Aríe
Notes on evolution from Zhaj
Three major groups of sound changes occur between Zhaj and Aríe along with a series of minor shifts that constitute a significantly larger overall change than between previous ancestors. The first of these was a pair of push-chain vowel shifts, one occurring in stressed and one in unstressed vowels. These rotate the vowel system in opposite directions, creating sometimes complex vowel shifts where prefixes cause the stress to move. Stressed vowels lengthened as well as changing in quality.
The second major change occurred in the series of voiced fricatives. Initial voiced fricatives gained a short vowel before them (compare to the evolution of certain Romance languages, Lat. stare → Esp. estar) and then suffered significant lenition in many positions. The few remaining voiced fricatives were then lost. This pulled the voiced plosives down to become fricatives which then merged variously with the approximants created by the previous voiced fricatives and the unvoiced fricatives. The velar approximant was later lost, having significant compensatory effects on surrounding vowels. The most obvious example of the fate of the voiced fricatives is found in the name of the language: different though they may appear, /ɑɹiːe/ is cognate with /ʒaj/.
The third major change was the merger of sequences of consonant+/w/ into labialised consonants and the subsequent labialisation of all consonants before rounded vowels and insertion of labial glides before rounded vowels. This resulted in the system seen in Aríe where vowel rounding is not distinguishing but consonantal labialisation is.
Two minor changes that have some significant effect on paradigms are as follows. Diphthongs shifted from falling to rising and then back to falling over the course of the evolution from Zhaj to Aríe; in the mean time, palatalised affricates were formed by the new sequences of consonant+j that these created. Also, lenition occurred, particularly to aspirants, in intervocalic positions. This was most prominent on labialised forms.
Phoneme inventory
Consonants
|
|
| Labial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
Plosive | Pl. | Pl. | p | t |
|
| k | Ɂ |
Asp. | pʰ | tʰ |
|
| kʰ |
| ||
Lab. | Pl. | pʷ | tʷ |
|
| kʷ | Ɂʷ | |
Asp. | pʰʷ | tʰʷ |
|
| kʰʷ |
| ||
Affricate | Pl. | Pl. |
| ʦ |
|
|
|
|
Asp. |
| ʦʰ |
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|
|
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Lab. | Pl. |
| ʦʷ |
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| |
Asp. |
| ʦʰʷ |
|
|
|
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Lateral affricate | Pl. |
| tɬ |
|
|
|
| |
Lab. |
| tɬʷ |
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Nasal | Pl. | m | n |
|
| ŋ |
| |
Lab. | mʷ | nʷ |
|
| ŋʷ |
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Fricative | Pl. | f | s | ʃ |
| x |
| |
Lab. | ¹ | sʷ | ʃʷ |
| xʷ |
| ||
Lateral fricative | Pl. |
| ɮ [ɬ] |
|
|
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| |
Lab. |
| *ɮʷ [ɬʷ] |
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Approximant | Pl. |
| ɹ [r] |
| j |
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| |
Lab. |
| ɹʷ [rʷ] |
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| w |
| ||
Lateral approximant | Pl. |
| l |
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| |
Lab. |
| lʷ |
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¹/fʷ/ very recently merged with /xʷ/, and is still preserved in certain dialects
Orthography
|
|
| Labial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
Plosive | Pl. | Pl. | p | t |
|
| k | ‘ |
Asp. | ph | th |
|
| kh |
| ||
Lab. | Pl. | pw | tw |
|
| kw | ‘w | |
Asp. | phw | thw |
|
| khw |
| ||
Affricate | Pl. | Pl. |
| z |
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Asp. |
| zh |
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Lab. | Pl. |
| zw |
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| |
Asp. |
| zhw |
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Lateral affricate | Pl. |
| zl |
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| |
Lab. |
| zlw |
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Nasal | Pl. | m | n |
|
| ŋ |
| |
Lab. | mw | nw |
|
| ŋw |
| ||
Fricative | Pl. | f | s | sh |
| x |
| |
Lab. | (fw) | sw | shw |
| xw |
| ||
Lateral fricative | Pl. |
| lh |
|
|
|
| |
Lab. |
| lhw |
|
|
|
| ||
Approximant | Pl. |
| r |
| j |
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| |
Lab. |
| rw |
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| w |
| ||
Lateral approximant | Pl. |
| l |
|
|
|
| |
Lab. |
| lw |
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Vowels
| Front | Central | Back |
Close | i iː | ɨ ɨː | ɯ ɯː |
Mid | e eː |
| ɤ ɤː |
Open |
|
| ɑ ɑː |
Orthography
| Front | Central | Back |
Close | i í | y ý | u ú |
Mid | e é |
| o ó |
Open |
|
| a á |
Note that throughout the document, etymological forms are placed in square brackets []. The orthography used in these forms is roughly the same as that used in the modern forms, and not the orthography of Zhaj. The lax closed front vowel is written
Allophones
Vowels are rounded after labialised consonants. The consonants /ɹ ɹʷ/ are [r rʷ] when in the onset of a stressed syllable. The consonants /ɮ ɮʷ/ devoice to [ɬ ɬʷ] in word final position.
Labialisation
Labialised consonants are realised with slight labial frication (or in certain cases a slight labial off-glide). Historically, this has caused labialised stops to become fricatives in positions where non-labialised stops would have been preserved.
Stress
Stress is entirely predictable, always on the first syllable of the word, regardless whether this coincides with the first syllable of the stem. The only words in which stress is not on the first syllable are those without stress. The re-regularisation of stress to the first syllable was the first cause of phonemicising vowel length.
Phonotactics
Most phonotactic rules extant in Zhaj still apply. Certain clusters (most significantly clusters of nasal+stop and clusters involving voiced fricatives) were broken up by epenthetic vowels. Aspirants are never found in word final position, and non-aspirated stops are never found in word initial position. Clusters of consonant+/w/ are never found as these merged with labialised consonants.
