The horse and the sheep

As this is a fictional narrative, the speculative evidential is used throughout the story, except in the dialogue. The animal characters are consistently referred to with noun class 1, as though they are people, because they can speak. This carries over into the dialogue; the storyteller assumes that talking animals will speak of each other as though they are humans as well.

4.1 Text

Sœ:ké to, mœ́ŋhɯ: céudogu: sanhí. Tóɡoz mœŋhɯ́ etɯ́l vœ́sagog useŋí, siz mœ́ŋhɯ lódogu: kœló, ca nú:tɯz mœ́ŋhɯ újejagu: lo. Sœga:zó no: mœ́nhaz mœ́ŋhɯ kœ́ɡu:.

Mœŋhɯ́ ke, ky jácigo sanhí-- "No ɯ́:kaja:kogon ky mœ́ŋhɯ: zɯ: tátavogu: ámuka:."

Sanhí ke, ky jácigo dóɡo mœŋhɯ́-- "Ky cí:ke:kone no no sí:kavoten to. No ɯ́:kaja:kogon ky sœ:gɯsé:jevo:u ky:u sánh papádo:kecivo:u ca écɯvo:u. Ky vœnháɯgo e ámuka: sœ:gɯto tátavoguj a:u. Kœ œtœ́no a:u vœ́nhagygœ:u. Zɯ: ca ámuka: kœsœ́:uv tɯ́kagœte:u to!"

Ta si:kavogosý: sanhí kuj, munhɯdogolé ke a:u sé:jeujɯ:u.

On a hill, a horse saw some sheep. A woman was cutting the wool of the first sheep, a child was milking the second sheep, and a man was slaughtering the third sheep.

The horse said this to a sheep: "It pains me that humans use sheep this way."

One sheep said this to the horse: "I want you to listen to me. It pains me that the horse who runs quickly is shot and eaten. Humans do not know how to use your quickness. But next year they will know. Then you, too, will become a slave of the humans!"

Having heard that, the horse fled into the plain.

4.2 Interlinear gloss

sœ:k-é to mœ́ŋh-ɯ: céudo-0-gu: sanh-í
hill-ERG on sheep-ABSp see-E8-3>3C1 horse-ERG
On a hill, a horse saw some sheep

tóɡoz mœŋh-ɯ́ e-tɯ́l-0 vœ́sa-0-gog useŋ-í
first sheep-ERG 3POS-wool-ABS cut-E8-3>3C7 woman-ERG
A woman was cutting the wool of the first sheep

siz mœ́ŋh-ɯ lódo-0-gu: kœl-ó
second sheep-ABS(ed) milk-E8-3>3C1 child-ERG
A child was milking the second sheep

ca nú:tɯz mœ́ŋh-ɯ újeja-0-gu: lo-0
and third sheep-ABS(ed) kill-E8-3>3C1 man-ERG
And a man was slaughtering the third sheep

sœ-ga:z-ó no: mœ́nhaz mœ́ŋh-ɯ kœ́ɡu-0-:
3pPOS-fire-ERG above fourth sheep-ABS(ed) cook-E8-3C3
On their fire, a fourth sheep was being cooked

mœŋh-ɯ́ ke ky-0 jáci-0-go sanh-í
sheep-ERG to CAT-C5 say-E8-3>3C5 horse-ERG
The horse said this to a sheep

no ɯ́:kaja-:ko-gon ky-0 mœ́ŋh-ɯ: zɯ: táta-vo-gu: ámuk-a:
1s cause_pain-E1-3>1 CAT-C5 sheep-PL thus use-SUBJ-3>3C1 human-PL
It pains me that humans use sheep this way

sanh-í ke ky-0 jáci-0-go dóɡo-0 mœŋh-ɯ́
horse-ERG to CAT-C5 say-E8-3>3C5 one-C5 sheep-ERG
One sheep said this to the horse

ky-0 cí:ke-:ko-ne no no sí:ka-vo-ten to
CAT-C5 want-E1-1s>3C5 1s 1s hear-SUBJ-2s>1 2s
I want you to listen to me

no ɯ́:kaja-:ko-gon ky-0 sœ:gɯ-sé:je-vo-:u ky-:u sánh-0 papádo:keci-vo-:u ca écɯ-vo-:u
1s cause_pain-E1-3>1 CAT-C5 quick-run-SUBJ-3C1 CAT-C1 horse-ABS shoot-SUBJ-3C1 and eat-SUBJ-3C1
It pains me that the horse who runs quickly is shot and eaten