Long vowels tend to be found in initial syllables, but this is by no means a rule. The initial syllable of a verb stem is very rarely long and that of a noun is very rarely short. Fricatives are rarely found intervocalically as in this position they have been lenited to approximants, but this is sometimes changed by the insertion of epenthetic vowels.
There is a general trend towards restricting word-final phonemes which is far more advanced in peripheral dialects than the principal one. One of the commonest changes absent from the principal dialect is the merging of word-final approximants to the nasal series; thus, for example, ‘arékhin’ may be seen for ‘arékhir’, ‘wúm’ for ‘wúw’.
Nominal morphology
Case and possession
Two cases are distinguished: ergative/accusative and nominative/oblique. Possession is also expressed morphologically. Possession by the speaker is distinguished from possession by a single other, also from possession by a group including the speaker from a group of others. Case and possession were expressed by previously distinct suffixes that have merged in Aríe.
Characteristic marks of case and possession
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | - | -wur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | -e | -ér [-eur] |
Pl. | -ej | -ewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | -a | -úr [-aur] |
Pl. | -aj | -awur | |
All types of stem not specifically listed below either take markings regularly as above and take no changes in stem in different forms or do not appear in the lexicon.
Consonant final stems
False glottal stems (derived from stems with final non-glottal non-aspirated stops) take a suffix -a in the non-possessive oblique. The glottal stop becomes labialised in the non-possessive ergative. In all other cases the glottal stop reverts to its historical form as a different stop.
-’/-p stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | thwálwo’-a | thwálwo’w-ur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | thwálwop-e | thwálwop-ér |
Pl. | thwálwop-ej | thwálwop-ewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | thwálwop-a | thwálwop-úr |
Pl. | thwálwop-aj | thwálwop-awur | |
-’/-t stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | míuj’-a | míuj’-wur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | míujt-e | míujt-ér |
Pl. | míujz-e | míujt-ewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | míujt-a | míujt-úr |
Pl. | míujz-a | míujt-awur | |
Note that the final -t becomes -z- before the -e and -a of the plural oblique forms.
-’/-k stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | ýrwu’-a | ýrwu’w-ur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | ýrwuk-e | ýrwuk-ér |
Pl. | ýrwuk-ej | ýrwuk-ewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | ýrwuk-a | ýrwuk-úr |
Pl. | ýrwuk-aj | ýrwuk-awur | |
The final consonant changes between a fricative and an aspirant in different forms: the aspirant is preserved only in those forms that have an ending longer than a single vowel. They are derived from stems with a final aspirant.
-f/-ph stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | wáf | wáxwur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | wáf [wáph-e] | wáphér |
Pl. | wáphej | wáphewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | wáf [wáph-a] | wáphúr |
Pl. | wáphaj | wáphawur | |
Note that as a monosyllabic stem, forms that would end in a single vowel are shortened. Note also that where *-fw- would be expected, -xw- is found due to the recent merger of these two phonemes. In dialects that preserve /fʷ/, it is preserved in this position as expected.
-s/-th stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | zhés | zhéswur [zhéth-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | zhés [zhéth-e] | zhéthér |
Pl. | zhézha [zhéth-ej] | zhéthewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | zhés [zhéth-a] | zhéthúr |
Pl. | zhézha [zhéth-aj] | zhéthawur | |
Note, as in the final –t stems, the change of the final consonant from stop to affricate in certain forms.
-x/-kh stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | shwámex | shwámexwur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | shwámekhe | shwámekhér |
Pl. | shwámekhej | shwámekhewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | shwámekha | shwámekhúr |
Pl. | shwámekhaj | shwámekhawur | |
Note that unlike the other two examples of final aspirant stems, this is a polysyllable and so is not shortened in single final vowel forms. This makes a difference to which forms preserve the aspirant.
-kha [-ŋkh]
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | rwúŋakha | rwúŋakhwur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | rwúŋakha | rwúŋakhér |
Pl. | rwúŋakhej | rwúŋakhewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | rwúŋakha | rwúŋakhúr |
Pl. | rwúŋakhaj | rwúŋakhawur | |
Stems ending in an aspirant derived from stems ending in a cluster behave very differently to those etymologically ending in a single aspirant. Note that final aspirant does not become a fricative in certain forms. It takes –a in the non-possessed oblique (compare to stems with a final unaspirated stop). Note that all stems etymologically ending in an aspirant cluster, not only those in [-ŋkh], decline as the above implies.
Vowel final stems
In stems with a final vowel this vowel and the vowel of the ending often contract.
Contracted -í stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | rí | ríur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | rí [rí-e] | ríér |
Pl. | ríj [rí-ej] | ríewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | rí [rí-a] | ríúr |
Pl. | ríj [rí-aj] | ríewur [rí-awur] | |
Contracted –é [e] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | xé | xéur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | xé [xé-e] | xéér |
Pl. | xéj [xé-ej] | xéewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | xjé [xé-a] | xéúr |
Pl. | xéj [xé-aj] | xjéwur [xé-awur] | |
Contracted -é [ǽ] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | zhé | zhéur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | zhé [zhǽ-e] | zhéér |
Pl. | zhéj [zhǽ-ej] | zhéewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | zhé [zhǽ-a] | zhéúr |
Pl. | zhéj [zhǽ-aj] | zhéawur | |
Contracted –ú stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | awú | awúur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | awúe | awúér |
Pl. | awúje [awú-ej] | awúewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | awúa | awúúr |
Pl. | awúje [awú-aj] | awúawur | |
Contracted –ó stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | shwó | shwóur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | shwó [shwó-e] | shwóér |
Pl. | shwój [shwó-ej] | shwóewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | shwó [shwó-a] | shwóúr |
Pl. | shwój [shwó-aj] | shwóawur | |
Contracted –i stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | ýwunari | ýwunarwujr [ýwunari-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | ýwunarej [ýwunari-e] | ýwunarewur |
Pl. | ýwunarije [ýwunari-ej] | ýwunarewujr [ýwunari-ewur] | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | ýwunaraj [ýwunari-a] | ýwunarawur [ýwunari-aur] |
Pl. | ýwunarije [ýwunari-aj] | ýwunarawujr [ýwunari-awur] | |
Note the changes in labialisation of the final consonant of the stem.