ky-0 vœnhá-ɯ-go e ámuk-a: sœ:gɯ-to táta-vo-guj a-:u
CAT-C5 know-E6-3>2 not human-PL quick-2s use-SUBJ-3>2 AN-C1
Humans do not know how to use your quickness

kœ œtœ́no a-:u vœ́nha-gy-gœ-:u
however next_year AN-C1 know-ANTIP-E7-3C1
But next year they will know

zɯ: ca ámuk-a: kœ-sœ́:uv-0 tɯ́ka-gœ-te:u to
thus and human-PL 3pPOS-slave-ABS become-E7-2>3C1 2s
Then you, too, will become a slave of the humans

ta-0 si:ka-vo-go-sý: sanh-í kuj, munhɯdogol-é ke a-:u sé:je-ujɯ-0-:u
that-C5 hear-SUBJ-3>3C5-NOM horse-ERG after plain-ERG to AN-C5 run-away-E8-C1
After the horse heard that, he fled into the plain

5. Lexicon

As previously noted, nouns are cited in ergative singular form. The acute accent marks primary stress, and the grave accent marks the location of stress alternation when it is irregular.

n noun
ncoll collective noun
adv adverb
it intransitive verb
mt monotransitive verb
dt ditransitive verb
pre modifier prefix
par particle
conj conjunction
pp postposition
dem demonstrative

Iŋomœ́	POS	Gloss
a-	n	third person anaphoric pronoun
ac	adv	day after tomorrow
ágo	it	play
áje	it	die
amó	n	sun
amuká	n	human
aŋí	n	river
aŋíj si:ká	n	eel
apá	ncoll	beans
ási	mt	hold, own, marry
áta	mt	tend, garden
áusa	mt	hit
ávu:po	mt	suck
ca	par	and, also
caj	par	moreover
casá	n	hair
cégo	it	sit
cegujú	n	saddle blanket
céɡuja	it	make camp
ceká	n	earth
cepú	n	deer
céudo	mt	see
ceujá	n	heart
cí:ke	mt	want, like
cíko-	pre	yellow
cínu-	pre	full
ciupú	n	arm
cíuto	dt	teach
cɯ:i	adv	yesterday
cɯb	n	bad water (absolutive inedible of cɯ́pœ)
cɯpœ́	n	water
cɯ́pu	mt	itch, irritate
cɯpuzu:kó	n	louse
cɯvó	n	fruit
e	par	not
e:i	pp	if
ecí	n	arrow
écɯ	mt	eat
égɯ	mt	consume ritually
éiusa	it	come
éiusata	mt	pull
ej	par	and not, but not
éja	mt	push
el	par	because
elɯ́	n	other
émo	it	row
enhó	n	feather
éno	dt	ɡive
ésa:u	par	nor
éujɯ	it	leave
íca	mt	fish
iké	n	name
iŋomœ̀sí	n	Iŋomœ́ lanɡuaɡe
ium	pp	without
iusá	n	hand
ízo-	pre	slow
jáci	mt	say
jamu:kànhá	n	meat
jaudu:ká	n	bird
jaudu:kaɯ̀iusá	n	wing
je	pp	through
je-	dem	this (near me)
jed	par	however
jénha	it	dance
jesí	adv	today
ji:	n	bee
ji:ŋhá	n	honey, sweetness
jínhi-	pre	straight
jiŋó	n	fingernail
jómo-	pre	red
julí	n	breast (of a woman)
jɯ́pu	mt	gather, collect, fish
ka:ká	n	fire
ka:kasacɯ́	n	ashes
ká:ku:po	mt	burn
ká:po-	pre	narrow
kabó	n	tree
kabucɯ́	n	forest
káko	it	laugh
kákuja	mt	mock
kálɯ	mt	tie, fasten
káo-	pre	black
ke	pp	to
ke:bú	n	worm
ke:ká	ncoll	soil
ke:kagý	ncoll	sand
ke:kalú	n	wall, rampart
kédo	it	lie down
kédɯja	mt	place, put in place
kej	par	instead
kesá	n	dung
késaupo	it	defecate
keukó	n	stone
keunó	n	horn
ki:	adv	continuously
kíla-	pre	dry
kíŋo-	pre	thin
kíŋota	mt	build, put together, create
ko	pp	on behalf of
kœ	par	but, however
kœ́ɡu	mt	cook
kœló	n	child
kœnhɯ́	n	head
kómo	mt	fear
kóta-	pre	correct
kozɯ́	n	tail
kucá	n	friend
kúca	mt	soil, make dirty
kúci-	pre	dirty
kucɯ́	n	power
kuj	pp	after, behind
kunh	pp	towards
kusɯ́	n	wolf
kɯlɯ́	n	anus
kɯudó	n	boat
kɯ́upo	mt	hunt
kɯupozu:ká	n	hunter
kɯ́zo	it	sleep
ky-	n	cataphoric stem
kysá	it	make (oneself) felt
kýsa	mt	squeeze, press
lá:pa	it	walk
la:pá:jɯ	it	walk away
láce	mt	mix
lágo-	pre	near
lal	adv	repeatedly, often
laléiusa	it	return
lamó	ncoll	berries
lámo	it	fart
lanhɯ́	n	back (body part)
laŋé	n	skin
lasœ́:	n	smoke
lé:pa	mt	wipe
legó	n	tribe
léle	it	prepare leather
léle	mt	rub
leó	n	land
léo	n	cultivable land (absolutive edible of leó)
lepá	n	wild animal, game
lo	n	man
lo	pp	for
lo:	pp	under
lóbo	mt	steal
lobozu:ká	n	thief
lódo	mt	milk
lóloŋo	mt	diɡ
lomó	n	flower
lónho-	pre	warm
lonholɯ̀:pó	n	blood
lóŋho-	pre	new
lóŋo	mt	scratch
losanhí	n	stallion
losanhiɡý	n	colt
lózɯ:	pro	you (honorific)
lu-	pre	long
lu:kó	n	ear
lulɯ̀:pó	n	leɡ
lunhá	n	belly
lunhá	n	many
lúnho	mt	grind, mill
luŋà:nhɯ́	n	bone
lɯmœ́	n	riɡht, east
lɯ́no-	pre	green
lɯ́pe	mt	find, discover
lɯ́ta-	pre	short
mo	n	place, location
mœ	pp	by means of
mœjá	n	doɡ
mœl	pp	alonɡ
mœ́nha-	n	4
mœ́nhaz	n	4th
mœŋhɯ́	n	sheep
mœŋhɯcú	n	herd of sheep
mœsí	n	tonɡue, language
mœ́sɯ	mt	sew
mojé	n	sea
molí	n	bear
móuko-	pre	sharp
mu	adv	completely, well
mú:ke-	pre	rotten
munhó	n	nose
múnhɯ-	pre	wide
munhɯdògolé	n	plain, grassland
múse	it	shine
musesé	n	moon
mynó	n	mother
myŋ	adv	day before yesterday
mýŋo-	pre	wet
myŋó:go	it	rain
myŋœ́n	adv	years aɡo
na:	pro	we/us (inclusive)
nélo-	pre	white
nipó	n	foɡ
no	pp	up, onto