Contracted –a [e] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | thé’a | thétér [théte-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | thétee | théteér |
Pl. | théteje | théteewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | thétea | théteúr |
Pl. | théteje | théteawur | |
Note that these and other stems ending in a short vowel exhibit certain characteristics of consonant stems as well as vowel contraction.
Contracted –íw [ixe] stem (from [ri-xe])
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | ríw | ríwuur [ríw-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | ríuje [ríw-e] | ríujér [ríw-ér] |
Pl. | ríuje [ríw-ej] | ríujewur [ríw-ewur] | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | ríwua [ríw-a] | ríwuúr [ríw-úr] |
Pl. | ríwuje [ríw-aj] | ríwuawur [ríw-awur] | |
Note the vocalising of the final approximant in many forms.
Contracted –a [a] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | arékhira | arékhirúr [arékhira-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | arékhirae | arékhiraér |
Pl. | arékhiraje [arékhira-ej] | arékhiraewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | arékhirea [arékhira-a] | arékhireúr [arékhira-úr] |
Pl. | arékhireje [arékhira-aj] | arékhireawur [arékhira-awur] | |
Also declined as the above are monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant that etymologically ended in -a (eg. fír [ra], ‘generous’, compared to fír [r], ‘homosexual’).
Contracted –yj [y] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | aréjrwyj | aréjrwywur [aréjrwy-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | aréjrwyje | aréjrwyjér |
Pl. | aréjrwyje [aréjrwy-ej] | aréjrwyjewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | aréjrwyje [aréjrwy-a] | aréjrwyjúr |
Pl. | aréjrwyje [aréjrwy-aj] | aréjrwyjewur [aréjrwy-awur] | |
Contracted –a [u] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | xý’wa | xý’wúr [xý’wu-ur] | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | xý’ew [xý’wu-e] | xý’ewur [xý’wu-ér] |
Pl. | xý’wuje [xý’wu-ej] | xý’ewwur [xý’wu-ewur] | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | xý’aw [xý’wu-a] | xý’awur [xý’wu-aur] |
Pl. | xý’wuje [xý’wu-aj] | xý’awwur [xý’wu-awur] | |
Note the changes in labialisation of the final consonant of the stem.
Contracted –a [o] stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | nénalh’wa | nénalh’wour | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | nénalh’woe | nénalh’woér |
Pl. | nénalh’woje [nénalh’wo-ej] | nénalh’woewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | nénalh’woa | nénalh’woúr |
Pl. | nénalh’woje [nénalh’wo-aj] | nénalh’woawur | |
Note that in these stems as well as others the final vowel is only changed to –a in the oblique non-possessed.
Contracted –yw stem
| Oblique | Ergative | |
Non-pos. | lyw | lywur | |
Spk. pos. | Sn. | lyw [lyw-e] | lyweur |
Pl. | lywj [lyw-ej] | lywewur | |
Non-spk. pos. | Sn. | lyw [lyw-a] | lywaur |
Pl. | lywj [lyw-aj] | lywawur | |
Number
Nouns decline for two numbers: singular and plural. The singular takes the unmodified stem, the plural takes a prefix of either wó- or wóph-. Etymologically the first was found in consonant initial stems while the second in vowel initial stems. This means that while in most cases this rule still holds true, certain stems (such as those beginning in a w- that previously began in a rounded vowel, and those that begin in a vowel that previously began in a voiced fricative) take an unexpected prefix. This is only predictable by looking at the etymological form of the stem.
The effect of shifting stress
Plural nouns take stress on the initial syllable, as expected. This causes vowel shifts in the previously stressed first syllable of the stem. The simplest of these are merely shortening, but many are more oblique.
í [i] becomes i:
míu’a, wómiu’a
é [e] becomes e:
énete, wóphenete
é [a] becomes a:
é’wuna, wópha’wuna
ý [y] becomes e:
nýrjin, wónerjin
wú [ʉ] becomes (w)y*:
wúw, wóxwyw
wó [u] becomes (w)u:
wójex, wóxwujex
wá [o] becomes (w)oj:
shwámex, wórwojmex
oj [oj] is unchanged:
mwoj, wómwoj
wój [uv] becomes (w)uj:
wój, wóxwuj
ej [ej] is unchanged:
nej, wónej
ej [aj] becomes aj:
khejrezl, wókajrezl
*in this case, as in others, a
The apparent addition of final syllables onto plural forms (resulting from the syncopation of final syllables in certain words but not others) has been regularised. The resultant change in certain final consonants is also regularised. However, monosyllables which, in the plural, would have a short, open final syllable lose this syllable. This may leave only a single consonant of the stem and causes many stems to merge in the plural. In several dialects the change has been blocked or regularised.
Intervocalic shifts
The initial consonant of consonant initial stems becomes intervocalic and non-initial with the addition of the wó- prefix. This causes lenition in the case of fricatives and historical labialised aspirants, and deaspiration in the case of aspirants derived from unaspirated voiceless stops.
f(w)- [f] becomes -j- or -w-:
félh, wójelh
s(w)- [s] becomes -r(w)-:
sýphin, wórephin
x(w)- [x] becomes -w-:
xé, wów
phw- [ph] becomes -xw-
thw- [th] becomes -sw-:
thwár, wóswor
khw- [kh] becomes -xw-
ph- [p] becomes -p-
th- [t] becomes -t-
kh- [k] becomes -k-:
khé, wóke
This also causes shifts in stems derived from voiced fricative initial stems. These stems gained an initial vowel in the singular which was not gained in the plural form.
aw- [v] becomes -w-:
awú, wów
ar- [z] becomes -r-:
aríf, wórif
ar- [zh] becomes -rj-:
arír, wórjir
The behaviour of stems that historically had an initial voiced plosive is more complex. The voiced plosive is lost by merging with other phones, but this often happens differently depending both on whether the plosive is initial or intervocalic and on the surrounding vowels. The voiced velar plosive is the most complex as the fricative and approximant that were formed by its regular loss then themselves merged with other sounds.
f- [b] becomes -w-:
fír, wówir
w- [b] is unchanged.
lh(w)- [d] is unchanged:
lhwórjin, wólhwurjin
jí- [gi] becomes -ji- (the consonant is unchanged).
ju- [ge] becomes -wu-.
wow- [ga] becomes -u-:
wowrwyj, wóurwyj
jý- [gy] becomes -uj-.
wú- [gʉ] becomes -wy-.
jú- [gu] becomes -ú-.
wó- [go] becomes -u-:
wór, wóur
uje- [gaj, gej] combines with the wó- prefix to form wúje-.
uwo- [goj] combines with the wó- prefix to form wúwo-.
wowj- [gaɰ-] becomes -uj-.
Stems that historically began with a rounded vowel and developed an initial labiovelar glide did not develop this glide between the stem and the plural prefix. However, the -ph- of the prefix became labialised and then lenited to -fw- which then merged with -xw-. Therefore, although it appears that the initial w- of these stems is strengthened to -xw- in the plural, it is in fact lost and the final consonant of the plural prefix weakened.
Comparative
Adjectives may take the comparative prefix aréj-. This is applied before (closer to the stem) number agreement. As in the case of the plural prefix, it combines somewhat with the stem. Historically it took the same form regardless of stem and the vowel of the prefix tended to combine with that of a vowel stem; however, by analogy with the plural prefix it gained an interfix of -ph- (sometimes seen as -xw-) in all but a few irregular vowel stems. Its effect on the stem is very similar to that of the plural prefix, although somewhat less marked due to analogical levelling.
The effect of shifting stress is identical to that effect from the plural prefix:
zhwáraj, aréjzhworaj; rwúraj, aréjrwyraj
The intervocalic shifts are identical to those caused by the plural prefix except for the following differences:
fw [f] becomes j (by analogy with f [f]).
ar [zh] becomes r (by analogy with ar [z]).
uje [gaj, gej] is treated as a vowel stem.
uwo [goj] is treated as a vowel stem.
Quantifiers
Four common quantifiers exist. They previously took the form of first position enclitics to the noun, which could be in either plural or singular form; however, sound changes combined them with the plural prefix or the stem. In two cases this merged the plural and singular forms; these are always considered plural and take a stem identical to the plural stem (without the plural prefix).
irwu-, meaning ‘all of, the whole of’, and urwu-, meaning ‘every, each’, merged the plural and singular forms of the noun.
The two others did not merge in the singular and plural. When plural, the plural prefix has merged with the quantifier and takes a plural stem.
na- in the singular means ‘a small amount of, a little’; in the plural it means ‘a small number of, a few’. The plural form is né-.
nejna- in the singular means ‘a large amount of, a lot of, much’; in the plural it means ‘a large number of, many’. The plural form is nejné-.
Words in which the plural prefix combines with the beginning of the stem previous combined this again with the quantifiers, but these have been regularised and simplified. They take the plural form as normal and the singular form of the quantifier.
Pronouns
The pronoun inventory has been largely preserved and analogically expanded from Zhaj. Second person plurals have been added through analogy with the first person. The oblique singular masculine and feminine forms of the third person merged as ýn and so were changed by analogy with the ergative forms. Gender specific plural third person forms were added by analogy with the singulars, and gender neutral singular forms added by analogy with the plural.
There are no possessed forms of pronouns. They take the preposition ej to indicate first or non-first possession. This is thought to be derived from the verbal noun of ‘to be’ with possessed endings.
First and second person pronouns
| First | Second | ||
Sn. | Pl. | Sn. | Pl. | |
Ergative | aréjr | arýirwy | arwárwy | arwýrwy |
Oblique | aréi | ýwojn | arwán | arwýn |
Oblique formal | rwái’wu | rwýi’wu | ||
Third person pronouns
| Third | |||||
| Sn. M. | Sn. F. | Sn. N. | Pl. M. | Pl. F. | Pl. N. |
Ergative | ér | ír | ýr | érw | írw | ýrw |
Oblique | én | ín | ýn | wén | wín | wán |
Verbal morphology
The principal part of the verb is the verbal noun, which is the plain verb stem without affixes. Historically, this form would be expected to be identical to the stressed stem used in the present subjunctive and not the more common unstressed stem. The fact that the etymologically unstressed stem is used may be due to a construction in which the verb was unstressed but was later shortened. Finite parts of the verb are formed through the addition of prefixes to this unstressed stem, as detailed below.
Tense, aspect, and mood
Four tense-aspect combinations and four moods are expressed through verbal prefixes. These combine to a small extent with the stem but are largely agglutinative (far more so than noun morphology).
Characteristic marks of tense, aspect, and mood
| Present | Future | Past imperfect | Past perfect |
Indicative | sý’- | lhé- | wé- | khén(a)- |
Subjunctive | sh- | wó’- | wów- | khwóx- |
Imperative | sý’ere- | lhéere- | wéere- | khénere- |
Optative | shére- | wótere- | wówere- | khwówure- |
The final -a- of the past perfect subjunctive appears only before a consonant.
The one major stem shift in verbs is that of the initial vowel of the stem in the present subjunctive, caused by its becoming stressed (the forms given in examples are the present indicative followed by the present subjunctive).
i [i] becomes í:
sý’mirarjin, shmírarjin
e [e] becomes é:
sý’khejin, shkhéjin
a [a] becomes é:
sý’awerjin, shéwerjin
e [y] becomes ý:
sý’rerjin, shrýrjin
wú [ʉ] becomes wy.
wu [u] becomes wó
sý’nwuŋin, shnwóŋin
wo [o] becomes wá
sý’rworjin, shrwárjin
Irregular verbs
Certain common verbs have irregular paradigms. The most significant of these is the verb ‘to be’. In addition to the more highly preserved fusion of stem and prefixes and larger amount of analogical levelling, it has the stem e in the present but in all other tenses ŋin.