no	pro	I/me
no:	pp	above
nóusi-	n	7
nóusiz	n	7th
nóvu	it	think
nozú	n	left, west
nú:tɯ-	n	3
nu:tɯz	n	3rd
núce-	pre	tame
nucelèpá	n	domesticated animal
nuj	adv	rarely
nuŋhɯ́	n	foot
ŋa:k	adv	frequently
ŋési-	pre	smooth
ŋi	pp	like
ŋóso-	n	8
ŋú:dɯ-	pre	dull, blunt
ŋúsoz	n	8th
œ́do	it	turn
œlɯ́	n	liver
œnó	n	year
œtœ́no	adv	next year
ójo	mt	worry about
ómo	pp	with, of
onhú	n	mouth
otabó	n	garden
otabola:pó	n	non-nomadic person
otabola:polá	ncoll	non-nomadic group
otabozɯ́	n	farm
ózo-	pre	old
pa	par	then, next
pa-	n	all
pádo	mt	throw
pálo	it	swell, grow, become tumescent
pálo-	pre	far
palucéudo	mt	scout
papádo	mt	shoot, hurl (object = projectile)
papádo:kecí	mt	shoot (object=target)
pœ:zí	n	seed
pœló	n	cloud
pœsí	n	tree bark
ponhujú	n	road, path
póno	it	find one's way
pónuja	mt	watch over, care for, guard
puzó	n	chief
pý:po	it	breathe, blow
pý:puja	mt	inflate
pýdo-	pre	small
pydocɯ̀pœ́	n	teardrop
pydocɯ́pœupo	it	cry
pydolùnhá	n	eɡɡ
pydosànhí	n	foal
sa	pro	we/us (exclusive)
sa:kí	n	night
sa:lé	ncoll	salt
sá:nhe-	pre	big
sa:ŋó	n	leaf
sa:u	par	or
sá:uki	mt	wash
sa:usí	n	neck
salu:pó	n	priest
sanhí	n	horse
sanhigiŋý	n	filly
sanhilu:pý	n	nomadic person
sanhilu:pyló	ncoll	nomadic group
sánhupo	it	ride
saŋ	pp	inside, during
saŋhá	n	soul
sasá	n	eye
sau:	adv	surprisingly
sáuku:po	it	spit
sávu:ka	mt	fight
se	pp	down
sé:je	it	run
sé:mo-	pre	bad
se:mosasá	n	ugly person
se:usí	n	fat, grease
sedóiusa	it	flow towards
sedú:ja	it	flow away
séno	mt	sing
sese:pá	n	star
si-	n	2
si:bó	n	some
si:gú:ja	it	float downstream, be crazy, get carried away
sí:ɡo	it	float
si:ká	n	snake
sí:ka	mt	hear, listen to
sí:kaupo	mt	heal
si:pó	n	pine
si:sé	n	day
sígo	it	stand
sígunha	mt	stick (sthng) in the ground
sígunhadɯca	it	pitch a tent
síkiŋo-	pre	together
siná	n	lake
sinhó	n	palm, webbing between fingers
sínu:po	mt	count
siz	n	2nd
sœ́:gɯ-	pre	quick
sœ:gɯsávu:ka	mt	raid
sœ:ɡɯzɯ́	n	eagle
sœ́:i	par	question marker
sœ:ké	n	hill
sœ:kɯdògoló	n	bridle
sœ:leí	n	mountain
sœ:ubú	n	slave
su:	pp	outside
su:ke-	pre	heavy
su:ke:pècɯsá	n	well-fed animal
su:kesànhí	n	mare
su:kó	n	spit
su:ŋó	n	piɡ
súlo-	pre	round
sɯ:cí	n	fish
sɯ:pó	n	guts
sɯ:usí	ncoll	millet
sɯl	adv	tomorrow
sy:nhó	n	wind
sý:po	it	live, be alive
sý:puja	mt	ɡive birth to, engender, father
sý:vœ	mt	drink
ta	mt	do, make
ta-	dem	that (over there)
ta:jú	n	knee
tá:jupo	mt	strike with the knee
ta:ká	n	milk
tá:va	mt	bend
talé	n	there
tálo	mt	stab
tánho-	pre	cold
tánhu	it	fall
táta	mt	use
tebí	n	daughter
to	pp	on, at
to	pro	you (sg)
to:	pro	you (pl)
togó	n	grass
tóɡo-	n	1
toɡoló	n	rope
tóɡoz	n	1st
túnhɯ	mt	have sex with
tɯbý	n	few
tɯcá	n	tent, home
tɯ́ka	mt	become
tɯló	n	wool
tɯlusè:usí	n	lanolin
tɯnó	n	father, head of the family
tɯŋàó	n	brother, uncle, eldest son of the head of the family
tɯvó	n	root
u:pó	n	anger
ú:puta	mt	anger
úci-	pre	steep
újeja	mt	kill
unó	n	tooth
únu:po	mt	bite
useŋí	n	woman, wife
úsɯ	mt	smell
ɯ:ká	n	pain
ɯ́:kaja	mt	hurt, cause pain
ɯ:pá	n	vomit
ɯ́:paupo	it	vomit
ɯ́ja-	n	5
ɯjatóɡo-	n	6
ɯ́jaz	n	5th
ɯtatóɡoz	n	6th
vœ́nha	mt	know
vœ́nha:se	it	lose one's virginity (male)
vœ́nhalo	it	lose one's virginity (female)
vœ́sa	mt	cut
vœsajɯ́	n	knife
vœ́vœsa	mt	split
voké	n	holiness
zánhu-	pre	thick
zo-	dem	that (near you)
zolé	n	here
zólo	it	swim, fly
zúsa:	it	shout
zúsa:ja	mt	call to
zɯ:	par	therefore, thus
zɯjé	n	sky
zɯ́sa:-	pre	good
zɯsasá	n	beautiful woman