To be
| Present | Future | Past imperfect | Past perfect |
Indicative | re’ | lheŋin | weŋin | khaŋin |
Subjunctive | rej | wuŋin | wúŋin | xwujŋin |
Imperative | re’re | lherŋin | werŋin | khajnin |
Optative | rejre | wuterŋin | wúrŋin | xwuwŋin |
Syntax
List of abbreviations:
PL plural
SN singular
OBL oblique
ERG ergative
1st first person
2nd second person
3rd third person
1POS first person possessed
OPOS non-first person possessed
PRI present indicative
PRS present subjunctive
PRIM present imperative
PRO present optative
FI future indicative
FS future subjunctive
FIM future imperative
FO future optative
PII past imperfect indicative
PIS past imperfect subjunctive
PIIM past imperfect imperative
PIO past imperfect optative
PPI past perfect indicative
PPS past perfect subjunctive
PPIM past perfect imperative
PPO past perfect optative
Word order
Basic sentence word order is VSO verb-subject-object. Auxiliary word order is AVSO.
lhélhwin mýrér wóawarea
lhé-lhwin mýrér wó-awarea
FUT-consume father=1POS PL-fish=OPOS
My father will eat his fishes.
Constituent order
Adjectives and prepositional phrases follow the noun.
To be
The irregular verb ‘to be’ takes no ergative argument but two oblique ones. There is little semantic difference other than emphasis given by the order of these two arguments.
Negative
The negative clause is expressed with the negative auxiliary ‘in and the verbal noun.
khéna‘in elharin ‘áx ýwojn
khéna-‘in elharin ‘áx ýwojn
PPI-NEG have_sex EMP 1st=PL=OBL
No, we didn’t have sex!
Particles and interjections
Interjections constitute whole sentences or even utterances alone. They express emotion, without any definite semantic content. They cannot appear as part of larger clauses.
Particles have a similar function and meaning but appear within clauses, where they follow the word to which they are intended to refer. Most are in some sense emphatic.
rejre khwó én arékhir…
be-PRO actually 3rd=SN=OBL priest=OBL
[I hope that] he’s actually a priest…
Relative clauses
Relative clauses are formed with the relativiser thín, ‘that’, coming between the noun and relative clause. Where the noun is the patient or experiencer of the relative clause no pronoun is required, but where it is the agent the appropriate ergative pronoun is used.
Relative patient:
ýj thín khénarwurin aréjr
ýj thín khéna-rwurin aréjr
man that PPI-kill I=ERG
(the) man whom I killed
Relative experiencer:
ýj thín khénarwurin
ýj thín khéna-rwurin
man that PPI-kill
(the) man who killed
Relative agent:
ýj thín khénarwurin ér wán
ýj thín khéna-rwurin ér wán
man that PPI-kill he=ERG they=OBL
(the) man who killed them
It is not possible to form relative clauses for oblique arguments (eg. it is impossible to directly translate ‘the man whose garden was the site of the killing’).
Verb usage
Tense and aspect
The present expresses present situations, the future expresses future situations; the past imperfect expresses ongoing or instantaneous past situations; the past perfect expresses completed past situations and tense-neutral situations.
Mood
The indicative expresses simple, realis situations. The subjunctive expresses possibilities, hypothetical situations, and conditions. The imperative expresses direct commands. The optative expresses hopes and impersonal requests.
Lexicon
List of abbreviations:
n. noun
v. verb
adj. adjective
adv. adverb
co. co-ordinating conjunction
sub. subordinating conjunction
int. interjection
ir. irregular
pl. plural
intr. intransitive
par. particle
Word | Phonemic | Phonetic | Etymology (Zhaj) | Class | Gloss | |
‘áx* | /ʔɑːx/ | [ʔɑːx] | - | par. | (emphatic; often used for exasperation or annoyance) | |
‘éx | /ʔeːx/ | [ʔeːx] | hax | int. | (sadness, horror) | |
‘in | /ʔin/ | [ʔin] | hin | v. | (negative auxiliary) | |
‘wominin | /ʔʷɤminin/ | [ʔʷominin] | homijnin | v. | to conquer | |
ajéres | /ɑjeːɹes/ | [ɑjeːɹes] | vezys | adj. | chilly | |
ajéxwur | /ɑjeːxʷɯɹ/ | [ɑjeːxʷuɹ] | vephur | adj. | handsome, attractive | |
ámazilh* | /ɑːmɑʦiɮ/ | [ɑːmɑʦiɮ] | - | v. | to shine, glow | |
arazwín* | /ɑɹɑʦʷiːn/ | [ɑɹɑʦʷyːn] | - | n. | strong | |
aréi | /ɑɹeːi/ | [ɑɹeːi] | zha | pre. | as, in the manner of | |
aréjm | /ɑɹeːjm/ | [ɑɹeːjm] | zhem | n. | neighbour | |
aréjm | /ɑɹeːjm/ | [ɑɹeːjm] | zejm | n. | sun | |
aréjrwyj | /ɑɹeːjɹʷɨj/ | [ɑɹeːjɹʷʉj] | zhezhʉ | n. | annoyance, irritation | |
arékhir | /ɑɹeːkʰiɹ/ | [ɑɹeːkʰiɹ] | zakhir | n. | priest | |
arékhira | /ɑɹeːkʰiɹɑ/ | [ɑɹeːkʰiɹɑ] | zakhira | n. | priestess | |
arí | /ɑɹiː/ | [ɑɹiː] | zi | n. | star | |
arí | /ɑɹiː/ | [ɑɹiː] | zi | n. | uncle | |
aríf | /ɑɹiːf/ | [ɑɹiːf] | ziph | n. | child | |
arír | /ɑɹiːɹ/ | [ɑɹiːɹ] | zhir | n. | scribe | |
arírwu’a | /ɑɹiːɹʷɯʔɑ/ | [ɑɹiːɹʷuʔɑ] | zijsuk | n. | king | |
arírwuka | /ɑɹiːɹʷɯkɑ/ | [ɑɹiːɹʷukɑ] | zijsuka | n. | queen | |
arírwukar | /ɑɹiːɹʷɯkɑɹ/ | [ɑɹiːɹʷukɑɹ] | zijsukar | n. | kingdom | |
arjé | /ɑɹjeː/ | [ɑɹjeː] | zea | n. | goddess | |
arwáiraje | /ɑɹʷɑːiɹɑje/ | [ɑɹʷɒːiɹɑj] | zhozh | n. | prisoner | |
arwólhin | /ɑɹʷɤːɮin/ | [ɑɹʷoːɮin] | zudin | adj. | holy | |
arwóra | /ɑɹʷɤːɹɑ/ | [ɑɹʷoːɹɑ] | zuz | adj. | white | |
arwórurje | /ɑɹʷɤːɹɯɹje/ | [ɑɹʷoːɹɯɹje] | zuzgarv | adj. | old | |
arwúnalher | /ɑɹʷɯːnɑɮeɹ/ | [ɑɹʷuːnɑɮeɹ] | zʉnder | n. | tradition | |
arýr | /ɑɹɨːɹ/ | [ɑɹɨːɹ] | zyr | co. | but | |
arýran | /ɑɹɨːɹɑn/ | [ɑɹɨːɹɑn] | zysan | n. | pig | |
átw* | /ɑːtʷ/ | [ɑːtʷ] | - | sub. | where | |
aweŋin | /ɑweŋin/ | [ɑwøŋin] | abyŋin | v. | to cry | |
awerjin | /ɑweɹjin/ | [ɑwøɹjin] | abyzhin | v. | to make | |
awú | /ɑwɯː/ | [ɑwuː] | vʉ | n. | ox | |
e | /e/ | [e] | e | v. | to be (ir.) | |
é | /eː/ | [eː] | ega | pre. | against | |
é’a | /eːʔɑ/ | [eːʔɑ] | et | pre. | of (ownership) | |
é’wuna | /eːʔʷɯnɑ/ | [eːʔʷunɑ] | ahuna | n. | girl | |
ej* | /ej/ | [ej] | ?e-ej | pre. | (possessed; pronouns only) | |
ejin | /ejin/ | [ejin] | yvin | v. | to say | |
ejiŋworin | /ejiŋʷɤɹin/ | [ejiŋʷoɹin] | yviŋorin | v. | to befriend | |
ekhin | /ekʰin/ | [ekʰin] | ykhin | v. | to do | |
elharin | /eɮɑɹin/ | [eɮɑɹin] | ydarin | v. | to copulate, have sex | |
enarewin | /enɑɹewin/ | [enɑɹewyn] | enzybin | v. | to damage, hurt | |
éur | /eːɯɹ/ | [eːɯɹ] | egar | n. | enemy, foe | |
éwara | /eːwɑɹɑ/ | [eːwɒɹɑ] | abaz | n. | fish | |
ewin | /ewin/ | [ewyn] | ybin | v. | to freeze | |
ewin | /ewin/ | [ewyn] | ybin | v. | to rest | |
ezlw [e]* | /etɬʷ/ | [etɬʷ] | - | v. | to begin, start | |
feuzle [e]* | /feɯtɬe/ | [feɯtɬe] | - | n. | honey | |
fír | /fiːɹ/ | [fiːɹ] | bira | adj. | generous, selfless | |
fír | /fiːɹ/ | [fiːɹ] | bijr | adj. | homosexual | |
fír | /fiːɹ/ | [fiːɹ] | bijr | n. | homosexual | |
í | /iː/ | [iː] | ij | n. |
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íkhalh | /iːkʰɑɮ/ | [iːkʰɑɬ] | ijkhad | n. |
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ilhi* | /iɮi/ | [iɮi] | - | v. | to read | |
írajn | /iːɹɑjn/ | [iːɹɑjn] | ijshan | n. | arm | |
jurwun | /jɯɹʷɯn/ | [jɯɹʷun] | gesun | adj. | powerful | |
jurwus | /jɯɹʷɯs/ | [jɯɹʷus] | gesus | adj. | nearby | |
jý | /jɨː/ | [jɨː] | gy | adv. | last year | |
kamrwyj* | /kɑmɹʷɨj/ | [kɑmɹʷʉj] | - | v. | to vomit | |
khé | /kʰeː/ | [kʰeː] | ka | n. | way, road, path | |
khejin | /kʰejin/ | [kʰejin] | khevin | v. | to belittle | |
khejrezl | /kʰejɹetɬ/ | [kʰejɹetɬ] | kajrel | n. | throne | |
khín | /kʰiːn/ | [kʰiːn] | khin | n. | parent, mentor, guide | |
khúpwus [th]* | /kʰɯːpʷɯs/ | [kʰɯːpʷus] | - | n. | flea, louse | |
khwó* | /kʰʷɤː/ | [kʰʷoː] | - | par. | actually, apparently (expresses surprise or doubt) | |
khwu’a [p]* | /kʰʷuʔɑ/ | [kʰʷuʔɑ] | - | n. | star | |
lhíphwam* | /ɮiːpʰʷɑm/ | [ɮiːpʰʷɒm] | - | adj. | large | |
lhó’of [ph]* | /ɮɤːʔɤf/ | [ɮɤːʔɤf] | - | n. | blood | |
lhwin | /ɮʷin/ | [ɮʷyn] | dwin | v. | to drink | |
lhwujn* | /ɮʷɯjn/ | [ɮʷujn] | ?dushin | sub. | because, so that, with the intention | |
lhwurjin | /ɮʷɯɹjin/ | [ɮʷuɹjin] | dushin | v. | to want | |
lwárwa [u]* | /lʷɑːɹʷɑ/ | [lʷɒːɹʷɒ] | - | n. | name | |
lyw* | /lɨw/ | [lɨw] | - | n. | tree | |
mákwyw* | /mɑːkʷɨw/ | [mɑːkʷʉw] | - | adj. | brave, courageous, adventurous | |
mejn | /mejn/ | [mejn] | mjena | n. | mother | |
mí’wyrax | /miːʔʷɨɹɑx/ | [miːʔʷʉɹɑx] | mikʉsakh | n. | snake | |
mirarjin | /miɹɑɹjin/ | [miɹɑɹjin] | mijzazhin | v. | to celebrate | |
míu’a | /miːɯʔɑ/ | [miːɯʔɑ] | mixʉt | n. | brother | |
míuj’a [t]* | /miːɯjʔɑ/ | [miːɯjʔɑ] | - | n. | goat | |
mwoj | /mʷɤj/ | [mʷoj] | moj | n. |
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mwoj | /mʷɤj/ | [mʷoj] | moj | n. | person | |
mwurjin | /mʷɯɹjin/ | [mʷuɹjin] | muzhin | v. | to protest | |
mýj | /mɨːj/ | [mɨːj] | myv | n. | opening, door | |
mýr | /mɨːɹ/ | [mɨːɹ] | myr | adj. | shining | |
mýr | /mɨːɹ/ | [mɨːɹ] | myz | n. | father | |
mýran | /mɨːɹɑn/ | [mɨːɹɑn] | myran | n. | snow | |
mýun | /mɨːɯn/ | [mɨːɯn] | myxan | n. | baker | |
nej | /nej/ | [nej] | nej | n. | God | |
nejmwura | /nejmʷɯɹɑ/ | [nejmʷuɹɑ] | nejmuz | adj. | dirty | |
nénalh’wa | /neːnɑɮʔʷɑ/ | [neːnɑɮʔʷɑ] | nandho | n. | wind | |
néraf | /neːɹɑf/ | [neːɹɑf] | neraph | n. | pet | |
nerjin | /neɹjin/ | [neɹjin] | nyzhin | v. | to pray | |
ní | /niː/ | [niː] | ni | pre. | in, within | |
nítenwor | /niːtenʷɤɹ/ | [niːtenʷoɹ] | nitenor | n. | prophet | |
nwuŋin | /nʷɯŋin/ | [nʷuŋin] | nuŋin | v. | to go | |
nwurjin | /nʷɯɹjin/ | [nʷuɹjin] | nushin | v. | to die | |
nýjen | /nɨːjen/ | [nɨːjen] | nyfan | adj. | red | |
nýrw | /nɨːɹʷ/ | [nɨːɹʷ] | nyru | n. | horse | |
ŋarewin | /ŋɑɹewin/ | [ŋɑɹewyn] | ŋashebin | v. | to denounce | |
ŋíú’a [t] | /ŋiːɯːʔɑ/ | [ŋiːɯːʔɑ] | - | n. | water | |
ŋwóswyj [y]* | /ŋʷɤːsʷɨj/ | [ŋʷoːsʷʉj] | - | n. | finger | |
phín | /pʰiːn/ | [pʰiːn] | phin | pre. | with (comitative) | |
phíwtwa [e]* | /pʰiːwtʷɑ/ | [pʰiːwtʷɒ] | - | n. | mouth | |
pwúlhas [ʉ]* | /pʷɯːɮɑs/ | [pʷuːɮɑs] | - | v. | to take, remove | |
re’in | /ɹeʔin/ | [ɹeʔin] | syhin | v. | to curse, insult | |
rephin | /ɹepʰin/ | [ɹepʰin] | syphin | v. | to give | |
rerjin | /ɹeɹjin/ | [ɹeɹjin] | ryshin | v. | to hear | |
rerjin | /ɹeɹjin/ | [ɹeɹjin] | ryzhin | v. | to send | |
rerjin | /ɹeɹjin/ | [ɹeɹjin] | zyzhin | v. | to throw | |
rí | /ɹiː/ | [riː] | ri | n. | fox | |
rí | /ɹiː/ | [riː] | ri | n. | fox | |
ríw* | /ɹiːw/ | [ɹiːw] | ri-xe | n. | squirrel (lit. ‘fox-mouse’) | |
rjin | /ɹjin/ | [ɹjin] | zhin | v. | to pull | |
rjixwur | /ɹjixʷɯɹ/ | [ɹjixʷuɹ] | zhikhur | v. | to worship | |
rworjin | /ɹʷɤɹjin/ | [ɹʷoɹjin] | sozhin | v. | to create, initiate | |
rwórwur | /ɹʷɤːɹʷɯɹ/ | [rʷoːɹʷuɹ] | ruzur |
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rwúŋakha | /ɹʷɯːŋɑkʰɑ/ | [rʷuːŋɑkʰɑ] | rʉŋkh | n. | false prophet, deceiver | |
rwúraj | /ɹʷɯːɹɑj/ | [rʷuːɹɑj] | rʉrz | adj. | foreign | |
rwurin | /ɹʷɯɹin/ | [ɹʷuɹin] | rurin | v. | to love | |
rýs | /ɹɨːs/ | [rɨːs] | rys | n. | land, earth | |
shí | /ʃiː/ | [ʃiː] | shoj | n. | dog | |
shwámex | /ʃʷɑːmex/ | [ʃʷɒːmex] | shomekh | n. | hand | |
shwó* | /ʃʷɤː/ | [ʃʷoː] | - | adj. | orange, gold | |
swojrjin | /sʷɤjɹjin/ | [sʷojɹjin] | thorzhin | v. | to burn (intr.) | |
swózlis | /sʷɤːtɬis/ | [sʷoːtɬis] | sultis | adj. | yellow | |
sý | /sɨː/ | [sɨː] | sy | co. | thus | |
talwu’in | /tɑlʷɯʔin/ | [tɑlʷuʔin] | taluhin | v. | to sit | |
tarazl* | /tɑɹɑtɬ/ | [tɑɹɑtɬ] | - | v. | to sting | |
thé’a [e]* | /tʰeːʔɑ/ | [tʰeːʔɑ] | - | n. | crown, circlet | |
thejin | /tʰejin/ | [tʰejin] | thyvin | v. | to err | |
thémakerwu | /tʰeːmɑkeɹʷɯ/ | [tʰeːmɑkeɹʷu] | thamakeru | n. | nobleman | |
thín | /tʰiːn/ | [tʰiːn] | thin | sub. | that (relative) | |
thwálwo’a [p]* | /tʰʷɑːlʷɤʔɑ/ | [tʰʷɒːlʷoʔɑ] | - | adj. | wet | |
thwán* | /tʰʷɑːn/ | [tʰʷɒːn] | - | n. | ice | |
thwár | /tʰʷɑːɹ/ | [tʰʷɒːɹ] | thor | n. | moon | |
ujjin | /ɯjjin/ | [ɯjjin] | xyvin | v. | to drink | |
úphin | /ɯːpʰin/ | [ɯːpʰin] | xuphin | v. | to defeat | |
urin | /ɯɹin/ | [ɯɹin] | gorin | v. | to marry | |
úrjin | /ɯːɹjin/ | [ɯːɹjin] | xushin | v. | to masturbate | |
uwejin | /ɯwejin/ | [ɯwøjin] | xybyvin | v. | to wake up | |
wá’a | /wɑːʔɑ/ | [wɒːʔɑ] | jot | adv. | now | |
wáf | /wɑːf/ | [wɒːf] | oph | n. | country-dweller | |
wám | /wɑːm/ | [wɒːm] | om | n. | sister | |
wár | /wɑːɹ/ | [wɒːɹ] | oz | n. | city-dweller | |
welhin | /weɮin/ | [wøɮin] | wedin | v. | to stand | |
wén | /weːn/ | [wøːn] | wen | pre. | made of | |
werjin | /weɹjin/ | [wøɹjin] | byshin | v. | to attack | |
werjin | /weɹjin/ | [wøɹjin] | byzhin | v. | to name | |
wó | /wɤː/ | [woː] | u | int. | (surprise, shock) | |
wój | /wɤːj/ | [woːj] | uv | adj. | happy | |
wój | /wɤːj/ | [woːj] | uv | pre. | on, upon | |
wón | /wɤːn/ | [woːn] | un | co. | and | |
wór | /wɤːɹ/ | [woːɹ] | gor | n. | friend | |
wórej | /wɤːɹej/ | [woːɹej] | urzy | n. | word | |
wórwoj | /wɤːɹʷɤj/ | [woːɹʷoj] | urzo | adj. | cold | |
wórwolh | /wɤːɹʷɤɮ/ | [woːɹʷoɬ] | uzod | n. | celebration, feast | |
wowrwyj | /wɤwɹʷɨj/ | [wowɹʷʉj] | garsʉ | n. | border | |
wú | /wɯː/ | [wuː] | ug | adj. | black | |
wúm | /wɯːm/ | [wuːm] | ʉm | adj. | bright | |
wurworjin | /wɯɹʷɤɹjin/ | [wuɹʷoɹjin] | uroshin | v. | to forget | |
wúw | /wɯːw/ | [wuːw] | ʉb | adj. | green | |
xé | /xeː/ | [xeː] | xe | n. | mouse | |
xej | /xej/ | [xej] | xej | pre. | out of | |
xír | /xiːɹ/ | [xiːɹ] | xiz | adj. | clumsy, heavy | |
xíre’wo | /xiːɹeʔʷɤ/ | [xiːɹeʔʷo] | xireho | adj. | hostile | |
xíún | /xiːɯːn/ | [xiːɯːn] | xigun | adj. | evil | |
xíurje | /xiːɯɹje/ | [xiːɯɹje] | xigarv | adj. | blue | |
xwár | /xʷɑːɹ/ | [xʷɒːɹ] | xor | n. | sheep (ir. pl. wóur) | |
xwór | /xʷɤːɹ/ | [xʷoːɹ] | xur | sub. | when | |
xý’wa | /xɨːʔʷɑ/ | [xɨːʔʷɑ] | xyhu | n. | rabbit | |
ýj | /ɨːj/ | [ɨːj] | yv | n. | man | |
ýjrw | /ɨːjɹʷ/ | [ɨːjɹʷ] | yfru | n. | rain | |
ýlhran | /ɨːɮɹɑn/ | [ɨːɮɹɑn] | ydzan | n. | penis | |
ýr | /ɨːɹ/ | [ɨːɹ] | yr | pre. | to, towards | |
ýr’in | /ɨːɹʔin/ | [ɨːɹʔin] | yr-hin | pre. | without | |
ýrira | /ɨːɹiɹɑ/ | [ɨːɹiɹɑ] | yriz | n. | sanctuary, safety | |
ýrnw | /ɨːɹnʷ/ | [ɨːɹnʷ] | yrnu | pre. | before, in front of | |
ýrwu’a | /ɨːɹʷɯʔɑ/ | [ɨːɹʷuʔɑ] | ysuk | n. | whore | |
ýwom | /ɨːwɤm/ | [ɨːwom] | yva-om | n. | woman | |
ýwun | /ɨːwɯn/ | [ɨːwun] | ybun | n. | heretic | |
ýwunari* | /ɨːwɯnɑɹi/ | [ɨːwunɑɹi] | ybun-zi | n. | traitor; shameful secret (lit. ‘heretic uncle’) | |
ýx | /ɨːx/ | [ɨːx] | ykh | n. | cat | |
zeter [y]* | /ʦeteɹ/ | [ʦeteɹ] | - | v. | to laugh | |
zhé [ǽ]* | /ʦʰeː/ | [ʦʰeː] | - | n. | hill, mound | |
zhés [th]* | /ʦʰeːs/ | [ʦʰeːs] | - | n. | hair | |
zhwáraj | /ʦʰʷɑːɹɑj/ | [ʦʰʷɒːɹɑj] | thojsha | adj. | brown | |
zhwý* | /ʦʰʷɨː/ | [ʦʰʷʉː] | - | n. | temple | |
Where etymology isn’t clear from the appropriate column or the Zhaj word is unknown, it is given in square brackets following the word. Where only a part of the word is given in such cases, it is the end of the stem for nouns or the beginning of the stem for verbs (or, more commonly, only the vowel of the first syllable).
*innovation or compound since Zhaj
?unclear derivation